Cartography All Unit Bahirdar

Mekelle University
College of Social Sciences and Languages

Department of Geography & Environmental
Studies
Cartography and Map Reading

Course Code: GeES2042
Programme: Regular (Year II Sem I)
Instructor : Hailemariam Meaza (PhD)

(Credit goes to Solomon H. (PhD) for his contribution during the development of the
note)
All references are omitted from the power point
H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,
GeES, MU
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Concept of Cartography
•Cartography = mapmaking = the study and
practice of making maps.
•It is the art, science and technology of making
maps.
•Map making involves the application of
scientific and artistic elements.
1.Before 1960, cartography was defined as
manufacturing maps .
2.After 1960, it is amanufacturing of maps and
their use.
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• After 1960, thesubject has moved into the field
of communication science.
• The change of the cartography definition was
due to the advent of the computers .
• Cartography is seen asthe conveying of spatial
information by means of maps.
• Cartographers are map makers, or geographers
are map readers.
• Geographers know where the place is at and
cartographers show where it is at.

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1.2. History of Cartography
• The oldest known maps were drawn by
Babylonians, dating to about 2300B.C.
• Little progress was made in cartography until
the age of exploration & commerce.
• Next, the Greeks were the first people to adopt
a scientific approach of mapping:
a.Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611–546 BCE)
b.Hecataeus (550 – 475 BCE)
c.Erastosthenes (275-195 BCE)
d.Ptolemy (A.D. 90-168)

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1.3 Scope of Cartography
• Scope shows the coverage of Cartography.
• It answers what field of study are
incorporated with cartography.
• A cartographer is familiar with the following
mapping sciences:
a.Geodesy: measures earth’s shape & size
b.Surveying: collecting data
c.Photogrammetry: measurements from photograph.
d.Remote sensing: acquisition of information from the
above!
e.Geographic Information System: capture, store,
manipulate, analyze, manage, and present spatial data.
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1.4 Cartographic communication system and
process
• Maps are viewed as a visual
communication describing spatial
relationships.
• The main stages in cartographic process
are:
• Diagrams of map making

process

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i. Collection, organization & manipulation of
data
• Data can be collected from:
1) Existing maps
2)Aerial photographs
3)Satellite imagery
4)Documents
5)Field work or questionnaire surveys
• The data must be organized into a form which

is suitable for mapping.
• We should aggregate data to specified set of
spatial units, calculating percentages and
densities.
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ii. Design and preparation of maps, charts,
plans and graphs
• Decisions go into the design of an effective
map.
• Designing the map answers:
i.Do you show the data in color or not?
ii.Can you afford to reproduce the map in colour?
iii.Are the data qualitative or quantitative?
iv.Will you represent the data using point, line or
area symbols?
v.How will you arrange the map itself as well as
items such as title blocks, legends, and scale
symbols on the page?
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iii. Map production
• The quality of the map need to be checked.
• This is important for correcting the human
errors done in the design step.
• If maps are reproduced in a required
quantity with out checking the errors at this
stage, unnecessary costs and time might be
incurred.
Example:
• If scale is missed to put in the marginal
information.
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iv. Map reproduction
• How many copies of the map will be required?
• Distribution of maps in digital format on tape,
disk or CD-ROM is replacing or at least
reducing the need for printed maps.
• The measure of a good map is how well it
conveys information to its readers to
enlighten, convince, or persuade.
• What is a good map? is to ask how well it
communicates with its audience.

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Cartographic communication process

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Chapter 2: Coordinate system
• You can give location of anything on latitude and
longitude coordinates.
• Each set of numbers corresponds to exactly
one position in space. The assigned numbers
is called a coordinate system.
• Coordinate systems are splitting up the world
in order to form numbers that relate to points
on a map.
• For identifying each position, three numbers
are required: length, width and height.
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2.1 Types of coordinate system
• There are two major global coordinate
systems:
1. Geographical coordinate system (latitude &
longitude)
2. Cartesian coordinate system (UTM
coordinates)
1. Geographical coordinate system
• The system measures location from two
values to determine your location:
a) latitude
b) and longitude
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Geographic coordinate system grid:
example points

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• The values for the points can have the following
units of measurement:
i.decimal degrees (0)
ii.decimal minutes (‘)
iii.and decimal seconds (")
• TheGreenwich prime meridian is the line of

longitude that defines the origin (zero degrees)
for longitude coordinates.
• One of the most used prime meridian locations
is the line that passes through Greenwich,
England.
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• Locations north of the equator have positive
latitudes that range from 0 to + 90 degrees.
• Locations south of the equator have negative
latitudes that range from 0 to -90 degrees.

