Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Biocontrol history;
Biocontrol approaches;
Phacelia tanacetifolia
Bio-pesticides
Advantages:
Low mammalian toxicity;
Minimal effect on beneficial insects;
Fast action and breakdown so low environmental impact;
High selectivity;
Short pre-harvest interval;
Low phytotoxicity.
Limit: Contact products so adequate coverage is
essential to have a good efficacy.
Types:
Naturally occurring substances;
Substances of plant origin (botanicals);
Substances of animal origin;
Microorganisms-based bio-pesticides.
Types of bio-pesticides
Naturally occurring substances: Sulphur and lime sulphur
(calcium polysulphide), copper (up to 6kg/ha/year); quartz sand..
Botanicals (plant origin): Azadirachtin (Azadirachta indica),
rotenone (Derris spp., Tephrosia spp. and Lonchocarpus spp. ),
pyrethrins (Chrysanthemum/ Tanacetum spp), Quassia amara
extract, Nicotiana tabacum extract, Sabadilla (Schoenocaulon
spp.), Hellebore (Veratum album), croton (Croton tiglium), Yam
bean (Pachyrhizus erosus ), Ryania (Ryania speciosa), thunder
god vine (Tripterygium wilfordii), Amur corktree (Phellodendron
amurense), Heliopsis longipes..
Types of bio-pesticides
Plants oils: Mint, pine and caraway (Carum carvi ) linseed,
hempseed, cottonseed, rapeseed (colza), castor bean (Ricinus
communis), coconut, soybean, palm, corn...
Substances of animal origin: beeswax, gelatine,
hyrolysed proteins…
Animal fats: Whale, fish (cod, herring, menhaden, sardine),
degras (wool grease), lard, neatsfoot…
Substances used in traps and/or dispensers:
Diammonium phosphate, metaldehyde, pheromones, pyrethroids
(Deltamethrin and Lambda-Cyhalothrin)
Others: Paraffin and mineral oils, K-permanganate...
Pests biological control
Genes
Semio-chemicals 5%
Micro-organisms
15%
30%
(Copping, 2004)
Natural products especially
plant- and microorganisms-
derived ones
Natural products use in biocontrol
Algae, 1 Crustaceans,
2% 1
2%
Microorga-
nisms, 20
Plants, 36 34%
62%
(Copping, 2004)
Natural products use in biocontrol
Plant growth Bactericide, 2
Others, 13
regulator and 3%
23% Fungicide, insect
nematicide, 2
3% attractant and
animal reppelent; 9
15%
Fungicide and
bactericide, 2
3%
Insect reppelent, 5
8%
(Copping, 2004)
Azadirachtin
Source: Neem tree, Azadirachta indica ;
Family: Meliacae;
Natural Habitat : South Asia, in particular India ;
Extracted from seeds (Kernels);
Azadirachtin: active ingredients
Principal active ingredients: Azadirachtin A (AZA)
(C35H44O16) with its 7 isomers and Azadirachtin B ;
Mechanism of action: repellent,
growth regulator, anti-oviposition,
reduces adults fecundity and
eggs vitality.
Mode of action: Contact, ingestion with a systemic
activity;
Activity spectrum: Effective against at lesat 200 insect
species, nematicide, acaricide with a certain fungicidal
activity.
Pre-harvest interval: 3 days;
Rotenone
Plants : Derris elliptica , mistica and malaccensis;
Lonchocarpus utilis, urucu, nicou and chrysophyllus;
Tephrosia macropoda, toxicaria, vogelii and virginiana;
Family: Leguminosae;
Extracted from roots;
Derris elliptica Lonchocarpus sp.
Rotenone
Principal active ingredients: Rotenone or Nicouline
(Isoflavonoid, Alkaloid) ;
Mechanism of action: Interference with respiration and with
perpherical nervous system;
Mode of action: Mainly by contact and sometimes via
ingestion;
Activity spectrum: Non-systemic selective insecticide
(Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera,
Thysanoptera, Hymenoptera) with a secondary acaricidal
activity.
Pre-harvest interval: 10 days;
Pyrethrins
Plant: Tanacetum (Chrysanthemum)
cinerariaefolium and T. cineum.
Family: Compositae;
Natural habitat: China, east of Africa and Japan;
Extracted from flowers;
Main active ingredient: Pyrethrin I;
Mode of action: Contact and ingestion;
Mechanism of action: Acts on peripherical and central
nervous system causing an immediate insects paralysis;
Activity spectrum: mainly an insecticide with a certain
acaricidal activity;
Pre-harvest interval: 2 days;
Pyrethrins: Active ingredients
There are six different active ingredients (pyrethrins) resulting from the
combination of two acids and 3 alcohols
Attractant,1/
Sex pherom one, Reppelent, 1/ 2%
39/ 2%
69%
(Copping, 2004)
Semiochemicals
Sex pheromone:
Males locate and subsequently mate with females by following the
trail or pheromone emitted by virgin females.
