SNI 19-6724-2002

Indonesian National Standards

Horizontal control mesh

ICS 13.180.30
 SNI 19-6724-2002

List of contents

List of contents. ................................................................................................................i

Horizontal control net .............................................................................................................. 1
1. Scope. ................................................................................................................... 1
2. Terms and definitions ..............................................................................................................1
3. Classification of horizontal control point nets. ................................................................... 8
4. Conventions in the construction and development of horizontal control point nets .......... 9
5. Technical specifications for the construction and development of horizontal control point
networks. .............................................................................................................11
Appendix A (normative) Point recoinability form ........................................................................ 23
Appendix B (normative) Design and size of monuments for Order-0, Order-1, Order-2, Order-3,
and Order-4. .................................................................................................................. 25
Appendix C (normative) Point description forms, location sketches and photos of the
monument. ..................................................................................................................31
Appendix D (normative) Field note form ......................................................................................38
Appendix E (normative) Control point coordinate list form .........................................................43
Appendix F Guidelines for Implementing GPS Surveys. .............................................................45
Appendix G Guidelines for Implementing the Polygon Method..................................................77
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................82

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Horizontal control mesh

1 Scope
This standard covers the scope, terms and definitions, classifications, conventions and technical
specifications of the construction and development of a national horizontal geodetic control
point network.
2 Terms and definitions
2.1
CIS (Conventional Inertial Systems)
a three-dimensional, geocentric, sky-bound Cartesian coordinate reference system, also called
the ECSF system (Earth-Centered Space-Fixed).
NOTES CIS systems are generally used to define the position and movement of satellites
or other celestial bodies, and this coordinate system does not rotate with the earth, but evolves
with the earth around the sun.
2.2
CTS (Conventional Terrestrial System)
The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate reference system which are geocentric and
earthbound, and called the ECEF system (Earth-Centered Earth-Fixed).

NOTES The CTS system is generally used to describe the position and movement of points
on the earth's surface; and this coordinate system rotates with the earth, and also evolves with
the earth around the sun.

2.3
geodetic datum
a number of parameters used to define the shape and size of the reference ellipsoid used to
define geodetic coordinates, as well as its position and orientation in space relative to the physical
earth, which in this case is represented by the CTS system

2.4
DOP (Dilution of Precision)
a number commonly used to reflect the geometric strength of a satellite constellation, where a
small DOP value indicates strong (good) satellite geometry, and a large DOP value indicates weak
(bad) satellite geometry.

REMARKS Depending on the parameters estimated, several types of DOP are known, namely:

GDOP = Geometrical DOP (3D-position and time)

PDOP = Positional DOP (3D-position)
HDOP = Horizontal DOP (horizontal position)
VDOP = Vertical DOP (high)
TDOP = Time DOP (time)

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2.5
Absolute Error Ellipse
ellipse depicting the trust region (confidence region) from the accuracy of the coordinates of a
point

NOTES
1. Absolute error ellipse is also called point error ellipse;
2. the shape and size of the absolute error ellipse are calculated based on the covariance matrix
of the coordinates of the point in question;
3. in calculating the alignment of a mesh, formal quality indicators such as point error ellipses,
will generally only be calculated if statistical tests have been successfully passed;
4. In a free (minimally constrained) mesh alignment, the size, shape and orientation of the
absolute error ellipse will be affected by the location of the datum point in the mesh.

2.6
relative error ellipse
ellipse depicting the trust region (confidence region) from the accuracy of the coordinates of a
point relative to other points
NOTES
1. Relative error ellipse is also called line error ellipse;
2. the shape and size of the relative error ellipse are calculated based on the covariance matrix of
the relative coordinates of one point with respect to other points;
3. in a free (minimally constrained) net smoothing calculation, the size, shape and orientation of
the relative error ellipses will not be affected by the location of the datum points in the net;
4. Relative error ellipses are good for checking the quality of measurement databaselinebetween
two observation points.

2.7
base line(baseline)
three-dimensional relative coordinate vector (dX,dY,dZ) between two observation points.

2.8
trivial base line
base line(baseline)which can be derived (linear combination) from other basis lines from one
observation session

2.9
non-trivial base lines
the base line is nottrivial(free base line)
NOTES If only there werenreceivers operating simultaneously in one session observation
then there is only (n-1) free base lines that can be used for network alignment

2.10
GPS (Global Positioning System)
a navigation and positioning satellite system owned and managed by the United States designed
to provide three-dimensional position and speed and time information continuously throughout
the world to many people simultaneously without depending ontime of day or weather
NOTES

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1. The formal name is NAVSTAR GPS, short for "Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System”;
2. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978, and the total system was declared operational in
1994.

2.11
calculate least squares averaging (least squares adjustment)
calculate alignment (adjustments) which is based on minimizing the sum of squares of the
observation residuals

2.12
ITRS (International Terrestrial Reference System)
CTS global coordinate reference system defined, realized and monitored by IERS (International
Earth Orientation System)

2.13
ITRF (International Terrestrial Reference Frame)
global coordinate reference frame which is a realization of ITRS
Remarks
1. ITRF is represented by the coordinates and velocities of a number of points spread acrosthe
entire surface of the earth, using VLBI, LLR, GPS, SLR and DORIS observation methods;
2. The ITRF framework net is published annually by IERS, and is named ITRF-yy, in this case yy
indicates the last year of data used to determine the framework, for example ITRF94 is a
coordinate and velocity framework calculated in 1995 using all the data IERS until the end of
1994.

2.14
horizontal control net
a set of horizontal control points which are linked to each other by data measuring distances and/or
angles, and whose coordinates are determined by certain measurement/observation methods in
a certain horizontal coordinate reference system

2.15
network class
an attribute that characterizes the internal accuracy (level of precision) of the network, which in
principle depends on three main factors, namely data quality, network geometry, and data
processing methods
NOTES The class is assessed through an analysis of the accuracy of the results of the
smoothing process with minimal constraints.

2.16
coordinate reference frame
practical realization of a coordinate reference system so that the system can be used to
quantitatively describe the position and movement of points, both on the earth's surface
(terrestrial framework) and outside the earth (celestial or extra-terrestrial framework)
INFORMATION Reference frames are usually realized by making observations geodetic
observations, and are generally represented using a set of coordinates from a collection of points
or objects (such as stars and quasars).

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2.17
polygon method
method for determining the terrestrial two-dimensional position of a series of points that form
a polygon, where the coordinates of the points (X,Y) or (E,N), are determined based on observing
the horizontal angles at the points of the polygon and the horizontal distance between the points
side by side

2.18
pseudo-kinematic method
GPS survey method in which observations at a point are made twice briefly (5 up to 10 minutes),
with a relatively long time interval (1 to 2 hours) between the two
INFORMATION
1. observations in two sessions relatively long apart are intended to cover sufficient geometric
changes, to be able to successfully determine phase ambiguity in order to obtain better
position accuracy;
2. pseudo-kinematic method which is sometimes called the intermittent method (intermittent) or
reoccupation method (reoccupation), can be seen as the realization of two short static methods
(observation duration of a few minutes) separated by a relatively long time interval (around
one to several hours).

2.19
static method
GPS survey method with a relatively long observation time (several hours) at each point
NOTES The positions to be determined are stationary (not moving).

2.20
short static method (rapid static)
GPS survey method with shorter observation time at each point, namely around 5 to 20 minutes
rather than 1 to 2 hours as in the static method
NOTES This short static method relies on the process of determining phase ambiguity
fast; and besides requiring reliable and sophisticated software, this short static method also
requires good observation geometry.

2.21
stop-and-go method
GPS survey method where in the observation process, after initializing the starting point to
determine phase ambiguity, the GPS receiver moves from point to point and makes observations
in a relatively short time (around 1 minute) at each point

NOTES
1. This positioning method is sometimes also called the semi-kinematic method;
2. This method is similar to the kinematic method; Only in this method the positions to be
determined do not move and the GPS receiver moves from point to point.

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2.22
multipath
phenomenon when signals from satellites arrive at the GPS antenna via two or more different
paths, in this case one signal is a direct signal from the satellite to the antenna andthe others are
indirect signals reflected by objects around the antenna before arriving at the GPS antenna.
antenna
NOTES There is a difference in path length between the direct signal and the reflected
signal causes these signals to interfere when they arrive at the antenna, which ultimately causes
errors in the GPS observation results, both pseudorange and phase.

2.23
network order
an attribute that characterizes the level of precision (accuracy) of the net, namely the level of
proximity of the net to an existing control point net that is used as a reference; and the order
of this network will depend on its class, the level of precision of the points relative to the tie points
used, as well as the level of precision of the transformation process required to transform
coordinates from one datum to another datum

2.24
mesh alignment (network adjustments)
integrated processing in a network of vectorsbaselinewhich have been previously calculated
individually, to obtain the final coordinates of the points in the network

2.25
free mesh alignment
network alignment with minimal constraints, namely alignment using only one control point
(fixed point)
NOTES Free mesh alignment is carried out to check consistency between data size (level
of precision).

2.26
alignment of bonded mesh
Fully constrained network alignment, namely alignment using more than one control point(fixed
point) and size data whose quality is declared good by the results of the free mesh alignment
analysis
NOTES
1. tied net leveling is carried out after the free net leveling is deemed successful;
2. The coordinates of the points obtained from the bonded mesh alignment and successful
quality control process will be expressed as final coordinates.

2.27
GPS Receiver
a tool for receiving and processing signals from GPS satellites
INFORMATION Based on improving quality, three types of GPS receivers are known, namely type
navigation, mapping type and geodetic type.

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2.28
ellipsoid system
a coordinate system that has the following characteristics: the zero point of the coordinate system
is the center of the ellipsoid; the X-axis is in the plane of the zero meridian and lies in the equatorial
plane of the ellipsoid; the Z-axis coincides with the short axis of the ellipsoid; The Y-axis is
perpendicular to the X and Z axes, and forms a right-handed coordinate system
INFORMATION In an ellipsoid reference system, the coordinates of a point are generally
expressed as(ϕ,λ,h), in this case ϕ is the geodetic latitude, λ is the geodetic longitude, and
h is the height of the ellipsoid.