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• Locations East of the prime meridian have
positive longitudes ranging from 0 to +180
degrees.
• Locations West of the prime meridian have
negative longitudes ranging from 0 to -180
degree.

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• At the equator, one degree of longitude is
111.321 km, while at 60 degrees of latitude,
one degree of longitude is only 55.802 km.

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• Length’s at different latitude and longitude
= 111 km x Sin(900-latitude)
Length of One Degree of Longitude Length of a Degree of Latitude
(on WGS 84 Ellipsoid) (on the WGS 84 Ellipsoid)
Kilometres Kilometres Miles
Latitude Miles Latitude

0º 111.32 69.17 0º 110.57 68.71
10º 109.64 68.13 10º 110.61 68.73
20º 104.65 65.03 20º 110.70 68.79
30º 96.49 59.95 30º 110.85 68.88
40º 85.39 53.06 40º 111.04 68.99
50º 71.70 44.55 50º 111.23 69.12
60º 55.80 34.67 60º 111.41 69.23
70º 38.19 23.73 70º 111.56 69.32
80º 19.39 12.05 80º 111.66 69.38
90º 0.00 0.00 90º 111.69 69.40

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• A spheroid can help maintain accuracy for a
map, depending on the location on the earth.
• Aspheroid is an ellipsoid that is based on
an ellipse, whereas a sphere is based on a
circle.
• Coordinate system can be defined by either

a sphere or a spheroid of the earth's shape.
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• The shape of the ellipse is determined by two
radii.
• The longer radius is called thesemi-major axis,
and the shorter radius is called thesemi-minor
axis.
• The shape of the ellipsoid is defined by its

semi-major axis (a), or semi-minor axis (b) and
flattening (f) or eccentricity (e).
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2. Cartesian coordinate system
• Cartesian coordinate system is known as the
rectangular coordinate system .
• It consists of two number scales called the x-
axis (at y = 0) and the y-axis (at x = 0), that are
perpendicular to each other.
• Cartesian coordinate system are two types:

2-dimensional coordinate system
3-dimensional cartesian system

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• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system is
a rectangular systems used to determine the
position of an object in the surface of the Earth.
• It is a standard set of map projections with a
central meridian for each six-degree wide UTM
zone.
• UTM projection is used with the cylinder in 60
positions.
• It creates 60 zones around the world.
• Positions are measured usingEastings and
Northings in meters, NOT instead of latitude
and longitude.

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Universal Transverse Mercator Zones

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2.2 Datum, ellipsoid and geoid
1. Datum
•Datum defines the reference systems that
describe the size and shape of the earth.
•It is a set of values that defines the position of
the spheroid relative to the center of the earth.
•A datum is built on top of the selected
spheroid and can incorporate local variations in
elevation.
•With the spheroid, the rotation of the ellipse
creates a smooth surface across the world.
•As this does not reflect reality well, a local
datum can incorporate local variations in
elevation.
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Example:
•We have datum World Geodetic System 84 (WGS
84)
•Locally, datum aligns its spheroid to fit the earth's
surface in a particular area.
For example:
Ethiopia uses the local Datum Adindan
United States uses the North American Datum
Japan the Tokyo Datum
European countries the European Datum
Germany the Potsdam Datum
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• Datum can be horizontal and vertical datum.
1. Vertical datum is a natural reference surface
of the land surface.
• It fits the mean sea level surface through out
the area of interest.
• It provides the surface to which height ground
control measurements are referred.
• It is used to fix a position, in a vertical
direction up and down, in the Z values.
Examples:
•National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929
(NGVD29) is based on sea-level measurements

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2. Horizontal datum
• It defines the relationship between the physical
earth and horizontal coordinates such as
latitude and longitude.
• It is used to fix a position, in a horizontal X and
Y direction.
• It is referred as geodetic datum or reference
datum.
Examples
• North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)
• European Datum 1950 (ED50)

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2. Ellipsoid
• It is formed when an ellipse is rotated about its
minor axis.
• Ellipsoid and spheroid are being treated as
equivalent and interchangeable words.
• Thelocal reference ellipsoids is important only
fit to earth’s shape over a particular country.
• Ethiopia uses ellipsoids called Clarke 1880.
• The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84)
provide the basic reference frame for GPS
(Global Positioning System) measurements.

