David A. Hill M.
Phil (Exon) & Katarzyna Maria Bogdanowicz, PhD
A dyslexic pupil in your classroom
Most state primary school teachers of English will
work with pupils at risk of dyslexia, or with
diagnosed developmental dyslexia, at some point in
their career. It is important to remember that the
intelligence of such children is always normal or
above average. The symptoms related to this
disorder do not result only from deficits in sense
organs, environmental negligence or a neurological
disease. The difficulties of dyslexic pupils are not
only related to reading and writing. Actually, it is
difficult to provide the full list of dyslexia
symptoms, as people suffering from it differ from
each other. However, many symptoms of dyslexia
may be observed before starting to learn to read and
write. These include disharmonious psychomotor
development, leading to delayed development of
the functions fundamental for learning to read and
write. These concern mainly the language functions
(e.g. delayed speech development), but also sight,
motion and eye coordination.
If the symptoms of the risk of dyslexia continue
into the second grade of primary school, despite
parental involvement at home and proper
educational work at school, diagnostic testing from
psychological and pedagogical experts is necessary
to identify the reason. Developmental dyslexia may
be one of causes. It can be diagnosed even in the
second grade of primary school, as the child has
probably already been learning to read and write for
two years. What follows is a list of the difficulties
that are the most challenging from the language
teacher’s point of view.
Reading difficulties – a key sign of dyslexia which
may already be observed at the very beginning of
school education. Dyslexic pupils read more slowly
and less fluently, as well as making more mistakes
than their peers. Problems with reading technique
usually adversely affect the level of understanding
of a text. It should be noted that these pupils’
reading comprehension may worsen in stressful
situations, e.g. when asked to read in front of the
whole class.
Dyslexic children make more mistakes while
rewriting texts, writing dictations and creating
their own written texts. They often find it difficult
to remember the shape of less frequently occurring
letters and letters with a complicated structure (for
example: F, H, G). Very often they write digits and
letters reversed in their mirror image, and they write
words from right to left. They mix up letters with
similar shapes (e.g.: l – t; p – q; m – n), but also
identical letters that are written the other way round
(e.g.: p – b). Apart from orthographical errors,
dyslexic children often make mistakes in the
omission or addition of letters or syllables and the
replacement of words (e.g. they are more likely to
write homophones such as flour for flower than
non-dyslexic learners).
Problems with listening comprehension in
dyslexic pupils may manifest themselves in
difficulties with differentiating words that sound
similar. The consequences of such mistakes may be
very serious. If a pupil wrongly identifies a key
word in the recording (e.g. bad for bed), their whole
effort related to the execution of the task may be
compromised. It sometimes happens that a pupil
who is concentrating on searching for specific
information to answer the questions forgets what
was said at the beginning of the recording. These
difficulties are related, among other things, to
impaired phonemic hearing, poor concentration and
auditory memory.
The impaired cognitive functions of some pupils
with dyslexia results in difficulties in creating
verbal messages. These problems concern various
aspects of speech, and the utterances of such
children may be semantically and syntactically
poorer, less understandable and may include more
mistakes. Dyslexic pupils receive speech therapy
more often than others due to speech defects. Many
pupils with dyslexia, even if they have sufficient
vocabulary, find it difficult to recall words
immediately, because of low verbal proficiency.
Recalling names, especially under time pressure,
also increases emotional stress, which may block
the attention and memory functions.
Often English grammar will be the Achilles’ heel
of dyslexic pupils. They usually have no problems
understanding grammatical rules. However, weaker
memory and concentration means they find it
difficult to use the acquired skills – they do not
remember grammatical rules and they mix up
grammatical forms. Observation of dyslexic pupils
may also lead to the conclusion that some of them
have difficulty putting theory into practice, i.e. they
know the rules but cannot use them while
constructing the utterance. The need to remember
words in correct sequences constitutes another
reason for the grammatical problems of dyslexic
pupils. A major element of grammatical rules is the
sequence of words in a sentence (e.g. adjective
before noun – a black cat, and adverb after verb –
she walked quickly). Because of this, the usual
teaching procedure, consisting of the introduction
of a specific piece of language and then doing a
number of exercises on it with an increasing level
of difficulty, often seems to fail in the case of
dyslexic pupils.
Problems with memory, concentration and
automation, as well as impaired phonemic hearing
or poorly developed phonological skills, lead to
difficulties in learning vocabulary. Dyslexic
pupils have difficulties with verbal material
arranged in sequences, which is why they find it
hard to learn the alphabet, numbers, days of the
week and months. Another problem for dyslexic
pupils is the application of prepositions, particularly
those referring to space: over, under, etc. The
pronunciation and position of the stress in a word
may also be difficult for them. They find it harder
to repeat longer and more difficult words than the
rest of the class.