2.29
coordinate system
system for defining the coordinates of a point, where the coordinate system itself is defined by
specifying the following three parameters, namely the location of the origin (zero point) of the
coordinate system, the orientation of the coordinate axes, and the quantities (distance and/or
angle) used to define the position of a point in the coordinate system

2.30
geocentric coordinate system
a coordinate system in which the location of the origin is at (around) the center of the earth

2.31
topocentric coordinate system
a coordinate system in which the location of the origin is on the surface of the earth

2.32
coordinate reference system
system (including theories, concepts, physical and geometric descriptions, as well as standards
and parameters) used in defining coordinates

2.33
cover angle (mask angle)
the minimum elevation angle of the satellite, calculated from the observer's horizon, that will be
observed by the GPS receiver
NOTES Satellites with elevations smaller thanmask angle, will not be observed by the GPS
receiver

2.34
GPS survey
positioning survey using GPS satellite observations, which is the process of determining the
coordinates of a number of points for several points whose coordinates are known using the
differential positioning method (differential positioning) as well as phase observation data ( carrier
phase) from the GPS signal

2.35
geodetic control point
a point manifested on the ground in the form of a monument, and whose coordinates are
determined by geodetic measurement methods and expressed in a specific coordinate reference

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system
2.36
horizontal control point
a control point whose coordinates are expressed in a two-dimensional horizontal coordinate
system
INFORMATION In this case there are two types of horizontal coordinates that are
commonly used: coordinates two-dimensional geodetic, namely ϕ (latitude) and λ (longitude), as
well as coordinates in the map projection plane, namely E (East) and N (North).

2.37
WGS 84(World Geodetic System 1984)
CTS coordinate reference system defined, realized and monitored by NIMA (NationalImagery and
Mapping) United States of America
NOTES
1. WGS 84 is the system currently used by GPS navigation satellite systems (Global Positioning
System) ;
2. Based on continuous improvements in the quality of WGS 84, three WGS 84 systems are
known, namely WGS 84, WGS 84 (G730), and WGS 84 (G873), which is currently the newest.

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3 Classification of horizontal control point nets

3.1 Classification of control point nets
The classification of a control net is based on the level of precision and level of accuracy ofthe net
in question, where the level of precision is classified by class, and the level of accuracy is classified
by order.

3.2 Determination of network class

The class of a horizontal control point mesh is determined based on the long-axis length ( semi-
major axis) of each relative error ellipse (between points) with confidence level ( confidence level)
95% which is calculated based on the statistics given by the results of calculating the least squares
network smoothing with minimal constraints (minimally constrained). In this case the maximum
length of the long axis of the 95% relative error ellipse used to determine the network class is:
r = c ( d + 0.2 )
with the meaning:

r = maximum length of the axle-length allowed, in mm;

c = empirical factors that describe the level of survey precision;
d = distance between points, in km.

Based on factor valuescAccordingly, the proposed horizontal control point net class categorization
is given in Table 1 below:
Table 1 Classes (measurements) of horizontal control point nets

Class c(ppm) Typical

application
3A 0.01 GPS fixed (continuous) net

2A 0.1 national scale geodetic survey

A 1 regional scale geodetic survey

B 10 local scale geodetic survey

C 30 geodetic survey for sealing

D 50 mapping survey

3.3 Determining network order

The order of a horizontal control point mesh is determined based on the length of the long axis
( semi-major axis) of each relative error ellipse (between points) with confidence level (confidence
level) 95% calculated based on statistics provided by the results of least squares network
smoothing calculations. In determining Order, calculate the network alignment

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is the calculated full-constraint smoothing (fully constrained). In this case the maximum length of
the long axis of the relative error ellipse (one standard deviation) used is also calculated based
on the above equation.
Based on factor valuescAccordingly, a categorization of the order of the horizontal control point
net obtained from a geodetic survey can be made, as given in Table 2.

Table 2 Order of the horizontal control point net

Orde c Control net Distance Class
r *
00 0.01 National fiducial net (GPS fixed net) 1000 3A

0 0.1 National geodetic control point network 500 2A

1 1 Regional geodetic control point network 100 A

2 10 Local geodetic control point mesh 10 B

3 30 A mesh of docking geodetic control points 2 C

4 50 Mapping control point mesh 0.1 D

* typical distance between adjacent points in the network (in km)

In classifying control point nets, it is necessary to remember that the order specified for a control
point net is:
1) must not be higher order of the existing control point net used as a reference net
(binding net);
2) not higher than the class.

4 Conventions in the construction and development of horizontal control pointnets

4.1 Coordinate reference system
The coordinates of control points of all orders must be expressed in the national coordinate
reference system, which is currently called the 1995 National Geodetic Datum (DGN 95).
4.2 Coordinate reference frame
In its procurement, a control point net must be bound directly with the net to control points of a
higher order. Control point mesh binder (frame of reference coordinates) for each network are
as specified in Table 3.

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Table 3 Coordinate reference frame

Net Reference frame

Order -00 ITRF 2000

Order -0 Minimum Order -00

Order -1 minimum Order -0

Order -2 minimum Order -1

Order -3 minimum Order -2

Order -4 minimum Order -3

Procurement of a network of control points should start from a higher order. If for some reason
a control point net cannot be tied to a higher order net, then the class of the net in question must
be specified. At other times once the binding can be implemented, then the network class can
be converted into a network order.

4.3 Accuracy
The accuracy of the coordinates of the points in the network must meet the requirements for the
class and code of the network.

4.4 Network configuration

a. each network must be tied to a minimum of several control points from a higher order
network, the number of which is as specified in the technical specifications;
b. each point in the network must be tied to at least several other points in the network,
the number of which is as specified in the technical specifications;
c. control points are evenly distributed in the network.

4.5 Equipment systems

The equipment system used in the procurement of control point nets must meet the classification
and requirements for geodetic surveys as outlined in the technical specifications.

4.6 Observation methods and strategies

The observation method that must be applied for the procurement of national horizontal
framework nets is as shown in Table 4 below

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Table 4 Observation methods for providing control point

nets
Net Observation Method

Order -00 Continuous GPS Mesh

Order -0 GPS Survey

Order -1 GPS Survey

Order -2 GPS Survey

Order -3 GPS Survey

Order -4 Polygon, or GPS

Surveying

The observation methods and strategies applied to provide control point nets must comply with
geodetic survey rules as described in the technical specifications.

4.7 Data processing methods and strategies

a. Data processing to obtain point coordinates in all types of network orders must be based
on fully constrained least squares smoothing calculations;
b. GPS survey data processing for 00th-order, 0th-order and 1st-order nets must use scientific
software, such as Bernesse and GAMIT;
c. GPS survey data processing for 2nd order, 3rd order and 4th order nets(GPS)can use
commercial software, such as SKI and GPSurvey.

4.8 Results reporting system

The reporting system for the results of control point net procurement surveys must comply with
the rules for reporting geodetic survey results as described in the technical specifications.

5 Technical specifications for the construction and development of horizontal control

point networks
5.1 Coordinate reference system
The coordinates of control points of all network orders must be expressed in the national
coordinate reference system, which is currently called the 1995 National Geodetic Datum (DGN
95).
The DGN 95 system is in principle a WGS coordinate system (World Geodetic System) 1984, which
is a right-handed geocentric Cartesian coordinate system. The reference ellipsoid used by this
system is the WGS 84 geocentric ellipsoid defined by the four main parametersshown in Table 5.

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Table 5 Four main parameters of the WGS 84 ellipsoid [NIMA, 2000]

Paramete Notati Mark
r on
Long axis a 6378137.0 m

Smothering 1/f 298.257223563

Earth's angular speed ω 7292115.0 x 10-11rad s-1

Earth's gravitational constant (including GM 3986004.418 x 108m3s-2

atmospheric mass)

For control points order 00 to order 3 and order 4(GPS), because the coordinates are determined
using GPS satellite observations, the point coordinates obtained are three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinates (X, Y, Z) or geodetic coordinates (L, B, h). Meanwhile for the 4th order control point(
Polygon),control point coordinates must be expressed in the UTM or TM-3 map projection system.
For a UTM system, the basic specifications that must be used are:
- zone width = 60,
- the zero point is the intersection of the central meridian with the equator,
- the apparent coordinates of the zero point (N,E) are (0 m, 500,000 m) for points north of the
equator, and (10,000,000 m, 500,000 m) for points south of the equator,
- central meridian scale factor = 0.9996.

Meanwhile, for the TM-3 system, the basic specifications that must be used are:
- zone width = 30,
- the zero point is the intersection of the central meridian with the equator,
- the apparent coordinates of the zero point (N,E) are (1,500,000 m, 200,000 m),
- central meridian scale factor = 0.9999.

5.2 Coordinate reference frame

In procuring a control point net, the net must be tied to several points of a higher order reference
net located around the coverage area of the net, with specifications as shown in Table 6.

Table 6 Technical specifications of coordinate reference frames

Network
order
00 0 1 2 3 4

Reference net order ITRF 00 0 1 2 3

(minimum) 2000

The minimum number of

points in the reference net 4 3 3 3 3 2
that are used as tie points

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5.3 Accuracy
For the procurement of control point nets, the technical specifications for the accuracy of the control
net are determined by the network class (measurement) and the order of the reference net (tie),
as shown in Table 7.
Table 7 Specifications for control point network accuracy

Network
order
00 0 1 2 3 4

network minimum class 3A 2A A B C D

(measurement)

Reference net order ITRF 00 0 1 2 3

(minimum) 2000

5.4 Network configuration

In procuring a control point net, there are several criteria and conditions that must be met by the
net configuration, namely as given in Table 8.
In connection with network configuration planning, apart from those given in Table 7, there are
several technical specifications that need to be considered, namely:
a. the network design must be made on a photocopy of a topographic map or topographic
map of sufficient scale so that it can show the design, geometry and strength of the
network in such a way that the desired accuracy specifications can be met;
b. all baselines in the network should be relatively homogeneously distributed, as indicated
by relatively equal baseline lengths;
c. Before implementation, the design of the network used for observation must be has
been approved by the employer with the signature or initials of the person responsible
for the activity concerned.
Table 8 Technical specifications for control point network configuration

Network
order
00 0 1 2 3 4

Typical distance between 1000 500 100 10 2 0.1

adjacent points (km)

Minimum number of 4 3 3 3 3 3
higher order tie points

Connection of points to all 3 3 3 3 2

other points in the net
(minimum number)

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Minimum number of 100% 20% 10% 5% 5% 5%

baselines observed twice (
common baseline)

Amountbaselinein - 4 4 4 4 -
somethingloops(max.)

5.5 Equipment systems

For the procurement of control point nets Order-00 to Order-3 and Order-4 (GPS)which is based
on GPS satellite observations, in general the technical specifications for the equipment that should
be used are given in Table 9. Meanwhile, for the procurement of Order-Order control point nets4
(polygon)whose procurement is based on polygon measurements, general technical specifications
for the equipment system are given in Table 10.