The indiscriminate application of high levels of sex pheromone in
traps and dispensers interferes with this natural process since a
constant exposure to high levels of pheromone makes trail following
impossible (habituation/adaptation phenomenon).
The use of discrete source of sex pheromone released over time
presents the male a false trail to follow (sexual confusion/ mating
disruption).
Control is subsequently achieved through the prevention of mating
and consequently the laying of fertile eggs.
Sex pheromone are species-specific.
Semiochemicals
Aggregation pheromones:
Males and females locate host trees by following a plume of air
enriched with a mixture of the odour of the host tree and the
aggregation pheromone.
Evaporation of pheromone vapours from dispensers attached to host
trees attract both males and females of the insect pest to the baited trees
and establiches conditions for mass attack of baited trees by the insect
pests.
The baiting of selected areas and trees reduces the number of attacks
in the main orchard or forest areas.
The baited trees and those trees closed to them should be felled
before the progeny emerges from the infested trees.
Aggregation pheromone can be also used in monitoring.
They are effective in the case of beetles (Coleoptera).
Attractants are used in traps for monitoring and time management
decisions of pesticides applications.
Semiochemicals
Alarm pheromones:
The alarmed pests (e.g. spider mites) feed less than undisturbed
ones.
Semiochemicals
Reppelent pheromones:
Agrisense
Eco-trap
2
Biological control definition
Biological control can be defined as the use of natural
(http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/cee/biocontrol/theoriesmodels/na
tcontrol.html)
Basic biological control theories:
Alternative theories
Historically, the major challenge to the "density-dependent school"
came from those who felt that the evidence for population stability in
nature was not proved, and that the numbers of individuals in a
population was largely determined by the time available for population
growth.
Population control can be accounted for via vagaries in
environmental limits that are not related to density per se.
Whereas followers of the density-dependent school saw populations
existing in a characteristic abundance, those of the density-independent
school saw populations in flux, with extinctions common and the long-
term expected number of a population only a statistical, not biological,
reality.
The abundance and distribution of populations reflected adaptation
to local conditions that are limited as to the nature, magnitude and
direction of change.
Basic biological control theories:
Alternative theories
Populations track environmental change, expanding in favourable
times and contracting during unfavourable periods.
This has been the historical approach for importing natural enemies
against exotic pests: Vedalia ladybird beetle against cottony cushion
scale.
Infestation prevention
The objective is to keep the population of a potential pest from
reaching a high, or economic, level.
The action of a natural enemy early in the life cycle of the potential
pest can keep the population from reaching pest status.
Infestation delay
This objective is similar to prevention, in that both require early
intervention, before a population exceeds a threshold. However, delay
means that the population will eventually build up to a high level, but it
does so at a time when the species is no longer considered a pest.
Biocontrol approaches: The tactical
approach taken to achieve the objectives, which may
be conservation, augmentation or importation.
Conservation
Conservation biological control basically means keeping alive and
enhancing the effectiveness of those natural enemies that are already
present.
Many conservation approaches are easily integrated into production
regimens and can be very effective.
Reduction of pesticides use is one of the most important tools in
conservation approach:
Use of fewer applications of pesticides,
Altering the timing or formulation of the pesticides,
Use of "soft" pesticides such as those based on natural products,
which may be less persistent and also less toxic to natural enemies.
Integration of other control measures like agronomical ones.
Conservation
Often, providing a missing requirement can make the difference
for a natural enemy:
Prey/host abundance;
Availability of complementary resources (nectar, pollen);
Ratio of crop to interplanted land and spatial arrangement of
interplanted vegetation.
Principles for conserving and/or enhancing
agricultural biodiversity
Adoption of diversified farming systems:
Diversification in time (crop rotation, sequences), space
(polycultures, agroforestry, mixed farming, intercropping..).
Recycling and conservation of soil nutrients and organic
matter: use of plant and animal biomass and favours recycling
of nutrients and on-farm natural resources.
Integrated pest management and biological control.
Conservation and regeneration of natural resources: germoplasm
conservation; beneficial fauna and flora, soil health, water…
Enhance soil biodiversity: farming practices that minimise soil
disturbance, minimum or no-tillage, crop rotation, organic
amendments (manure, compost), recycling of plant residues…
Principles for conserving and/or enhancing
agricultural biodiversity
Application of agroecological principles;
Active participation and empowerment of native and
indigenous small farmers and the protection of their rights;
Adaptation of practices to local agroecological and
socio-economic conditions;
Conservation of local animal and plant genetic
resources;
Reforming genetic research and breeding programs
towards more respect of agrobiodiversity;
Creating a supportive policy environment.