Pupils with specific difficulties in reading and
writing are often less skilled manually than their
peers, and motor coordination is hard for them. This
adversely affects all tasks requiring precise
movements and coordination of hands (as well as
hand-eye coordination). Therefore, dysgraphia,
difficulty doing simple drawings and technical tasks
(e.g. using scissors and glue), as well as difficulties
in producing neat writing, is more often observed in
such pupils. Dysgraphia may be apparent both in
the slow speed of writing and in illegible
handwriting. In extreme cases, reading a written
text becomes impossible even for its author. Not
surprisingly, some children with dysgraphia
complain about hand pain during writing due to
excessive pressure used, which may result from
improper muscle tension. As a consequence, these
pupils often tire more quickly than their peers, do
not keep up with the rest of the class and do not
write their homework.
A teacher who wants to help their pupils with
dyslexia must have at least a basic knowledge of the
disorder, its symptoms, as well as the methodology
of teaching such children. In many writings on
dyslexia, it is stated that their difficulties occur in
spite of applying standard, conventional or proper
teaching methods. It is not surprising that English
language teachers need guidance concerning their
work with such pupils. The general guidelines for
working with dyslexic pupils below may be
helpful; however, it should be emphasised that there
is no universal set of methods which work with
every dyslexic pupil. These children differ from
each other and have different educational needs.
Firstly, the teacher should skilfully find a balance
between supporting the pupil and requiring
knowledge and skills from her/him. The teacher
must help pupils to feel secure and give them a
chance to succeed in learning. However, not all
their obligations can be waived or substituted. The
pupils need to learn self-reliance, which is essential
when learning a foreign language. It is worth
encouraging them with self-reflection related to
learning. Some pupils like to learn alone, others in
pairs or groups. Some have great auditory memory
and acquire knowledge the best during the teacher’s
introduction. Others prefer to remember
information visually, particularly when they have to
process it somehow (e.g. by preparing a mind map).
In the opinion of some experts, discovering and
using one’s own preferences concerning learning is
such a key skill that it determines the pupil’s
success in learning.
Every teacher familiar with the rudiments of foreign
language teaching knows that the proper selection
and grading of material to be learnt is one of the
most important teaching skills. This is particularly
significant when working with dyslexic pupils, who
often have problems with the simplest tasks.
In the literature on the specific difficulties in
reading and writing, it is often recommended to use
a multisensory teaching method. When the same
material is presented using various sensory
channels (visual, auditory, tactile, kinaesthetic), we
learn more easily. The multisensory method enables
pupils not only to remember the learnt material
longer, but also provides them with satisfaction and
enjoyment.
Dyslexic pupils usually need regular revision.
Returning to the same content is usually boring, so
various methods should be used. With reluctant
learners, forgo conventional approaches and use
enjoyable materials. Riddles, puzzles and games are
an excellent solution. Songs and poems also help
greatly because of the use of rhyme and rhythm.
Attractive and non-standard memory techniques,
often called mnemotechnics, may provide
invaluable help, both with the learning of new
material and with consolidating what has already
been learnt.
Due to the dyslexic pupils’ difficulty with
concentration, teachers should develop methods
to help them with focusing and holding
attention. Regular changes in types of exercises,
and planning activities interspersed with short
breaks, are the most frequently practised methods.
For pupils with specific difficulties in reading and
writing, the use of ‘friendly’ didactic aids is also
recommended. Sans serif fonts (such as Arial,
Comic Sans MS) of at least 12 points, with a bigger
interline spacing than is standard, is best. Sentences
and titles in capital letters should be avoided as
words become similar to one another, because they
start and end at the same height. This makes the text
more difficult to be read. Some practitioners and
researchers believe that the use of a colourful
overlay on a text, reducing the contrast between
print and background, provides a good solution for
part of the problems with reading for those who are
hypersensitive to this contrast. Colourful filters are
available in various colours. A highlighter
embedded in the overlay facilitates concentration
on a text and prevents the sight skipping lines. It
seems that the use of coloured paper is a technically
simpler variant of this method. The need to adjust
the colours to a pupil’s individual preferences is a
problem in both described methods. In the context
of friendly didactic aids, it is also worth mentioning
the so-called ‘window for reading’. It is a type of
aperture to facilitate the focusing of attention on a
selected word and successively proceeding to the
next word. This window limits the child’s field of
vision, enabling her/him to improve the pace of
reading and accelerate the automation process.