Table 9 Technical specifications of the control point net procurement equipment system
Order -00 to Order 3

Network
order
00 0 1 2 3 4 (GPS)

Receiver type geodetic geodetic

gps 2- 1-
frequency frequency
Thermometer, yes No
temperature,
and humidity

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Table 10 Technical specifications of equipment systems procurement of Order-4 control

point nets(polygon)

Order–4 (Polygon)

Angle meter
1" Theodolite measuring instrument
Distance meter EDM measuring tools (electronic distance measurement)

In connection with the provision of 4th order control nets (polygons), the use of ETS ( Electronic
Total Stations) that meets the specifications in Table 5.6 above, is highly recommended.
More specifically, in procuring a horizontal control point net using GPS satellite observations, the
technical specifications for the equipment system must also meet the following:
a. The GPS receiver used should be able to observe simultaneously all satellites above the
horizon (all in view capability);
b. All observations must use a geodetic type GPS receiver capable of observing coded data
(pseudorange) and phase at the two frequencies L1 and L2, except for observations of
Order-3 nets which are sufficient at the L1 frequency only;
c. the GPS receiver antenna and its accessories (such as cables and antenna height
measuring equipment) are one unit of the type and type of receiver used according to
factory standards;
d. The tripod (triangular leg) used must be sturdy and equipped with a stand (mounting) for
fastening strands andtribrachwhich is equippedoptical centering as a GPS antenna mount;
e. for the procurement of nets Order-00 to Order-1, meteorological parameter measuring
equipment, namely thermometers, barometers and hygrometers, must be available for each
receiver unit;
f. at the location where the GPS signal reflects(multipath)easily occurs such as on beaches,
lakes, cliffs, multi-storey buildings, the antenna must be equipped withground planeto
reduce such influence;
g. Each GPS receiver unit in the field should be equipped with one computer unit laptops, for
data storage and initial baseline processing;
h. each GPS receiver unit in the field should be equipped with radio communication equipment
that has a longer range capability than the longest baseline in the network;
i. The work implementer is advised to bring a generator, battery charger (battery charger)
and tree cutting tools (such as machetes and saws), as field equipment for each observer
team.

5.6 Renaissance and monumentation

Before carrying out the survey to procure the control point net, there are two important works that
need to be done, namely reconstruction (field study) and monumentation.
Reconnaissance work is intended to find the best location for placing control points in the field as
well as collecting related information needed later for the monumentation process and
measurements/observations. The monumentation process is intended to create a monument
(tugu) that represents a control point in the field.

5.6.1. Reconnaissance
Regarding the reconstruction process, there are several things that need to be specified, namely
as follows:

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5.6.1.1 Before the reconstruction is carried out, the work implementer is required to
coordinate with the relevant local government parties and agencies regarding the plan to
install the control point monument. What is expected from this coordination process is
information from the local government regarding physical development plans in the area
concerned which could result in disrupting the security of control point monuments that will
be installed in the future.
5.6.1.2 The location of the selected control points is endeavored to be in accordance with the
previously created network design, and if possible, apart from the Order-4 network, these
points are selected on the grounds of government agencies or educational institutions with
the approval of the parties concerned.
5.6.1.3 The selected control point location should meet the following requirements:
a. the distribution is in accordance with the network design that has been created;
b. stable soil conditions and structure;
c. easy to reach (preferably by motor vehicle) and find again;
d. should be placed on state-owned land;
e. not interfere with (be disturbed by) public facilities and utilities;
f. placed in a location so that the monument is not easily disturbed or damaged,
whether due to disturbance, humans, animals or nature;
g. the placement of points at a location must also take into account plans for future
use of the location concerned;
h. points must be able to be tied to several points whose coordinates are known at a
higher order, for the purposes of calculations, defining datums, as well as
maintaining the consistency and homogeneity of the datum and the accuracy of the
points in the network.
For observations with GPS satellites, namely for Order-0 to Order-3 nets and Order-4 nets
(GPS), the following requirements must also be considered, namely:
a. has a free view of the sky in all directions above elevation 15o;
b. away from reflective objects that easily reflect GPS signals, to minimize or prevent
multipath;
c. away from objects that can cause electrical interference to GPS signal reception.

5.6.1.4 If during the reconstruction process the position of the control points that have
been planned must be: moved because it turns out that the location is not good and
adequate for carrying out observations, the implementing party must make a report to the
officer in charge of technical matters to ensure that the change will not affect the function of
the control point.

5.6.1.5 In the implementation processreconnaissanceFor each point location, the field team
must completely fill in all the information requested on the point reconstruction form whileat
the location, including:
a. accurate location diagram;
b. location accessibility (attainment) diagram;
c. obstruction diagram.

5.6.2. Monumentation
After the location of the point on the field is determined, the monumentation process is then
carried out. In this monumentation there are several things that need to be specified, namely as
follows:

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a. each monument at each point must be equipped with a metal and marble tablet
mounted on a concrete monument;
b. Monuments must be made from a mixture of cement, sand and gravel (1:2:3),
according to the specified design and dimensions, shown in Appendix B ;
c. To differentiate the types of monuments from each control point net order and to
systemize archiving, control points must be numbered based on a standard system.
The point number must reflect the network order and location (province and district)
of the point;
d. for each monument built a field sketch and description must be made. Photos from
four directions (north, east, south and west) must also be taken so that you can get
an overview of the location's background from each direction. Specifications for
point description forms, location sketches and monument photos are given in
Appendix C.

5.7 Observation methods and strategies

For the procurement of control point nets from order 00 to order-4 (GPS)which is based on GPS
satellite observations, the technical specifications for the observation methods and strategies that
should be used are given in Table 11 below. To procure a 4th order control point
net(polygon)which is based on polygon measurements, technical specifications related to
observations are given in Table 12.
In connection with satellite observations for the provision of geodetic control point nets of order
1 to order 3 and order 4 (GPS), apart from the technical specifications given in Table 11, there
are several other specifications that need to be considered, namely:
a. GPS satellite observations involve the use of at least 3 (three) receivers (receiver) GPS
simultaneously;
b. each GPS receiver used should be able to store data for a minimum of one day of
observations;
c. At each point, the height of the antenna must be measured before and after satellite
observation, at least three readings for each measurement. the difference between the
antenna height measurement data must not exceed 2 mm;
d. There is at least one common point that connects the two observation sessions, and it
would be better if there was onebaselineally;
e. At the end of an observation day, all data observed on that day must be uploaded (
f. downloads) to the computer and saved as a backup (backup)on diskette or CD ROM;
g.
h. in an observation session, meteorological data measurements are carried out at least
three times, namely at the beginning, middle and end of the observation;
i. any event during the observation that is expected to affect the quality of the
observationdata must be recorded.
Data and information from GPS satellite observations in the field above must be recorded in a
field note form (see attachment D).

17
 Table 11 Technical specifications of methods and strategies for observing geodetic control point nets Order-00 to Order-4 (GPS)

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Network order

00 0 1 2 3 4 (GPS)

Observation method Continuous GPS GPS survey GPS survey GPS survey GPS survey GPS survey

Length of observation per session continuous 24 hours 6 2 1 0.25 hours

(minimum) hours hours hour

Primary observation data for phase two phase two phase two phase two phase one phase one
positioning frequency frequency frequency frequency frequency frequency

Observation mode Fixed net net net Net net radial

Independent observation
at every point

- at least 3 times (% of 100% 50% 40% 20% 10% -

the number of points)

- at least 2 times (% of 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% -

the number of points)

Observation data interval 30 30 30 15 15 15

(seconds)
Minimum number of satellites 4 satellites
There isn't any
Required PDOP value smaller than 10
There isn't any
Minimum satellite elevation 150

Observation of meteorological data yes yes yes No No No

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Table 12 Technical specifications of observation methods and strategies 4th Order

geodetic control point mesh (polygons)

Order – 4(Polygon)

Difference between B and LB readings in angle ≤10"

measurements

Number of series of observations of an angle 2 series

(minimum)

Difference in angle size between sessions ≤5"

Collimation error checking before observation

Number of readings for one distance measure 5 times

(minimum)

Course angle (minimum)

at the beginning and
end of the network
Department corner procurement techniques solar observations
or from 2 GPS points

5.8 Data processing methods and strategies

For the procurement of control point nets of order 00 to order 4 (GPS) which are based on GPS
satellite observations, technical specifications for the data processing methods and strategies
that should be used are given in Table 13 For the procurement of order 4 controlpoint nets which
are based on measurements polygons, technical specifications related to data processing are
given in Table 14.
In connection with GPS survey data processing, in addition to the specifications given in Table
5.9, there are several things that also need to be specified, namely:
1. wholedataGPS observations are converted torinex(receiver independent exchange format) ;
2. for GPS baseline processing, the software used should be adapted to the GPS receiver
used;
3. in GPS baseline processing, the coordinates of the reference points used to determine the
baseline vector must not be derived from the results of absolute position determination;
4. For processing GPS survey data for the provision of 1st to 4th order (GPS) networks, the
software for mesh alignment (free or bound) may not be the same as the software used for
processingbaseline;

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Table 13 Technical specifications of methods and strategies for processing control point net data Order-00 to Order-3 and Order-4(GPS)

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Network Order

00 0 1 2 3 4 (GPS)

Device type Scientific scientific scientific commercial commercial commercial

soft ones
used

Satellite orbit type Precise Precise Precise broadcast broadcast broadcast

used (IGS) (IGS) (IGS)

Phase ambiguity Float float fixed fixed fixed fixed

Elimination of land differencing differencing+ differencing+ differencing differencing differencing

and bias + estimate estimation estimation

Stages processingmulti-baseline,determination processingbaseline,free mesh alignment, processing

determination coordinat alignment of bonded mesh baseline
coordinate e

Mechanism statistical tests on coordinate accuracy parameters and

quality control lengthbaselinewhich is measured more than
one time (common baselines)

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Table 14 Technical specifications of data processing methods and strategies 4th Order
control point mesh (polygons)

Order – 4(Polygon)

Data processing methods calculate least squares averaging parameter method or

methodbowditch

Wrong corner cover ≤10√n, where n is the number of polygon points

Wrong linear distance cover ≤1/6,000

5. The GPS survey data processing process should produce the following information:
a. a list of definitive coordinates of all points in the network resulting from bound
mesh alignment along with their variance-covariance matrices;
b. a list of definitive baseline values resulting from the bonded net alignment along with
standard deviation values and correction values to the baseline values observed;
c. point error ellipses for each point;
d. relative error ellipses for each observed baseline;
e. results of statistical tests carried out on residual values after averaging.

6. Definitive coordinates from control points Order-00 to Order-3 and Order-4(GPS) must be
stated in the DGN-95 datum, in the form:
a. 3-D cartesian coordinates (X,Y,Z);
b. geodetic coordinates (latitude, longitude, ellipsoid height);
c. UTM projection coordinates (north, east).
On a control point coordinate list form as shown in Appendix E;

7. The definitive coordinates of the 4th order control point must be stated in the DGN-95
datum, in the form of TM-3 or UTM projected coordinates, on a control point coordinate
list form as shown in Appendix E.