Examples of hedge species planted in organic orchards
Mastic Tree,
Evergreen Pistache: Gum arabic tree:
Pistacia lentiscus Acacia spinosa
Cassia.
Augmentation
Augmentation biological control basically means adding natural
enemies, either where they are not present, or are present at small
numbers.
and interior settings than in crop settings, but there are examples of
"importing" it.
Phyto-
phagous, 21/
17%
(Copping, 2004)
Phytophagous biocontrol agents
Lepidoptera,
Mite, 1/
4/
5%
19%
Coleoptera,
Diptera, 2/ 14/
10% 66%
(Copping, 2004)
Parasitoids
Parasitic insects (also known as parasites and parasitoids) are insects
whose immature stages (larvae) develop by feeding on or in the bodies
of their host arthropods, which are usually other insects.
Adult parasites are free living; some species will feed on hosts
(predators), in addition to ovipositing in or on the hosts.
Host-parasitoid interactions.
Parasitoids types
The feeding habit of the immature stage:
Egg parasite: Parasite adult attacks the host egg, and the parasite
progeny emerge from the egg.
Egg-larval parasite: Parasite adult attacks the host egg, but the
parasite progeny emerge from the larva.
Larval parasite: Parasite adult attacks the host larva, and the
parasite progeny emerge from the larva.
Pupal parasite: Parasite adult attacks the host pupa, and the
parasite progeny emerge from the pupa.
Parasitoids types
Place of oviposition:
Ectoparasite (External Parasite): Parasite develops externally on
the host with its mouthparts inserted into the host's body.
Hosts range: The number of host species that are usually attacked
and utilized successfully by a parasite species.
Parasitoids types
Number of parasites’ progenies :
Gregarious parasite: Multiple parasite eggs are deposited, the
larvae feed together on a single host, and multiple parasite offspring
emerge.
Mymaridae, 1/ Aphidiidae, 4/
9% 8%
Ichneumo- Aphidiinae, 1/
nidae, 1/ 2%
2%
Bethylidae, 1/
2%
Eupelmidae, 1/
2% Braconidae, 7/
Eulophidae, 1/ Encyrtidae, 1/ Dryinidae, 1/
13%
8% 17% 2%
(Copping, 2004)
Parasitoids-hosts interactions
All parasites go through a series of processes by which they find,
attack and utilize their hosts.
Parasites that respond to specific habitat cues also will show some
degree of habitat fidelity. The fidelity to particular habitat types means
that the parasites will not be likely to attack non-target species that may
be found in other habitats.
Parasitoids-hosts interactions:
Habitat selection
Many parasites use cues from the habitat itself, independent of
whether hosts are present or not.
Cues used for habitat selection are usually visual, or volatile odours:
The cues serve to get the parasite from the "neighbourhood" of the
host (the habitat), to the specific location of the host.
variety of parasites.
embryo within the egg signals the age (and unsuitability) of the host.
Host size will affect parasite development, often larger hosts may
produce larger parasites, because of an abundance of food for the
progeny and to quicker progeny development.
Host age will also affect suitability. Eggs and pupae that have
already developed somewhat may be less suitable for development,
simply because of the difficulty for the parasite to metabolise their
tissues.
Acari, 10/
19%
Gastropoda, Coleoptera,
Hemiptera, 9/ 1/ Diptera, 3/ 17/
17% 2% 6% 32%
(Copping, 2004)
Predatory insect groups
The major groups of predaceous insects belong to the following
orders: Coleoptera, Dermaptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera,
Mantodea, Neuroptera, Orthoptera and Thysanoptera.
Coleoptera:
The predaceous species feed on soft bodied insects (e.g. aphids, leaf
hoppers, larvae of Coleoptera and Lepidoptera).
Some flies are predators of other arthropods (e.g., robber flies), but
most of them are external parasites (e.g., mosquitoes and deer flies).