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• Functionality of GPS

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3. Geoid
• The earth's surface is not uniform.
• It is the surface of the earth's gravity field,
which is the same as mean sea level.
• The oceans can be treated as reasonably
uniform.
• The topography of the land masses show
large vertical variations between mountains
and valleys.
• The zero surfaces to which elevations or
heights are referred is called a vertical datum.
• It is perpendicular to the direction of gravity
pull.
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• The mean sea level (msl) is refers to the zero
elevation for a local or regional area.
• Geoid istrue zero surface for measuring
elevations.
• The coastline, geoid and msl surfaces are the
same.
Reference surfaces
• In mapping three different surfaces are used:
i.A geometric or mathematical or topographic reference
surface
ii.The ellipsoid or spheroid, for measuring locations
iii.Geoid reference or vertical datum for measuring heights
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• Topography - the physical
surface of the earth.
• Geoid - the physical reality
• Ellipsoid - the mathematical
surface for computations of
locations

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2.3 Grid, graticule and grid references
• Graticules are expressed in latitude &
longitude.
• Grids are expressed in X & Y coordinates of
the system of the component.
• Graticule represents the projected positions
of selected meridians (lines with constant
longitude () and parallels (lines with
constant latitude ()).
• The imaginary network of parallels and
meridians on the earth is known as graticule.
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• A grid is a network of
evenly spaced
horizontal and
vertical lines used to
identify locations on
a map.
• You can place a grid
that divides a map
into a specified
number of rows and
columns by choosing
the reference grid
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type.
35
• Grid is an object that stores spatial data in a
locational data format in which space is
partitioned into square cells measured by
meters.
• The north-south lines are called eastings.
• The east-west lines are called northings.
• Graticules are lines showing parallels of
latitude and meridians of longitude for the
earth.

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• Graticules can be
used to show
location in
geographic
coordinates
(degrees of latitude
and longitude)

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• It is possible
to combine
grids and
graticules to
display
multiple
coordinate
systems on
the same
map.

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The use of grid reference
• When any reference point is given on the
map, take the easting number first and then
the northing.
• The square containing point A, the normal

km reference is 8254. This is the four figure
grid reference.
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• For more precise location to with in 100 meters
a six-figure reference is needed.
• The six figure reference is calledNormal
National Grid Reference (NNGR) .
• NNGR is obtained by estimating the 10th sub-
divisions of each square on the 1:50,000-scale
map.
• But on 1: 10,000 and 1:25,000 scale maps, a
marginal strip is sub-divided in to 100 meter
intervals.

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Steps to assign a NNGR
1. Refer to the south-west corner of the square in which the
point lies.
2. Write down the tens and units of the Eastings printed on
the line running vertically through the corner.
3. Estimate the tenths eastward by dividing the square
vertically in to ten parts, and add the figure to the previous
one.
4. Write down tens and units of the northing printed on the
line running horizontally through the corner.
5. Estimate the tenths north ward by dividing the square
horizontally in to ten parts, and add the figure to the
previous one.
6. Combine these two groups of figures.
• Always write the easting before the northing.
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Example:
• Find the NNGR of the five

points?

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Chapter: 3 Map projection
3.1 Concept of map projection
• The term 'projection' comes from placing a
light source inside a transparent globe.
• Map projection transforms the geographic
coordinates (latitude () and longitude ()
angles) into cartesian projection coordinates
(x and Y).
• X, Y map Projection = f (, ).
• It is the process of converting 3D to 2D!