5.9 Results reporting format

For reporting survey results for the procurement of control point nets. In general, the technical
specifications for the results reporting format that should be used are given in Table 15 below.
In more detail, the reporting format for a horizontal control point net procurement projectwill
generally be in the form of:
1. reporting on work implementation in the form of preliminary reports, intermediate
reports and final report.
2. The final results that must be submitted are generally as follows:
a. control point monument in the field;
b. description of the control point monument along with photos and location map;
c. list of control point coordinates along with their variance covariance matrix;
d. control point distribution maps in the form of digital maps and printouts;
e. observation data in the form of soft copies (soft copy) or hard copy (hard copy);
f. all field forms, namely point reconstruction forms, point descriptions, location
sketches, photos of monuments, and field note forms;
g. all results of observations and data processing.

21
 Table 15 Technical specifications of the control point net reporting system

Network Order

00 0 1 2 3 4

Report form books and computer files (on CD ROM)

Contents of the introduction, survey planning and preparation, network design, survey implementation,
report data processing and analysis, results obtained, related attachments.
(minimum)

Data and results on CD-ROM

Processing

geodetic
geocentric, and/or
Point coordinates coordinate
geodetic (L,B,h), geocentric (X,Y,Z), and map projection (UTM or TM-3)
which was reported map
projection
(UTM or TM-3)
Parameter
point accuracy Coordinate variance-covariance matrix and network
which was classes

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reported

22
 Appendix A
(normative)
Point recoinability form

POINT RECOINANCE FORM

Project :

Regency : Accessible by car (yes/no):

Ward :

LOCATION DIAGRAM
Elevation

AzimuthOBSTRUCTION DIAGRAM

Checked by : Date :

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Logo, Name and Address of the Company or Agency Executing the Work

RECOINANCE SUMMARY FORM

Geodetic Control Point Net Order:
Project:

Achieved by Usage in this

Point Ward Surveyor Date Recoinasans New/existing Safe/Not Safe Obstruction Monument Existence
Car? project

24
 Appendix B
(normative)
Design and size of monuments for Order-0, Order-1, Order-2, Order-3, and Order-4

Figure B.1 Main pillars of GPS

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1st Order GPS Pillar

Painted in blue
(no scale)

80 cm
25 cm

55 cm
0 cm
35 cm
65 cm
10 cm

DO NOT DAMAGE AND

DISTURB THIS SIGN

Brass-tablet and pillar number Top view diameter 10 cm

Figure B.2 1st order GPS pillar

26
 35 35
2nd Order Design and

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Monument Size

Marble

10
10
45

20
Size in cm.
Rebar diameter = 1,2 cm
Concrete mix = 1:2:3

Figure B.3 Design and size of the 2nd order monument

27
 30
30
3rd Order Design and
Monument Size
Blue Color

Ground
Level

30
31 of 90

Size in cm.

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Rebar diameter = 0,8 cm
Concrete mix = 1:2:3

Figure B.4 Design and dimensions of the 3rd order monument

28
 20

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20 15

4th Order Design and

Monument Size

15

15
15 15
32 of 90

2,5

10

Size in cm.
Rebar diameter = 0,8 cm
Concrete mix = 1:2:3
25 25

Figure B.5 Design and size of the 4th order monument

29
 Lambang Lambang
Garuda Garuda

State Property State Property

National Geodetic Control Point National Geodetic Control Point

Order: … Order: …

Measurement Year Measurement Year

33 of 90

For points whose network order For points whose network

can already be determined order
cannot yet be determined

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Figure B.6 Description of the monument in the form of brass attached to the body of the monument

30
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Appendix C
(normative)
Point description forms, location sketches and photos of the monument

01. PILLAR NUMBER : 02. NAME :

03. VILLAGE/KAMPUNG : 04. DISTRICT :

05. DISTRICT/KODYA : 06. PROVINCE :

07. OBSERVATIONS BY :
08. RECEIVER :
09. TIME (utc) :
10. DATE/JULIAN DAY :
11. PILLAR DESCRIPTION :

COORDINATING APPROACHES :
12. LATITUDE :
13. LONGITUDE :

14. HEIGHT (above the ellipsoid) : . meters

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15. DESCRIPTION OF STATION LOCATION :

16. APPEARANCE STAND OUT :

17. ROAD TO THE LOCATION :

8. TRANSPORTATION/ACCOMMODATION

19. CREATED BY : 20. DATE:

21. CHECKED BY: 22. DATE:

Employment
Institute
Logos

General Sketch:

U
↑

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Detailed Sketch (without scale):

U
↑

Made by : Manufacturing Date:

Checked by : Inspection Date:

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Employment
Institute
Logos

TO THE LOCATION TO THE LOCATION

( ..... km from location) (…… km from collation)

AROUND THE LOCATION AROUND THE LOCATION

(…… m from location) (…… m from location)

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Made by : Manufacturing Date:

Checked by : Inspection Date:

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Employment
Institute
Logos

VIEW DIRECTION TO NORTH VIEW DIRECTION TO EAST

VIEW DIRECTION SOUTH WEST VIEW DIRECTION

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Made by : Manufacturing Date:

Checked by : Inspection Date:

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Appendix D
(normative)
Field note form

Station (file) name: Julian Day/Year /

:
Date/Month: /
No. Station :
Day :
Location :

Latitude: Plan Actual

TimeUTC

Longitude : :
Beginning
:
Tall : . meters
Finished : :

EXECUTOR

NAME INSTANCE

1.

2.

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ANTENNA HEIGHT

(Use the measuring stick provided to measure the

height of the antenna above the point/marker in
3 places from the antenna dish hole. The
maximum difference in size results≤2mm. The
average antenna height of all 3 sizes is included
in the receiver. Measure the antenna height at
the end of the observation)

Does the antenna face North?

[ ] Yes, [ ] No, Azimuth : o +

Does the cross thread coincide with the marker?

Before [ ] Yes, [ ] No
After [ ] Yes, [ ] No

Do the cross threads coincide with the

scissors?
[ ] Yes No

Draw the shift in the left column

Before After

Meter Inch Meters Inch

2nd position
s up to to 1/32 inch
1/32 (sd 0.001 m)
(sd 0.001 m) inches
1.

2.

3.

Average

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DOWNLOAD DATA

No. File Name ZipFile UnZipFile Notes

1.

2.

Total

Station (file) name: Julian Day/Year

:
/

EQUIPMENT

Tool No. Series No.

Brand Units

Receivers:

Antenna:

Tribrach :

Antenna cable:

Source
Electricity AC DC

Download PC/Software:

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OBSERVATIONAL PARAMETERS

Observation Interval
Elevati Minimum Satellite
on

OBSERVATION NOTES

Time (UTC) Satellite %

Number Memor
y

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SERIOUS DISTURBANCE DURING OBSERVATION

(provide information if there is interference that affects the observation data)

Time (UTC)
Description of
Event

METEOROLOGICAL DATA

Time (UTC)
beginning, middle, Temp. Temp. Tech. Air Notes
end Wet Dry
observation

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Appendix E
(normative)
Control point coordinate list form

NO. POINT
Logo of NAME AND ADDRESS
Providing EMPLOYMENT AGENCY
Agency
Work

LIST OF GEODETIC CONTROL POINT COORDINATES

ORDER:

01. TOOLS USED: 04. OBSERVATION METHOD:

02. TYPE/TYPE OF TOOL : 05. SOFTWARE :
03. TOOL SERIAL NUMBER : 06. DATE. COUNTING :

DATUM DGN 1995

A = 6378137.0 m, f = 1/298.257223563

CARTESIAN CORDINATES GEODETIC CORDINATES

12. X (meters) = 15. LATITUDE =

13. Y (meters) = 11. LONGITUDE =
14. Z (meters) =
12. ELLIPSOID HEIGHT =

VARIANCE-COVARIANCE MATRIX COORDINATES : UTM/TM-3 *

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13.
14. EAST (m) =
15. NORTH (m) =
15. ZONE =
16. CONV. GRID =
symmetry

17. CREATED BY :
18. CHECKED BY :
19. DATE. INSPECTION :

* strike out anything that doesn't apply

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Appendix F
Guidelines for Implementing GPS Surveys

A network of geodetic control points of order 00 to order 3 and order 4 (GPS) was built based
on GPS satellite observations. For control nets from order 0 to order 3 and order 4 (GPS),
procurement is carried out using the GPS survey method. Due to the importance of the GPS
satellite system in providing control point nets in Indonesia, below we will explain in general terms
this GPS system along with the GPS survey method and its implementation mechanism.

F.1 GPS (Global Positioning System)

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a navigation and positioning satellite system owned and
operated by the United States. This system is designed to provide three-dimensional position
and speed as well as time information, continuously throughout the world regardless of time
and weather, to many people simultaneously. Currently, GPS systems are widely used by people
throughout the world. In Indonesia too, GPS has been widely applied, especially in relation to
applications that require information about position.

Basically GPS consists of three main segments, namely the space segment (space segments)
consisting of GPS satellites, control system segments (control system segments) which consists
of satellite monitoring and controlling stations, and user segments (user segments) which consists
of GPS users including receiving and processing devices for GPS signals and data. These three
GPS segments are depicted schematically in Figure 6.1.

SATELITE
. 21 + 3 satellites
. Orbital period: 12 hours
. Orbital altitude: 20200 km
USER
. Observing GPS signals
. Calculate position and speed
. Get informed regarding
time

CONTROL SYSTEM
. Time synchronization
. Orbit prediction
. Data injection
. Satellite health monitor

Figure F.1 Global Positioning System, GPS

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SNI 19-6724-2002

Each GPS satellite continuously transmits wave signals at 2 L-band frequencies called L1 and L2.
The L1 signal has a frequency of 1575.42 MHz and the L2 signal has a frequency of 1227.60 MHz.
The L1 signal carries 2 binary codes called P-code (P-code, Precise or Private code) and C/A-code
(C/A-code,Clear AccessorCoarse Acquisition), while the L2 signal only carries the C/A-code. It
should be noted that at this time the P-code has been changed to the Y-code whose structure is
kept secret to the public. By observing signals from satellites in sufficient quantity and time,
someone can then process them to obtain information about position, speed and time, or their
derived parameters.

Basically, the basic concept of positioning with GPS is resection (backward binding) with distance,
namely by simultaneously measuring the distance to several GPS satellites whose coordinates
are known. The position given by GPS is a three-dimensional position (X,Y,Z or L,B,h) expressed
in the WGS datum (World Geodetic System) 1984. With GPS, the point whose position will be
determined can be stationary (static positioning) or move (kinematic positioning). The position of
the point can be determined using a GPS receiver towards the center of the earth using the
methodabsolutely(point) positioning, or to other points whose coordinates are known (monitoring
stations) using the methoddifferential(relatively) positioningwhich uses a minimum of two GPS
receivers, which results in relatively higher position accuracy. GPS can provide instant position
(real-time) or after observations after the observation data has been processed more extensively
(post processing) which is usually done to obtain better accuracy. In general, the categorization
of methods and systems for determining positioning with GPS is shown in Figure F.2 below.