The English teacher should not be under the illusion
that the above suggestions mean that independent
thinking is unnecessary while preparing classes
with dyslexic pupils. There are no two identical
pupils with dyslexia, so the basic and supreme
principle for working with them is maximum
individualisation in the teaching process. In
conclusion, it should be kept in mind that the
teaching methodology is only one of factors
determining our pupils’ success in learning. Often
the teacher’s personality, their attitude to work and
to dyslexic pupils have an equal impact on the
accomplishment of teaching objectives. Negative
school experience and failures in learning may lead
to low self-esteem and lack of belief in one’s own
abilities, which may result in secondary emotional
and motivational disorders. Therefore, a positive
attitude to dyslexic pupils, emphasising their
strengths, and using those to work on their
difficulties, are essential elements in successful
work.
Everything that has been written so far inevitably
leads to the conclusion that pupils with dyslexia
require additional work and greater involvement on
the part of the teacher. When we are getting to
know a new class, we should definitely find out the
opinions about our pupils from any psychological
and pedagogical reports available. These may
provide us with plenty of information on a pupil:
her/his strengths and weaknesses, teaching methods
and recommended ways of working with her/him.
For dyslexic pupils who have difficulties in learning
English, cooperation between the teacher and
parents is very important. Parents who become
involved in the learning process may not only help
their child in doing homework, but more
importantly, motivate and support her/him
psychologically. Therefore, it is essential to
establish good cooperation between parents and the
teacher at the beginning of the school year. Discuss
how to communicate about a child, her/his
successes and failures, etc. Find out whether the
dyslexic pupil receives any of the recommended
kinds of pedagogical therapy.
Many teachers ask how to work in a class in which
only a few of the pupils suffer from dyslexia. An
easy way to facilitate one’s work is to seat the
dyslexic pupils closer to the teacher, so that s/he
can more easily supervise their work and help them,
if needed. Another advantage of this arrangement is
that they have a good view of the board/screen. In
addition, seating a dyslexic child next to a clever
and helpful pupil seems to be a good solution, as it
may be beneficial for both sides.
The idea that a child is like a bag – the more you
put in, the more you take out – is particularly valid
in relation to pupils with dyslexia. One should be
very clear that such pupils can succeed in learning,
and learn a foreign language well. However, in
order to achieve this, the teacher usually has to
invest more time and effort than for their peers. In
addition, they need much more support from their
parents and teachers.
David A. Hill, M.Phil (Exon) & Barbara Arska-Karyłowska PhD
Pupils with ADHD in your classroom: Suggestions for
teachers working with them
ADHD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or
hyperkinetic disorder, is a set of symptoms, the
most important of which is the inability to focus
attention. Additional, frequent symptoms include
hyperactivity and impulsiveness. Biological factors
are the source of ADHD symptoms; their
occurrence does not result from the parenting style,
pedagogical methodology, or the environment in
which a child lives. It is generally believed to be a
genetic issue related to structural and functional
changes in brain.
Pupils with ADHD often behave in the classroom
as if they are absent, or as if the teacher is absent.
Her/his thoughts are focussed on something
completely different from what the teacher is
talking about. The ADHD pupil will exhibit some
of these behaviours: s/he wriggles or walks around
the classroom, talks and disturbs other pupils, plays
with something, hums (unaware that s/he is making
a noise) and fails to follow instructions. When s/he
does concentrate on the topic of the lesson for a
short time, s/he often shouts answers to questions or
answers before a question is completed and answers
invited. S/he is impatient and thus cannot wait for
her/his turn and cannot defer gratification. S/he
requires the teacher’s constant attention. If the
teacher is relaxed with her/him, the ADHD pupil
may dominate the teacher, but if a teacher is strict
this is perceived as being unfair.
A pupil with ADHD is difficult for the teacher, but
is also difficult for the child concerned. The teacher
must bear in mind that neither the child, nor the
parents, nor the teacher are to be blamed for this
behaviour. In spite of difficulties, such a pupil may
also have a positive impact on the class’s
functioning as well as a negative one.
Conclusion 1. Do not blame yourself or anyone
else for the behaviour of a pupil with ADHD.
Rather than challenging their behaviour, use it to
the advantage of the class.
A child with ADHD may be taught and their
behaviour ‘harnessed’. I have used the word
‘harnessed’ on purpose, in order to emphasise that
any impact may be effective only here and now. It
means that if in one lesson the teacher manages to
achieve a situation where this pupil is listening, it
does not mean that s/he has been taught to listen,
only that in this specific case the conditions which
are favourable for listening have been provided. A
pupil with ADHD often knows the rules, and right
after breaking them knows that s/he has behaved
badly, but cannot control her/his behaviour. S/he
really wants to behave differently, but cannot.