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• Map projection involves three steps :
a)Selection of a model for the shape of the
earth (choosing between a sphere or
ellipsoid).
b)Transform geographic coordinates
(longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates
(easting and northing).
c)Reduce the scale (in manual cartography
this step came second, in digital cartography
it comes last).

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Classification of map projection
1. Based on developable surface used:
A)Conical projection- on a conical surface
B) Cylindrical projection- on a cylindrical surface
C) Zenithal/azimuthal/planar projection- on plane surface

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2. Based on preserved qualities:
• Homolographic or equal area projection
• Orthomorphic or true shape projection
• Azimuthal or true bearing projections
3. Based on aspects or position tangent

surfaces:
• Polar
• Equatorial or normal
• Oblique

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4. Projections based on changing the
position of the light source

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5. Based on geometric shape: rectangular,
circular, elliptical and butterfly shape.
6. Based on the methods of construction
• The main reason for map projection is to
minimize the scale distortion.
• Earth's graticule has the following properties:

1) all parallels of latitude are parallel
2) parallels are equally spaced along meridians
3) meridians are equally spaced along parallels
4) meridians of longitude are half great circles and
converge at the poles
5) meridians and parallels intersect at right angles

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4.2 Properties of map projection
Four valuable properties of map projection
1. Conformal property =true shape
•It keeps the true shape/orthomorphic.
•This property is important in maps which are
used for analyzing, guiding, or recording
motion, as in navigation in the sea, air and
meteorological charts.
•No map projection preserve shapes of large
area.

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2. Equivalence property = true area
• Equivalence property is the characteristic of
equal area.
• They are used for thematic maps that show
distributions of phenomena such as
population, agricultural land, forested areas,
etc
• They preserve the area of displayed
features.
• To do this, the other properties— shape,
angle, distance and scale—are distorted.

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3. Equidistance property = true distance
• Equidistance property is the characteristic
of true distance measuring.
• If this property is used, the scale of
distance is constant over the entire map.
• Equidistance is important in maps which
are used for analyzing velocity, e.g. ocean
currents.

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4. True direction property
• True direction property is characterized by true
direction line between two points.
• This property makes it comparatively easy to
chart a navigational course.
• However, on a spherical surface, the shortest
surface distance between two points is a great
circle along which azimuths constantly change.
• Note that all meridians are great circles, but the
only parallel that is a great circle is the equator.
• Overall, no map projection can be true in all
properties.
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3.3 Classes of map projection
1. Cylindrical projection
•The cylinder is either tangent to the Earth
along a selected line, or secant (intersect the
Earth) along two lines.
•The lines where the cylinder is tangent or
secant are the places with the least
distortion.

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2. Conical projections
• It transforms information from the spherical
Earth to a cone.
• It is either tangent to the Earth at a single
parallel or secant at two standard parallels.
• The cone is unwrapped to form a flat surface.

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3. Azimuthal projections
• It is zenithal projection or planar projection.
• All points on this projection keep their true
compass bearing.
• Five azimuthal projectionsstereographic,
orthographic, lambert azimuthal equal-area,
gnomonic and azimuthal equidistant.

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3.4 Suitability of map projection
• Suitability of map projection is base on

two criteria:
1) Base on geographical zones
2) Based on shape of countries

Based on Based on shape of the
Suitabl Geographical zones countries
e Equatorial Temperat Frigid Rectangular Triangular Circul
Projecti zone e zone zone ar
Cylindrical Conical Planar Cylindrical Conical Planar
on

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Chapter 4: Cartographic data representations
and generalization
4.1 Mapping qualitative and quantitative data
•Geographers use symbols on maps to represent
location, distance, volume, movement, function,
process, correlation ………..
•These phenomena are classified into four
categories:
i.point (non-dimensional data)
ii.line (one-dimensional data)
iii.area (two-dimensional data)
iv.volume (three-dimensional data)
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• The geographical data must be represented
on maps by basic symbol types:point line
, &
area.
•Quantitative data are data that contain
attributes expressed as numerical values.
•Qualitative data are data that are grouped into
type or quality.
• They have no numerical values attached.
• Ordinal data may be considered qualitative, if
no numerical values are involved.