Positioning with GPS

Surveys

Real Time

Carrier Phase
(RTK) (DGPS)

- Real-time GPS survey

- High-fidelity navigation

Figure F.2 Methods and systems for determining positioning with

GPS [Langley, 1998]

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F.2 GPS survey characteristics

Positioning surveys using GPS satellite observations (GPS surveys) can generally be defined as
the process of determining the coordinates of a number of points for several points whose
coordinates are known, using the differential positioning method (differential positioning) as well
as phase observation data (carrier phase) from the GPS signal.

In a GPS survey, GPS observations at certain time intervals are carried out baseline by baseline
in a network of points whose position will be determined, as shown in Figure 6.3. Itis worth noting
here that if more than two GPS receivers are used, then in one observation session (observing
session) can be observed in more than one baseline at once.

▪ Higher tie points in

order

o The Point that will be

determined

- Baseline vector that

was observed

Figure F.3 Determining the position of points using the GPS survey method

In GPS surveys, the process of determining the coordinates of points in a network basically
consists of three stages, namely:
• Data processing from each baseline in the network,
• Network smoothing involving all baselines to determine the
coordinates of the points in the network, and
• Transform the coordinates of these points from the WGS84
datum to the datum required by the user.
Schematically, the process of calculating the coordinates of points in the GPS network can be
shown as in Figure F.4. In this case, the differential positioning method with phase data isused
to determine the vector (dX, dY, dZ) of each observed baseline. Determining the baseline vector
is generally done using the least squares averaging method (least squares adjustment).

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SNI 19-6724-2002

The entire baseline vector, together with the coordinates of the fixed points (monitoring stations)
which is known, is then processed in a network alignment calculation process ( network
adjustments) to get the final coordinates of the desired points. Because the coordinates of the
points obtained by this GPS survey refer to the WGS datum (World Geodetic System) 1984, then
if the coordinates of these points are to be expressed in another datum, the next process required
is a datum transformation from WGS 1984 to the desired datum.

.....

Baseline Processing Processing Baselines

Baseline-2 Baseline-n

Point Coordinates (WGS-84 System)

Figure F.4. Flow diagram for calculating the coordinates of GPS network points

F.3 Stages of implementing a GPS survey

The process of carrying out a GPS survey by a contractor (executor) will generally include the
following stages: planning and preparation, observation (data collection), data processing and
reporting, as depicted schematically in Figure 6.5. If the GPS survey is carried out self- managed
by the relevant government agency (such as BAKOSURTANAL and BPN), then the survey
definition and survey review stages should also be carried out, respectively at the beginning and
end from the stages of survey implementation.

It is worth emphasizing here that the level of success in carrying out a GPS survey will greatly
depend on the level of success in carrying out each stage of the work as shown in Figure F.5.

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Among these stages, the planning and preparation stage is a very crucial stage, and needs to be
carried out well, systematically and thoroughly.

Implementation Stages by Contractor

Survey Review

Figure F.5 General stages of carrying out a GPS survey

F.4 Position accuracy

The position accuracy obtained from a GPS survey will generally depend on four factors, namely:
the accuracy of the data used, the observation geometry, the observation strategy used, and the
data processing strategy applied (see Figure F.6). Depending on how we take into account and
treat these factors, we will obtain different levels of accuracy. In this case, itis natural that GPS
in general and GPS surveys in particular can provide quite varied point position accuracy, as
shown in Figure F.7.

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SNI 19-6724-2002

Data Accuracy GPS receiver quality

Data processing

Figure F.6 Factors that influence the accuracy of GPS surveys

ABSOLUTE

DIFFERENTIAL

1mm 1 cm 10 cm 1m 10m 100 m

Figure F.7 Spectrum of positional accuracy provided by GPS surveys

F.5 Data accuracy

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The accuracy of GPS data will basically depend on three factors, namely: the type of data
(pseudorange or phase), the quality of the GPS receiver used during the observation, and the
level of error and bias that affects the observation data. Because in GPS surveys the data
commonly used is phase data, only the last two factors need more serious attention.

F.5.1 GPS Receiver

The quality of a GPS receiver is characterized by many parameters such as the number of
observable signals (one or two), the number of channels (channels), the characteristics and noise
level of the antenna, the sophistication of the signal processing methods used, and soon. What
needs to be noted here is that in selecting a GPS receiver to be used for a survey, apart from
technical considerations related to receiver quality, other non-technical factors must also be
taken into account, as shown in Figure F.8.

In particular, technical matters that should be considered when selecting a GPS receiver that will
be used in carrying out GPS surveys include:

- the GPS receiver used must be of the mapping or geodetic survey type and not of the
navigation type;
- the GPS receiver used must be capable of serving static and short static survey methods;

- The GPS receiver used can be a single-frequency receiver. But if possible it is better to use
atwo-frequency receiver that can observe the phase at two frequencies L1 and L2;
- the GPS receiver used must be capable of observing a minimum of 4 (four) satellites at
once in each period, and should have the ability to observe all satellites above the horizon
simultaneously;
- The minimum number of GPS receivers used is 2 (two) units. The more units used will
speed up the implementation of the survey in question, although the organization of the
movement will become relatively more difficult;
- all GPS antennas and receivers used should be of the same brand, model and type
(uniform);
- The GPS antenna used should be equipped withground absorbent plane to reduce the
effects of multipath;
- The GPS receiver used should have the capability to record data for at least 3 (three) hours.

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SNI 19-6724-2002
Technical Considerations
Receiver Operation
Convenience to operate
Financial Considerations
Figure F.8 Factors to consider in selecting a GPS receiverfor survey purposes
52
size
Software
- main software (preprocessing, baseline
processing, network smoothing,
coordinate transformation).
- satellite predictions.
- Ability downloading data.
- data processing options. observation
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 SNI 19-6724-2002

F.5.2 GPS Error and Bias

Next, what will affect the quality of the data is the level of error and bias that affects the phase
observation data. There are several types of errors and biases that affect GPS observation data
as shown in Figure 6.9. These errors and biases are related to satellites (such as ephemeris
errors, satellite clocks, and selective availability), propagation medium (such as ionospheric bias
and troposphere bias), GPS receivers (such as receiver clock errors, antenna errors, and noise),
observation data. (phase ambiguity and cycle slips), and the environment around the GPS
receiver (such as multipath).

GPS Satellites

Receiver noise

Figure F.9 GPS Error and Bias

GPS error and bias must be taken into account correctly and well, because this will affect the
accuracy of the information (position, speed, acceleration, time) obtained as well as the process
of determining phase ambiguity from the GPS signal. The observation strategy applied will also
influence the effects of error and bias on the observation data. Besides that, the structure and
level of sophistication of GPS data processing software will be influenced by the mechanisms
used to handle errors and biases. A more detailed explanation of the effects of these errors and
biases.

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SNI 19-6724-2002

In determining positioning with GPS, in general there are several methods that can be used to
deal with GPS errors and biases, namely:
- parameter estimation of errors and biases in the smoothing calculation process,
- apply mechanismsdifferencingbetween data,
- calculate the magnitude of error/bias based on direct measurement data,
- calculate the amount of error/bias based on the model,
- use appropriate observation strategies, or
- use appropriate data processing strategies.

In GPS surveys, reducing the effects of errors and biases is usually carried out using
mechanismsdifferencingbetween data, shortening the length of the observed baseline, or by
using appropriate observation and data processing strategies.

6.6 Observation geometry

Observation geometry which includes observer geometry and satellite geometry will also
influence the accuracy of point positions obtained with GPS surveys. As shown in Figure F.6, the
observation geometry has several parameters, including: location and number of points, network
configuration, and baseline characteristics that represent the observer's geometry; as well as
the number of satellites as well as the location and distribution of satellites which represent
satellite geometry.

In surveys with GPS, the observation geometry must be designed as well as possible, because
its influence is not only on the accuracy of the points obtained but also on operational aspects
that have a financial impact.

F.6.1 GPS point location

Selecting locations for points from a GPS network requires remembering that unlike terrestrial
surveys, GPS surveys do not require mutual visibility (intervisibility) between observer points.
What is required is that the observer can 'see' the satellite (satellite visibility). Basically, the
location of the GPS point is chosen according to the needs and intended use of the GPS point
itself. Apart from that, in general the GPS point location should meet the following requirements:
have a free view of the sky in all directions above elevation 15o,
- away from reflective objects that easily reflect GPS signals, to minimize or prevent the
occurrence of multipath,
- away from objects that can cause electrical interference to GPS signal reception,
- the condition and structure of the soil is stable,
- easy to reach (better by motor vehicle),
- should be placed on state-owned land,
- placed in a location where the monument/pillar is not easily disturbed or damaged, whether
due to human, animal or natural disturbance,
- the placement of points at a location must also take into account plans for future use of the
location concerned, and
- points must be able to be tied to at least one point whose coordinates are known, for the
purposes of calculations, defining datums, as well as maintaining the consistency and
homogeneity of the datum and the accuracy of the points in the network.

In terms of viewing space into the sky, two things must be considered, namely the location and
height of objects that can hinder signal reception by the GPS receiver. The location and height of

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these objects are usually depicted in the form of a diagram called an obstruction diagram (see
Figure F.10). This diagram will later be combined with the satellite sighting diagram (satellite polar
plot) to determine the number of satellites that can be observed from the location in question
and also to determine the appropriate time interval for carrying out observations.

Figure F.10 Example of an obstruction diagram

In connection with the height of the object which is also depicted on the obstruction diagram,
then There is one parameter that is important to know, namely what is usually calledmask angle.Mask
angleThis, which is one of the parameters that must be determined by the user in the operation
of the GPS receiver, is the minimum elevation angle of the satellite that will be observed by
the GPS receiver. Satellites with elevations smaller thanmask angle, will not be observed by the
GPS receiver, as illustrated in Figure F.11.

Observed GPS satellites

Unobserved GPS satellites

GPS antenna

Figure F.11 DefinitionMask Angle

The sizemask angleused will determine the number of satellites observed, and in this case the
larger it ismask angleused, the fewer the number of satellites that will be observed. In a large
GPS surveymask angleThe commonly used one is 10oC or 15oC.Mask anglethose that are too
small should be avoided because observation data from relatively low elevation satellites will be

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more influenced by ionospheric and tropospheric refraction, more easily contaminated by

multipath, and also noise levels (noise) is generally higher. In a location search for an exact GPS
point, the magnitudemask anglewhich will be used must be considered especially in relation to
the height of objects that may cause signal obstruction at the location concerned.