What conditions lead a pupil with ADHD to disturb
the class and the teacher less?
1. If s/he knows exactly what is expected from
her/him. Clear rules should be applied in the
classroom, written down, hung up and pointed
out regularly.
2. Compliance with rules should be praised and
rewarded.
3. Consequences of breaking the rules should be
known and thoroughly defined.
4. Both rewards and negative consequences should
be applied in accordance with an agreement,
without exception (e.g. if we agree with a pupil
that if they do their homework all week, then on
Monday next week they shall have no
homework, they must receive that reward –
regardless of their good or bad behaviour in the
classroom on Monday – as they have carried out
their part of the agreement).
5. Praise should be specific, immediate and
frequent.
6. Other children should be rewarded for not
paying attention to improper behaviour by a
child with ADHD. When a child with ADHD
does something incorrect, it should never have
an ‘audience’ so that such behaviour is not
reinforced. The teacher must make every effort
to ensure that it is ‘more profitable’ for other
pupils to listen to and look at a teacher, rather
than the badly behaving child.
Conclusion 2. Do not try to change the behaviour
of a child with ADHD permanently. Instead, try to
provide the conditions which enable the pupil to
function as well as possible, learn and acquire new
skills, so that s/he does not disturb anyone during
the lesson.
A child with ADHD often does not follow the
teacher’s instructions. Research into ADHD shows
that s/he does not carry out them not because s/he
does not want to, but because orders for a group
often do not reach her/him or do so only partially,
due to the inability to focus attention.
What should be done to help a child with ADHD
carry out the teacher’s instructions?
1. Seat the pupil with ADHD close to you.
2. Before you give an instruction, look at the pupil
and make eye contact with her/him.
3. After giving an instruction to the whole group,
repeat the key part to the child with ADHD.
4. If s/he starts working, praise her/him for starting.
5. If s/he finishes carrying out a part of an
instruction, praise her/him again, and then
provide a further part of the instruction or
another instruction. The child with ADHD
should have tasks divided into parts, so that s/he
can end one part and see a positive result from
her/his work.
6. If s/he interrupts her/his work before finishing a
given activity, remind her/him quietly (so that
the class does not pay attention to this) what s/he
should do. Sometimes it is enough to slightly
touch the child so that s/he starts work on an
interrupted task.
7. You may arrange some signal with the child to
indicate the need to get on with her/his work.
This signal should be discreet enough not to
attract other children’s attention.
Conclusion 3. Do not blame the child for not
carrying out an instruction; just create the
conditions in which s/he will hear and remember
your order.
Some children with ADHD (mainly boys) often
disturb an activity in the class through their
movement, talkativeness and loud behaviour.
Sitting motionless in one place for 45 minutes is
impossible for a child with ADHD. Unfortunately,
when one child stands up from her/his desk or
behaves loudly, other lively children often respond
to it. Consequently, most attention is focused on
this pupil and the lesson cannot be continued. If the
teacher frequently reprimands the pupil to sit
quietly, it focuses attention on this pupil. The
teacher’s attention constitutes reinforcement. In the
case of a child with ADHD, the teacher’s remarks
strengthen the child’s natural tendency to wriggle or
walk around the classroom. How can one deal with
the movement of a child with ADHD?
1. ‘Develop the motion’ of the child. The pupil
with ADHD should get many tasks that require
standing up from the desk and walking about
(e.g. cleaning the board, distributing handouts to
its peers, throwing away rubbish).
2. Let the child move at a desk (e.g. sitting on a
pilates ball may be suitable for this).
3. Establish clear rules concerning where and when
the pupil is allowed to move, where and when it
is allowed to run, in what situations it is required
to stay on the spot (e.g. several times a lesson the
child is allowed to walk around the classroom or
jump next to its desk). Such a procedure during
the lesson changes the child’s movement from
an uncontrolled, rule-breaking activity into an
activity that occurs under the teacher’s control
and with her/his approval.
Conclusion 4. Do not try to stop the movement of a
child with ADHD; just use it.
Some children with ADHD disturb other children to
such an extent that their peers no longer like them.
The sociometric position of a child with ADHD in a
class community is usually very low. The child is
isolated or even rejected. Hyperactive children
usually care a lot about their peers’ approval; they
try to get it by all means. Often they try to impress
them with loud behaviour or playing the fool.
How can one improve a child with ADHD’s
relation with other pupils?
1. Use activities that require group preparation.
Assign roles to the group which enable the child
with ADHD to take part.
2. Use peer tutoring.
Conclusion 5. Try to create situations in which a
hyperactive child gets her/his peers’ approval while
behaving according to your rules.