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1. Ordinal data
•Ordinal data provide information about rank or
hierarchy, relative values (larger or smaller).
Example

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2. Interval data/ ratio data
• We can calculate the distance, which must be

expressed in terms of a standard unit.
• For example: between 20° and 35° there is a
difference of 15°.
• Interval data, as illustrated, have nonatural
zero .
•Ratio data are the same as interval data, except
there is anatural zero.
• Physical measurements of height, weight, and
length are examples of ratio variables.
• It is meaningful to state that a measurement is
twice that of another.
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Interval data/ ratio data

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• The most common statistical methods are
equal steps quantiles
, standard
, deviation ,
andnatural breaks .
• Theequal steps method divides the data
set into classes with equal intervals
between them.
• The data may be arranged from high to low,
or low to high values.
• Inquantile classifications, the data are
arranged in sequence from low to high
values and the number of individual
observations are counted.
• The observations are then divided into the
selected number of classes, each class
containing the same number of

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• The term quartile is used when the data are
divided into four classes.
• It is useful for mapping rectangular
distributions.
• In thestandard deviation methodn the mean
or central point of the data distribution must
first be calculated.
• This method is useful if the data distribution
is a normal curve.
• Thenatural breaks method of classification is
based on the subjective recognition of gaps
in the distribution, where there are fewer
observations.H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,
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3. Nominal Data
• They arediscrete : type or quality.
• Example: a land use polygon could be residential,
commercial, or a recreational area.

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4.2 Elements and controls of cartographic
generalization
•Cartographic generalization is a set of
proceedings applied for construction and
visualization of models.
• It depends on the cartographer’s knowledge
about the requirements and the desired
scale.
• It entails information loss, but one should
try to preserve the essence of the contents
of the original map.

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1. Elements of cartographic generalization
• Generalization is the process of selecting
information of a map that adapts to the
scale.
• Two types of generalization:graphic and
conceptual generalization .
• Graphic generalization refers simplification,
enlargement, displacement, merging &
selection.
• Conceptual generalization is a processes of
merging and selection and in addition
comprises symbolization and enhancement.
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a) Selection
• Map generalization reduces the complexities of
the real world.
• One way that geospatial data can be reduced is
through the selection process.
• The cartographer can select and retain certain
elements that he/she deems the most
necessary or appropriate.
For example:
• A directional map between two points may have
lesser and un-traveled roadways omitted as not
to confuse the map-reader.

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b) Simplification
• Simplification is a technique where
shapes of retained features are altered to
enhance visibility and reduce complexity.
• Smaller scale maps have more simplified
features than larger scale maps because
they simply exhibit more area.
Example:
• Simplification of a map to scale and
remove points along an area.

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c) Combination or merging
• A mountain chain may be isolated into
several smaller ridges and peaks with
intermittent forest in the natural environment.
d) Smoothing
• Smoothing is a process that the mapmaker
can employ to reduce the angularity of line
work.
Example:
• For a jagged roadway, cut through a
mountain, to be smoothed out so that the
angular turns and transitions appear much
more fluid and natural.
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e) Enhancement
• Enhancement illuminates specific elements
that aid in map reading.
• It concentrates on the addition of detail.
f) Symbolization
• It denotes the relationship between the
symbol & the space it represents changes.
• It translates the features to graphic marks on
the mark, we call this process symbolization.

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2. Controls of cartographic generalization
• Cartographers do not have complete
control over the processes of generalization.
a) Map purpose and conditions of use
• A cartographer must think of the purpose of
the map and the condition of use.
b) Map scale
• The scale of the finished map has a major
impact on the amount of generalization that
will be used.
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c) Quality and quantity of data
• The data available to cartographers greatly
affect the generalization process.
• The more reliable and precise the data, the
more detail is available for presentation.
d) Graphic limits
• We can break the graphic limits into two
groups:
a)technical limits set by the cartographer’s
tools
b)perceptual limits of the human eye
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• We create symbols by combining the basic
graphic elements: point, line and area marks.
• Forming symbol is subject to three types of
limitation:
i.physical (by the equipment, materials and
skills available to the map maker)
ii.Physiological
iii.psychological (map user’s & reactions to
the visual variables (e.g, shape, size,
orientation)).