Regarding multipath, the location of the GPS point should be kept away from objects that can
reflect signals and cause multipath, such as roads, buildings, lakes, ponds and vehicles. Multipath
is a phenomenon where signals from satellites arrive at the GPS antenna via two or more
different paths. In this case, one signal is a direct signal from the satellite to the antenna,
while the others are indirect signals that are reflected by objects around the antenna before
arriving at the antenna. The difference in path length causes these signals to interfere when
they arrive at the antenna, which ultimately causes errors in the observation results, as
illustrated in Figure F.12.

GPS
L=D
Satellites irect

P = Reflected Signal

Figure F.12 Error Multipath

The locations chosen for GPS points should also be relatively far away from objects that can
cause electrical interference to GPS signal reception, such as microwave transmitting
stations,radio repeaters, and high voltage power cables (see Figure F.13).

Figure F.13 Objects that can cause electrical interference

F.6.2 Number of GPS points

The number of points in the GPS network must be adjusted to the needs and objectives of the
GPS survey in question. GPS frame points must consist of points whose coordinates areknown
and points whose coordinates are to be determined. Points whose coordinates are known
generally need to be included for several reasons, such as:

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- for defining the datum of the GPS survey,

- demanded by the technical specifications of the GPS survey,
- for determining transformation parameters between GPS datum and local datum,
- for quality control purposes, as well
- to maintain consistency and homogeneity of the datum and point accuracy.

Besides that, at least one point must be used as a datum point for the GPS survey whose
coordinates are known in the WGS-84 system. In this case it should be emphasized that in
general do not use coordinates obtained from absolute position determination with
pseudorange data as datum points from GPS surveys, because an error in the position of the
datum point of around 20 m will result in an error in the baseline length obtained of 1ppm.

F.6.3 CharacteristicsBaselines
Associated withbaseline, then in surveys with GPS, the meaning of trivial and non-trivial (free)
baselines is quite important to understand. In GPS network smoothing, only free (non- trivial)
baselines may be included.

A trivial baseline is a baseline that can be derived (linear combination) from other baselines from
one observation session. A baseline that is not trivial is called a non-trivial baseline (
baselinefree). In this case, if there are n receivers operating simultaneously in one observation
session then there will be (n-1) free baselines that can be used for network smoothing.

In principle there will be several combinations of (n-1) independent baselines as shown in Figure
F.14. In this case the set of (n-1)baselineThe freedom used will affect the quality of the point
positions in the network obtained.

In surveys with GPS, there are several things related to baseline characteristics that should be
considered, including:
- observe the baseline between adjacent points. This can keep the baseline length
relatively short, which will later help to obtain a relatively thorough baseline. In general,
baselines should not be too long (< 20 km); because the longer the baseline the influence
of orbital errors and ionospheric refraction will be greater,
- to control quality and maintain network strength, it is recommended that the observed
baselines close together in a loop (network) and not be separated (radial), as shown in
Figure F.15.

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free baseline (non trivial)

trivial baseline

5 GPS receivers observe

Figure F.14 Examples of several combinations ofbaselinetrivial and non-trivial

Figure F.15 Network method and radial method

- If for some reason, baseline observations must be carried out independently (radial
method), then it is best for each baseline to be observed at least 2 times in 2 different
observation sessions, so that there is a quality control mechanism.
- Loops that are too large (consisting of manybaseline) is not very good geometrically,
although judging from the length of observation required it would be more profitable.
Try to keep the loop shape relatively not too large, as illustrated in Figure F.16. In other
words, the number of baselines in a loop should not be too many.
- Baselines in a GPS network should have a certain length relatively not too much different
from each other.
- The more the number of independent (non-trivial) baselines observed in a network,the
better. However, the number of free baselines used must be adjusted to the desired

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position accuracy, as well as the available observation time and costs.

small loop

small loop

Figure F.16 The size of the loop in a GPS network

It should also be emphasized here that the number of GPS receivers used as well as the number
of free baselines to be observed, will influence the movement of field teams from point to point.
Figure F.17 provides an example of the movement of 3 field teams (each fieldteam carries one
GPS receiver) from one observation session to another so that a total of 8 (eight)baselinefree to
observe.

Session Placement Free baseline that

Observation Receiver was observed

1 ABC AB and BC

2 A, D, C AC and CD

3 A, D, E AD and DE

4 A, C, E AE and EC

Figure 6.17. Example of movement of 3 GPS receivers.

It should also be remembered that the number of free baselines used in a network will notonly
affect the quality of the network, but also the operational mechanism of the survey inquestion
along with aspects such as logistics, transportation, accommodation, and communication, as
illustrated in Figure F.18.

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F.6.4 Network configuration

It should be emphasized here that in surveys with GPS the distribution of pointsper se relatively
does not really affect network quality. However, the distribution of the free (non- trivial)
baselines used, which will later form different network configurations as shown in Figure F.19,
will affect the quality of the network. Therefore, the selection of GPS point locations is primarily
adjusted to the needs and objectives of the survey, and then try to ensure the maximum and
optimal number of free baselines possible.

- 4 independent baselines. - 10 independent baselines.

- geometry for positioning is relatively
weaker.
- the position accuracy obtained will be
relatively lower.
- data collection and processing time
will be relatively faster.
- the number of receivers and/or
observation sessions required is
relatively small.
- costs for logistics, transportation and
accommodation will be relatively
cheaper.
- geometry for relative positioning is
stronger.
- the position accuracy obtained will
be relatively higher.
- data collection and processing time
will be relatively slower
- the number of receivers and/or
observation sessions required is
relatively greater.
- costs for logistics, transportation
and accommodation will be
relatively more expensive.

Figure F.18 Impact of differences in numbersbaselinefree to use

Apart from that, it is also worth remembering that at the baseline calculation stage, the shape of
the GPS dot net is not a crucial issue compared to the size (large) of the network. In other
wordslongbaseline is more influential thanlocationAndorientationhis. Meanwhile, for
determination purposescycle ambiguity, the length of the baseline in a GPS net should vary
gradually from short to long (bootstrapping method). But in terms of maintaining the level and
consistency of accuracy of the points in the network, the distance between points should not be
too long and the points should also be distributed evenly and regularly.

It is also worth noting here that the shape and size of the GPS network will influence the numbers
and distribution of required GPS fixed points. In terms of shape, GPS networks have a wide shape
and some have an elongated shape (corridor network). For a wide network, fixed points should
be placed in a minimum of three quadrants whose coordinate axes are centered in the center
of the network; and in a corridor network, fixed points are placed along the network, as shown
in Figure F.20.

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Figure F.19 Examples of several GPS network configurations that can be created on the
same number of points

Figure F.20 Placement of fixed points in wide network and corridor network

Apart from that, it is best to ensure that the GPS network that will be built is always tied to the
existing GPS network in the vicinity is of a higher order. In this case, never tie the network to a
lower order GPS network.

F.6.5 Number of satellites

For surveys with GPS, in principle the more satellites to observe, the better. Therefore, in a GPS
survey:

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● use a GPS receiver that can observe all satellites every epoch (all in view) above the
horizon simultaneously,
● Select the observation time interval where the largest number of satellites that can be
observed above the observer's horizon. The number of GPS satellites that can be
observed from a place can be seen from the satellite sighting plot which can be created
with survey planning software which is generally part of commercial GPS software. An
example of this satellite appearance plot is shown in Figure F.21.
● select a GPS point location that has a free view of the sky (sky visibility) as wide as
possible.
● do not usemask anglewhich is too large (usually 100or 150) in satellite observations.

City X, Mask Angle = 150

Number of Satellites

Time (GMT)

04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 24:00

Figure 6.21 Example of a Satellite Appearance Plot

Finally it should be noted here that in addition to strengtheningsatellite geometrywhich willfurther

increasepoint position accuracyIt is estimated that the more satellites observed, the faster and
easier the process will bedetermination of ambiguityfrom phase observation data.

6.6.6 Satellite Location and Distribution

Besides the number of satellites, the location and distribution of the observed satellites will also
influence the quality of the observation geometry. In this case,sky plotfrom satellites that can be
created using commercial GPS software will be very useful for knowing the number, location and
distribution of satellites that will be observed from a particular location, which can then be used
in determining optimal observation times. An example of asky plot is shown in Figure 6.22. It
is worth noting here, that besides affecting geometric strength, the number, location and
distribution of satellites will also influence the effect of errors and biases on position accuracy.
Satellite distribution is said to be good if the satellites are evenly distributed in the sky and are
located in at least 3 quadrants of the sky plot.

Finally it is also worth noting here that DOP (Dilution of Precision) is a number commonly used to
reflect the geometric strength of a satellite constellation. The relationship between DOP and the
accuracy of the parameters (such as position) being estimated is usually formulated as:

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parameter accuracy = D OP x data accuracy

Figure 6.22 Example of Sky (Polar) Plot from a GPS Satellite

In this case, a small DOP value indicates strong (good) satellite geometry, and a large DOPvalue
indicates weak (bad) satellite geometry. Depending on the estimated parameters include several
types of DOP, namely:
• GDOP =GeometricalDOP (3D-position and time),
• PDOP =PositionalDOP (3D-position),
• HDOP =HorizontalDOP (horizontal position),
• VDOP =VerticalDOP (high), and
• TDOP =TimeDOP (time).

Graphs of DOP values against time (such as the example given in Figure 6.23), as well as polar
plots from satellites, are generally used to determine the most optimal satellite observation
time.

8
GDOP
6

2
PDOP

0:00 4:00 8:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 24:00

Figure 6.23 Example of GDOP and PDOP plot

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6.7 Observation Strategy

In carrying out GPS surveys, the observation strategy applied will play an important role in
achieving good quality of the position of GPS points. In this case, the observation strategy will
include the observation method, observation time, observation duration, and binding to a fixed
point. This observation strategy, besides having to be optimal in terms ofaccuracy, cost, Andtime,
must also implicitly contain a mechanismquality control.

6.7.1 Observation Method

The observation method commonly used in surveys with GPS, the method commonly used isthe
static survey method, as mentioned previously. But currently, with advances in science and GPS
technology, other survey methods have also developed, namely short static, stop- and-go and
pseudokinematic survey methods.

6.7.1.1 Short Static Survey Method

Positioning method with short static surveys (rapid static) is basically a static survey with a shorter
observation time, namely 5-20 minutes rather than 1-2 hours. This short static method relies on
a fast phase ambiguity determination process. Besides requiring reliable and sophisticated
software, this short static method also requires good observation geometry. The characteristics
of this short static method are given in general in figure 6.24.

Figure 6.24 Short static positioning method

If you compare the short static survey method with the static method for determining position,
there are several things that are worth noting, namely:
• Short static surveyhave a higher level of productivity compared to static survey,because
the observation time for one session is relatively shorter.
• Methodstatic surveyprovides relatively higher positional accuracy compared to the

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methodshort static survey.