Hemiptera:
Inundative applications:
Baculo-
Fungi, 49
viruses, 16
(Copping, 2004)
Micro-organisms use in biocontrol
Fungicide, 35
Insecticide, 50
Herbicide, 12
Acaricide, 1 Bactericide, 2
Fungicide, 35 Fungicide and bactericide, 2
Fungicide and nematicide, 1 Fungicide and plant growth regulator, 1
Herbicide, 12 Insecticide, 50
Insecticide and acaricide, 1 Molluscicide
Nematicide, 5 Plant growth promoter, 1
(Copping, 2004)
Types pathogens
Insect viruses:
Viral diseases have been found in 13 insect orders and most likely
occur in all orders. Viruses that are primarily or exclusively found in
insects are currently placed in 12 families (Miller, 1998):
DNA Viruses: Baculoviruses (Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses- NPV
and Granuloviruses-GV), Ascoviruses, Iridoviruses, Parvoviruses,
Polydnaviruses and Poxviruses.
RNA Viruses: Reoviruses (Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis viruses),
Nodaviruses, Picorna-like viruses and Tetraviruses.
Bacterial pathogens:
They can be divided into two broad categories, non-spore-forming
bacteria and spore-forming bacteria.
Although most of the species isolated from diseased insects are
non-spore-forming, spore-forming bacteria in the genus Bacillus are
the most important from the standpoint of biological control.
Types pathogens
Fungal pathogens:
Entomopathogenic fungi are able to invade their insect hosts by
penetrating directly through the cuticle.
The fungal spore first adheres to the cuticle.
Under appropriate conditions the spore germinates, penetrates the
cuticle of the host and enters the hemocoel.
Fungal reproduction occurs in the hemocoel of the insect host.
As the hemocoel becomes filled with hyphal bodies, the insect
usually dies and the fungus continues to develop saprophytically.
After the body of the dead insect is filled with mycelia, fruiting
structures emerge from the cadaver and produce infectious spores.
Dead insect has the consistency of a moist loaf of bread and,
depending on the colour of the spores or conidia, may appear white
or some darker colour.
Types pathogens
Fungal pathogens:
Tanada and Kaya (1993) listed 8 classes, 13 orders and 57 genera
that contain entomopathogenic species of fungi.
There are five major groups of fungi: the Flagellate fungi or
Chytridiomycetes, the Oomycetes (also flagellate but also not true
fungi), the Zygomycetes, the Ascomycetes, and the Basidiomycota.
The Zygomycota and the Ascomycota contain common insect
pathogens that are also useful in biological control programs.
Microsporidia:
Microsporidia are important primary pathogens of insects.
Their best use will probably be as augmentatively released or
classical biological control agents, not as pesticides.
Types pathogens
Microsporidia:
The only microsporidian ever registered as a microbial pesticide
(in the USA) is Nosema locustae, a pathogen of grasshoppers.
Two other microsporidian species that are known to control
populations of pest insects: Nosema fumiferanae and Nosema
pyrausta.
Protozoa:
Protozoa are the most taxonomically diverse group of insect
pathogens.
Protozoa range in their interactions with insects from
commensualists and mutualists, to plant and animal pathogens
vectored by insects, to acute insect pathogens.
Types pathogens
Protozoa:
Of some 14,000 described species of Protozoa, about 500 are
pathogens of insects. Many are chronic pathogens that may debilitate
a host without producing obvious disease symptoms but some species
are extremely virulent, causing stunted growth, slow development,
and early death.
Entry into the host is typically by ingestion, but some can invade
through the cuticle.
Some species may be transovarially transmitted from infected
females to their offspring.
Species that invade the cells of the host are usually found in the
cell cytoplasm and are typically more pathogenic than extracellular
species.
Some protozoans exhibit tissue tropism, infecting only certain
tissues or organs, others are systemic.
Types pathogens
Protozoa:
No toxins have been found to be associated with protozoa in insects.
Death or debilitation of infected hosts may be, for example, the
result of competition for metabolites, disruption of normal cell and
tissue function, or blockage of the gut or other organs by extracellular
species.
The insect-pathogenic Protozoa are currently recorded from four
major groups: Amoebas, Gregarines, Flagellates and Ciliates.
Nematodes:
Some entomogenous nematodes have characteristics that allow them
to be considered with the pathogens.
The most important insect pathogenic nematodes for biological
control are very small and use mutualistic bacteria to kill the host.
Types pathogens
Nematodes:
Although nematode species in at least 20 families are primary or
facultative parasites of insects, those in the order Rhabditida have
been most exploited as biological control agents.
Species in the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis
(Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditae, respectively), are particularly
amenable to mass production and application in a variety of pest
systems.
Entomopathogenic nematodes enter the host via natural body
openings or through the cuticle.
Some species utilize an anterior stylet or a tooth to rasp the cuticle
and gain entrance into the hemocoel.
Others ingress by ovipositing on the host food source and the eggs
hatch in the host midgut.
Effects of nematode parasitism on the hosts can be sterility,
reduced fecundity, reduced mobility and life span, behavioural and
morphological changes, and death.