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Chapter 5: Map reading and interpretation
• Map is the most important tool as they show
how different features are related.
• Maps are used by various types of people
and professions for many different purposes.

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5.1 Classification of maps
•Maps are classified based:
i. Scale
ii.Purpose
iii.Information they conveyed
Based on scale, maps may be classified as:

1)Cadastral map
•They are used for demarcating the boundaries
of land properties, fields, gardens and buildings
•Example: rural or urban cadastral

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• Cadastral map is prepared and compiled by the
government agencies.
• It is used for revenue and tax purposes.
2. Topographical maps
• It is prepared on large scale to show the general
surface features in detail.
• It does not show the boundaries of individual
lands.
• It depicts the topographical forms like relief,
drainage, swamp, forests etc.
Example:
• Natural landscape and cultural landscape
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3. Wall maps
• Wall maps are prepared for keen
observation;
• It is generally drawn boldly;.
• Its scale is larger than atlas maps but
smaller than topographical maps.
4. Atlas map
• Atlas maps are called chorographical map.
• It is drawn on a very small scale e.g, 1:2,000,
000
• It provides generalized information of physical,
climatic and economic conditions of different
regions of the Earth.

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2) Based onpurpose maps: physical and
cultural maps
1. Physical maps are prepared for the natural
product: heavenly body, soil, vegetation and
.
relief
Types of physical maps:

a) Geological maps
• This shows the type of rock, its occurrence and
depositions.
• They tell of the geological structure of the region.
• They aid colour-shades super imposed upon their
respective location.
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b) Astronomical maps
• Astronomical maps are prepared to show the
heavenly bodies and It may be shown on large
or small scale.
c) Relief maps = chorographic map

• They portray the relief features of the land by
hatchers,.
• They show the drainage patterns there on.
• They indicate the slopes, river systems,
mountains, plateaus, plains etc.

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d) Climate maps
• They are prepared to show the average
weather condition of a long period for
example 30 years.
e) Weather maps
• They are produced by meteorological
offices.
• They are prepared to show the average
condition of temperature, pressure, wind
and precipitation over a short period of time.

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f) Soil maps
• They depict the different soils of the area by
different shades or colors.
g) Vegetation maps
• They show the types and the distribution of the
various species of vegetation.
h) Aeronautical charts
• They help to pilots as they represents the
topographical features of the land in multi color-
contour lines are shown in brown.
i) Navigational Charts
• They emphasis on coasts and coastal water.
• They concentrate on sea-sight commands.
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2. Cultural maps
• They reflect man made features.
• Types of cultural maps:
a) Political maps
(b) Land use map s
(c) Historical maps
(d)Military maps
e) Tourist maps
f) Road maps
g) Social maps

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Maps based on the information they convey:
1) Thematic maps= topical or specific
maps
• They show specific information that shows a
single entity.
• They simplified depiction of the topography.
• Example: soil map, land use map, population
distribution map etc.
2) General maps = topographic maps
• They incorporate variety of information.

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5.2 The uses of maps
1. For communication and propaganda
•A single map worth's thousands of words
2. For navigation and control

•Whether we move on land, at sea, or in the air,
we rely heavily on maps to plan our routes and
to maintain our course.

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3. Planning
• Military operations rely heavily on maps whether
for the movement of vehicles and troops, the
assessment of enemy positions, or any number
of other possibilities.
• Maps are helpful to identify the potential of
areas subject to hazards ( natural and man-
made)
4. Storage of information
• Maps give standardize information deemed to
be important: boundaries, hydrography,
topography, road network and place names etc.

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Maps are used for the following:
1. Identifying position (location)
•The positions are given by the co-ordinates of
the place: either as the Cartesian co-ordinates
(x,y) in metres or as geographical co-ordinates
(latitude and longitude) in degrees, minutes and
seconds.
Example
•The position of Mekelle town is 13º29' North
latitude, 39º28' East longitude geographically.

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2. Providing spatial relationships
• A map gives us the spatial relationship
between features.
Example
• Where is the nearest railway station?
3. Determining distance, direction, area
• We can measure the distance from Addis to
Mekelle, determine the direction that Tigray is
to the north of Wollo, or calculate the size of
the Tigray region. But, there must be a scaled
map.