• Methodshort static surveyrequires a GPS receiver and data processing software that is
more sophisticated and more modern.
• Because it must ensure correct determination of phase ambiguity with relatively less
observational data, the methodshort static surveyrelatively 'less flexible' than methods
static survey.
• Methodshort static surveyrelatively more susceptible to the effects of error and bias.

In determining the coordinates of control points for surveying and mapping purposes, the best
scenario is to combine static and short static survey methods, where each method is used
functionally according to its respective characteristics, as shown in Figure 6.25. In this case, a
static survey is used to determine the coordinates of control points that are relatively far from
each other and requires a relatively higher order of accuracy, while a short static survey is used
to determine the coordinates of control points that are relatively close to each other and relatively
lower order of accuracy.

Figure 6.25 Combination of static and short static survey methods

The geodetic type GPS receivers currently on the market are generally capable of carrying out
static or short static surveys. Therefore, combining these two survey methods is not difficult.

6.7.1.2 MethodStop-and-Go
This positioning method is sometimes also called the semi-kinematic method. This method is
similar to the kinematic method. Only in this method the positions to be determined do not
move, while the GPS receiver moves from point to point where at each point the receiver stays
for a few moments, before moving again to the next point. Characteristics of the methodstop-
and-gothis is generally given in Fig 6.26.

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Figure 6.26 Positioning methodstop-and-go

6.7.1.3 Pseudo-Kinematic Methods

Pseudo-kinematic methods are sometimes also called methodsintermittentor method
reoccupation, can basically be seen as the realization of two short static methods (observation
duration of a few minutes) separated by a relatively long time interval (around one to several
hours). Observations in two sessions relatively long apart were intended to cover sufficient
geometric changes, to be able to successfully determine phase ambiguities and also to obtain
better positional accuracy. The general characteristics of this pseudo- kinematic method are
given in Figure 6.27. It should be noted that this pseudo-kinematic method is a survey method
with a short observation time which is good for use when field conditions and observations are
not suitable for the application of the method.brief staticor stop-and-go.

Finally, it should be emphasized here that the observation method used will affect not only the
accuracy of the GPS points obtained, but also the mechanism for carrying out the survey,
both regarding the number of receivers, receiver movement, observation time, and so on.

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Figure 6.27 Pseudo-kinematic positioning method

6.7.2 Time and Length of Observation

The time and interval as well as the duration of baseline observations in a GPS survey should
take into account the following factors, namely:
• Number of GPS satellites that can be observed,
• The power of geometric satellites,
• ionospheric activity,
• Activities at the point location and its surroundings (traffic and human movement),
• Signal obstruction at the point in question,
• Type of receiver used (one or two frequencies),
• Point accessibility, as well
• Movement time between points.

The time and duration of GPS observations will affect not only the position accuracy obtained, but
also the level of success in determining GPS signal phase ambiguity, as well as the effects and
propagation processes of errors and biases on position accuracy.

With a longer observation period (as illustrated in Figure 6.28), the satellite will cover greater
changes in geometry and changes in atmospheric conditions (more varied ionosphere and
troposphere). This will lead to better randomization of the effects of orbital errors as well as
the effects of ionospheric and tropospheric biases on distance measurement data [Wells et
al.,1986]. Besides that, larger geometric changes will also make it easier to determine phase
ambiguity. Coupled with more size data, a longer observation interval will generally produce
better position quality than a shorter observation interval. However, for longer observation
intervals, the number of baselines that can be observed per day will decrease. This will lengthen
the overall survey implementation time, and as a result the operational costs of the survey will

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become relatively more expensive.

GPS Satellites

•
•

Figure 6.28 Impact of the duration of GPS satellite observations

In determining the time and interval of GPS observations, the number of satellites that can be
observed can be seen using a satellite appearance plot (see Figure 6.21), and the geometric
strength of the satellite can be seen using a plot of GDOP values (see Figure 6.23). Choose an
observation time interval where the observed satellites are evenly distributed in the sky and are
the most numerous. In this case, at least the observed satellites are located in 3 (three)
quadrants. In relation to the GDOP price, select the observation time interval where the GDOP
price (Geometric Dilution of Precision) generally not greater than 8. A GDOP price that is
generally smaller than 5 is the ideal condition in this case. Apart from that, avoid observation
intervals where the GDOP price changes drastically.

Times of high ionospheric activity, such as midday, should be avoided, unless a dual-frequency
GPS receiver is used or a long baseline is used observed relatively very short (< 5 km). Apart
from that, times when vehicle traffic activity around the point is quite high, should also be avoided.
Vehicles passing close to the GPS antenna can sometimes cause multipath errors.

The time and interval of observation at a point should also consider obstruction to the signal at
that point. To determine the best observation time and interval for each point, it is best touse
obstruction diagrams and sky plots from satellites together, if possible by overlaying the two
(see for example in Figure 6.29), either manually or by utilizing survey planning software.
GPS.

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voltage

Elevation

Forest
Fir

Figure 6.29 Overlay results between Obstruction Diagram and Sky Plot

Point accessibility and movement time between points must be taken seriously in scheduling
observation time at each point. Lack of attention to this aspect can sometimes slow down and
disrupt the overall GPS survey time scheduling.

Finally, it is also worth mentioning here that the observation data interval used (sampling rate),
does not have much influence on the accuracy of the position obtained. A shorter data interval
will only reduce random errors in the data (increasing the precision of the data), but will not
reduce existing systematic errors. Even though the amount of data obtained in a certain
observation interval is greater, but changes in satellite geometry and changes in atmospheric
variations covered will remain the same. Besides that, the amount of data that is too large will
also quickly fill the memory of the GPS receiver used, so that the observation time interval that
it can handle will be much reduced. In GPS surveys, a data interval of 15 seconds is generally
used.

6.7.3 Fastening to Fixed Points

In a GPS survey area, the bases (baselines) observed must be tied directly or indirectly to
existing higher order framework points. This is important to define the datum of the basic
framework in question, as well as to maintain the consistency and homogeneity of the
accuracy of the points of the framework in question with respect to other points.

In general, a net (frame) of GPS points must be tied to at least one fixed point whose coordinates
are known, where:
• It is better if this tie point has a higher order of accuracy, at least of the same order.

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Never tie the network to a fixed point that is an order of magnitude lower in accuracy.
• It is recommended that the fixed points used are distributed evenly across the entire
network. The number of fixed points must be adjusted to the size of the network,
where the larger the network, the greater the number of fixed points.
• The connectivity of a point in the network to a fixed point should be made relatively
stronger than the connectivity between one point and other points in the network, as
shown in Figure 6.30.

weak = 2 baseline

Fixed Point

Figure 6.30 Connectivity of points in the network

6.7.4 Observation Quality Control

The observation strategy for a GPS network, besides having to be optimal in terms of
accuracy,cost, Andtime, must also implicitly contain a mechanism quality control. In this case,
there are several observation strategies that can be used to control the quality of observation
data, including:
• Use only free (non-trivial) baselines that form a closed network (framework);
• Observation of several baselines in a relatively small closed loop;
• Observe a baseline twice at different observation sessions (common baseline). This is
usually done on long baselines and on baselines where connectivity at a given point is less
strong; And
• The use of multiple tie points that are well distributed in the network.
The four strategies above are generally applied simultaneously in observing a GPS network, as
shown in Figure 6.31.

observed twice

free baseline

Figure 6.31 Observation quality control strategies

Apart from the four strategies above, the values of statistical quantities from baseline vectors

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and point coordinates (such as standard deviation, variance factors, etc.) obtained from baseline
processing and network smoothing, can also be used to study the quality ofobservation data. It
should be emphasized here that the most serious consequence of quality control results on the
quality of a baseline is the re-measurement of the relevant baseline in the field.

6.8. Data Processing Strategy

In surveys with GPS, GPS data processing is intended to calculate the coordinates of points in a
network based on observation data of the GPS signal phase observed at those points. Processing
GPS data to obtain coordinates of points that meet technical specifications is a fairly extensive
process. In this case there are several prominent characteristics of GPS survey data processing
that need to be mentioned, namely:
♦ Point coordinates are determined in three dimensions with respect to a geocentric
Cartesian coordinate system defined by the WGS 1984 datum,
♦ The process of estimating baseline vectors and point coordinates relies on the least
squares calculation method (least-squares adjustment),
♦ Data processing is carried out after data from several GPS receivers involved are
collected (post processing mode), And
♦ Processing is carried out in stages, from baseline to baseline, thus forming a network.

There are several aspects that need to be considered in processing GPS survey data, as shown
in Figure 6.32. All of these aspects have their own characteristics, and for the success of data
processing for a GPS survey, all of these aspects must receive proper and serious attention from
the party carrying out the survey concerned.

Software Network
Adjustment

GPS data

Man Power
Resources

Figure 6.32 Aspects of GPS data processing

In the following, some of these aspects will be discussed and touched upon. The discussion will

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have a more theoretical nuance which is motivated by practical aspects in the field.

6.8.1 Software Characteristics

For processing GPS survey data, in principle there are two types of software that can be used,
namely commercial software issued by GPS receiver companies, such asSKI, GPPS, And
GPSurvey,as well as scientific software issued by research institutions or universities, such as
Bernesse,GAMIT,Gipsy, And DIPOP. The striking difference between these two types of software
lies in the mechanism for dealing with the effects of errors and bias. Commercial software
generally relies on the process of eliminating and reducing errors and bias on the data reduction
process (differencing), which is basically only effective for baselines that are not too long (less
than 20-30 km). Commercial software, unlike scientific software, is not prepared to estimate error
and bias parameters, and the error and bias models available are usually only tropospheric
models (such as the Hopfield and Saastamoinen models) and single-frequency ionospheric
models (Klobuchar model).

In GPS surveys for mapping survey purposes, commercial software is generally used, and for
purposes that require relatively higher accuracy, such as geodetic surveys and geodynamic
studies, scientific software must be used. Because most GPS survey applications currently are
in the field of mapping surveys, the following discussion of software will focus more on commercial
software.

Specifically, regarding the GPS survey data processing strategy, there are several things that
need to be considered, including:
♦ The software used must be able to process data from GPS surveys using static methods
and short static methods, and it would be better if it could also serve survey
methods.stop-and-go, as well as pseudo-kinematic surveys.
♦ The software that will be used to process GPS survey data should have the ability tocarry
out the following calculation stages:
• Initial processing, which includes data transformation, normalization, among others
bad data, detection and disposal;
• Absolute position determination using pseudorange data;
• Determining the baseline approach using phase data processingtriple difference;
•
• Detection and correctioncycle slips;
• Determining the baseline using phase datadouble-differencethe phase ambiguity
remains left as a fractional number;
• Determination (resolution) of ambiguity from phase observation data;
• Determining the final baseline price using phase datadoubledifferencethe phase
ambiguity is an integer;
• Network alignment (network adjustments) to determine the final coordinates of the
frame points in the grid, either by the free mesh alignment method (free network
adjustment) as well as bonded mesh alignment (constrained network adjustment);
And
• Transforming coordinates from one datum to another, as well as calculating
(transforming) coordinates into a certain map projection system such as Polyeder,
TM (Traverse Mercator) or UTM (Universal Traverse Mercator).

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♦ The software that will be used should also be able to provide information that can be
used as a quality control parameter for GPS observation data, namely:
• the amount of data that is not good and discarded,
• the number of cycle slips detected and successfully corrected,
• indicators of success or failure in determining cycle ambiguity,
• variance-covariance matrix of each baseline vector,
• variance-covariance matrix of each point coordinate in the network,
• baselinesoutliersthat needs to be rejected, and
• residual graph of the phase data used.
• parameters and graphs of relative error ellipses for each observation baseline and
point error ellipses for each control point (seeAppendix-II)
♦ The baseline calculation software that will be used should be able to calculate the
magnitude of the tropospheric bias based on data measuring temperature, pressure and
air humidity using well-known methods such as Hopfield and Saastamoinen.
♦ The baseline calculation software that will be used should be able to calculate ionospheric
corrections for single frequency GPS data using the Klobuchar method, and also be able
to provide ionospheric-free solutions (ionosphericfree linear combination solution) for the
case of two-frequency data.

6.8.2 Baseline Processing

Baseline processing basically aims to calculate the baseline vector (dX,dY,dZ) using GPS signal
phase data collected at the two end points of the baseline in question, which is illustrated in
Figure 6.33.

GPS
Satellites Phase Data

Baseline Processing

dZ
(dX,dY,dZ)

dY
Reference
dX

Figure 6.33 GPS baseline data processing

In GPS surveys, baseline processing is generally carried out one by one (single baseline) from
baseline to baseline, starting from a fixed coordinate whose coordinates are known, thus forming
a closed network. But it should also be noted here that baseline processing can be carried out
on a session by observation session basis, where one session consists of several baselines (single
session, multiple baselines).

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In the baseline vector estimation process, phase datadouble-differenceused. However,

pseudorange data is usually also used by baseline processing software as auxiliary data in
several matters such as determining approach coordinates, time synchronization of the two GPS
receivers used, and shorthandcycle slips. Schematically, the calculation stages of a (vector)
baseline are shown in Figure 6.34.

Pre-Processing

Determination/determination of coordinates from one fixed

baseline to function as an end point monitoring stations)

Detection and pen gcorrectioncycle slips

ambiguity determination phase

(searching a n d fixing)

Figure 6.34 Stages of calculating a GPS baseline

To check the quality of the baseline vector obtained, there are several quality indicators that can
be monitored, including:
♦ rms (root mean squares), minimum and maximum prices, as well as the standard
deviation of the residuals,
♦ variance factora posteriori,
♦ variance covariance matrix of the baseline vector,
♦ results of statistical tests on residuals and baseline vectors,
♦ relative error ellipses and points,
♦ success from determining phase ambiguity and its level of success,
♦ the amount of data rejected, and
♦ number of cycle slips.

In addition to the quality indicators above, the quality of a baseline vector can also bechecked

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during network alignment.

6.8.3 Network Alignment

In network smoothing, baseline vectors that have been previously calculated individually are
collected and processed in a network smoothing calculation (network adjustments) to calculate
the final coordinates of points in the relevant GPS network. Calculate the smoothing of this
network using the least squares smoothing method (least squares adjustment).

GPS network alignment is generally carried out in two stages, namely free mesh alignment (free
network adjustment) and bonded mesh alignment (constrained network adjustment). Free mesh
alignment is carried out using only one fixed point and is intended to check the consistency of
the baseline vector data, one against another. After going through the stages of free mesh
alignment and quality control, the 'accepted' baseline vectors are then processed again in bound
mesh alignment. In this alignment all fixed points are used, and the coordinates of the points
obtained and successful through the quality control process will be considered as final
coordinates.

In principle, calculating network alignment will be useful for several things, namely:
♦ to create consistency in the baseline vector size data,
♦ to distribute errors in a way that reflects the accuracy of the measurements,
♦ to analyze the quality of the baselines, as well
♦ to identify baselines and control points that need to be 'suspected'.

Illustratively, the usefulness of network smoothing is shown in Figure 6.35. This figure shows
that before the network alignment was carried out, the baselines had not been integrated
correctly and consistently, and the coordinates of the points were not unique. After calculating
the alignment, the baselines will be integrated correctly and consistently, the points will have
unique coordinates.

It should be noted here that the software for network calculations can be part (module) of
commercial GPS data processing software, or special network alignment software, such as
software GEOLAB.

Figure 6.35 GPS Network Alignment

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To check the quality of the coordinates obtained from network alignment calculations, there are
several quality indicators that can be monitored, including:
♦ rms (root mean squares), minimum and maximum prices, as well as the standard
deviation of the residuals,
♦ variance factora posteriori,
♦ variance covariance matrix of coordinates,
♦ dimensions of relative and absolute error ellipses,
♦ results of statistical tests on residuals and coordinates,
♦ number of rejected baseline vectors (outliers), And
♦ the difference in statistical values between those obtained from the free net alignment
calculation and from the bound net alignment calculation.

6.8.4 Datum and Coordinate Transformation

The coordinates of the points obtained from the GPS network alignment calculation are three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinates (X, Y, Z) in the WGS 1984 datum. If the user wants the
coordinates of these points in a different datum and other coordinate system, then a process
is needed Datum and coordinate transformations. In connection with the transformation of the
coordinates of these GPS points, the general type of transformation required can be shown in
Figure 6.36.

in in
WGS-84 WGS-84

DATUM

Internal coordinates TRANSFORMATION

Map Projection System

Figure 6.36 Transformation of GPS point coordinates

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Appendix G
Guidelines for Implementing the Polygon Method

Surveys to determine the position of a network of points on the earth's surface can be carried
out terrestrially or extra-terrestrially. In surveys using terrestrial methods, the position of points
is determined by observing targets or objects located on the earth's surface. In this case, the
terrestrial positioning methods commonly used today are the polygon method, the face
binding method (intersection), backward binding method (resection), or a combination of these
methods. The general characteristics of these methods are given schematically in Figure 7.1. It
should also be noted here that there are several more terrestrial positioning methods, such as
triangulation, trilateration, and triangulation. But these methods are no longer widely used,
especially after the existence of satellite- based positioning methods.

Method Geometry Example Size Data

Angle
Polygon And Distance

Angle at fix point

Intersection

Angle at point which will be

Resection
determined position

▲ Fixed point (koordinat is known) Measured

○ The point position that will be Corner Measured Distance
determined
Figure 7.1 Several terrestrial positioning methods

In procuring horizontal control point nets, the polygon measurement method is currently used
in procuring 4th order control point nets where the spacing between points is around 100 m.
The use of the polygon method in this case is due to the flexibility of this method toadapt to field
conditions on a very local scale, where it exists dense trees and housing will usually interfere
with the use of GPS survey observation methods.

Below, the characteristics of the polygon measurement method will be briefly explained.

7.1 Characteristics of the Polygon Method

The polygon method is a method of determining the two-dimensional terrestrial position of a
series of points that form a polygon (see Figure 7.2). In this method, the coordinates of the point,

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(x, y) or (E, N), are determined based on observing the horizontal angles at the polygon points,
as well as the horizontal distance between adjacent points, as illustrated in Figure 7.2.

Known : Horizontal coordinates of points A, B, C, and D.

Searching for : Horizontal coordinates of points 1, 2, 3, and 4
Be measured : Angle β1 up to β6 and distance: d1 to d5

Figure 7.2 Example of the geometry of a polygon

In this polygon method, angle measurements are generally carried out with a theodolite
measuring instrument, and distance measurements are generally carried out with a measuring
tape or EDM measuring instrument (Electronic Distance Measurement). Meanwhile, the tie points
used, for example in Figure VII.2 are A, B, C and D, are points whose coordinates are known.

From Figure 7.2 above, it can be seen that the quality of the coordinates of the polygon points
obtained will depend on the quality of the control points (links) used, the quality of the distance
and angle measurement data and the geometry of the polygon itself.

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7.2 Determining Coordinates of Polygon Points

In the polygon method, determining the horizontal

coordinates of a point is based on the following basic
formula (see Figure 7.3 for reference):

Figure 7.3. Basic principles to determining

coordinates
Where:
dij= distance between points i and j, and
Aij= major angle of side ij.

It should be noted here that the initial angle of the polygon mesh can be determined in two
ways, namely:
• directly from solar observations, or
• calculated from the coordinates of two known starting points.

If calculated from the coordinates of two points, then if the two tie points are A and B (as is the
case in Figure 7.2), then the direction angle of side AB can be calculated from the following
general formula:

Where:

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It should be noted here that for an edge, the leading angles of its endpoints will differ by 1800.
For example, for Figure 7.2, then:

Meanwhile, the major angles of the other sides of the polygon can be calculated from the
angleThe direction of the initial side and the angles are measured based on the following general
formula (see Figure 7.4 as a reference):

case - 1 case-2

Figure 7.4 Relationship between two major angles

Determining the coordinates of points in a polygon net can be done using several calculation
methods, namely:
• Calculate least squares smoothing parameter method,
• Calculate the conditional least squares smoothing method, and
• Bowditch Method.

In calculating least squares averaging using the parameter method, the basic observation
equation used is:

Distance :

Corner :

Where:

Meanwhile, to calculate the conditional least squares smoothing method, the three conditional
equations used are:

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Abscissa terms : Xend - Xstart = ∑(dij.sin Aij), (7.9)

Ordinary terms : Yend - Ystart = ∑(dij.cos Aij), (7.10)

Angle requirements : Aend - Astart =∑(□i) – n. 1800. (7.11)

The Bowditch method itself, which is widely used in polygon data processing, can basically be
seen as a simpler form of the conditional least squares calculation method.

7.3 Quality Control of Polygon Measurements

One of the commonly used quality control mechanisms for polygon measurements is to assess
the errors in covering the abscissas, ordinates and angles obtained. In this case, theclosing errors
are calculated based on the previous formulas (7.9) to (7.11), as follows:

where fX, fYand f are the abscissa, ordinate and angle cover errors respectively. From the
abscissa and ordinate cover errors, sometimes the distance cover error (fd) which can be
calculated from the following equation:

fd= (f2X+ fY2/)1/2, (7.15)

To procure a 4th order horizontal control net, which is based on polygon measurements, the
requirements that must be met by the measurements are:

Where (∑d) is the number of distance measures and n is the number of polygon points.

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