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5.3 Maps and their limitations
• A photograph shows all objects in its view, but
a map is an abstraction of reality.
• Maps use symbols such as points, lines, area
patterns and colors to convey information.
• Maps portray only the information that has
been chosen to fit the use of the map.
• The information on maps is classified and
simplified, to make it easier to understand.
• All maps use sign to stand for elements of
reality.

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Chapter 6: Map scale
6.1 Scale: definitions and concept
•Map scale is a method for expressing how map
distance compares to ground distance, or the
distance on the surface of the earth.
•Map is a set of points, lines, and areas all
defined by position with reference to a
coordinate system and by their non-spatial
attributes.
•A map scale uses a dynamic ratio 1:x, where 1
represents map distance and X represents distance on the
earth.
•Map and earth distance are always the same
unit.
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• The purpose of the scale is to bring either the
whole globe or a part of it on the convenient
size of paper.
• The selection of scale depends on various

factors.
1.The size of the paper
2.The amount and characters of details of
information to be shown.
3.The size of the area to be mapped.

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• In a broad sense, scale can be divided into
two measurable ways:
1. Linear scale
2. Areal scale
• Linear scale is given as a standard because

areal scale can be found by squaring the
linear scale.

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6.2 Methods of representing of scale
• Three ways of scale representations are:
(1)arithmetic ratio = representative fraction =RF
(2)word statement
(3)graphic scale
1. RF scale
• It is a fraction in which the numerator
assigned the number 1.
• It denotes a unit of measure on the map, &
the denominator denotes the number of
identical units of actual distance on the map.

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• An RF is a ratio of MAP: LAND.
• A mixture of units cannot be used without
changing the numerical relationship between
map and land.
• RF shows an actual fraction (e.g. 1/25,000) or a
mathematical proportion with a colon (as in 1:
25,000).
• The RF is the best way of showing scale since it
avoids mentioning of any unit measurement.
• A large scale map is where the RF is large.
• An RF of 1:25,000 (1/25,000) is larger than an
RF of 1:1,000,000 (1/1,000,000).
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2. Verbal scale
• Verbal scale is expressed in words.
• It is a relationship between a map distance and
a ground distance.
• This scale is called statement scale
• Example:One inch to a mile
3. Graphic scale
• It is a pictorial representation of the scale.
• It is drawn with severalprimary divisions
towards the right of zero one division with
secondary divisions marked to the left of the
zero.
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6.3 General division of scale
• The smaller the denominator, the larger the
scale.
• A large scale map covers a small area, and vice
versa.
• As scale number becomes smaller, the
simplification of the content and graphic
symbolization must be increased.
• The larger the number represents the most
condensed appearance of the reality and the
smaller the number becomes to more accurate
.
of the physical features
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Large scale Medium scale Small and very small
scale
1:2,000 >1:250,000
1:5,000 >1:50,000 1:1,000,000

1:10,000 1:100,000 1:2,500,000
Eg. For house Plans, 1:200,000
cadastral map,
site plan 1:250,000
1:25,000 -1:50,000 For medium For small scale maps &

for large scale scale geographic maps
topographic map Topographic World map at very small
map scale

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6.4 Conversion of scales
1. Statement of scale to RF
•It is to write the verbal scale as a fraction.
1km=100000 cms
Example 1 :
•Find out the RF, when the statement scale is 1cm
to 5 kms.
•Given: 1cm to 5kms.
•Solution: first change 5kms into centimeters to
have the same units. To do this multiply 5 kms by
100 000 cms (5  100,000 cms)
•Now leave out the units and put your answer as a
ratio, 1:500,000 or 1/500,000 (R.F. scale)
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2. RF scale to statement
Example 1
•The R.F. of a map is 1:126,720.
•Find out the statement scale in terms of inch to
miles system. Here 1 inch represents 126, 720
inches
Therefore, 1 inch represents 126,720
63360 miles
= 2 miles
Hence, the required statement scale is 1 inch to
2 miles

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3. Statement of scale to graphical scale
• We can use the verbal scale like a fraction to
transform the ground distance to map distance.
• Example 1: Converting verbal scale of "1 cm to 14 km" to
a graphic scale.
• Example 2: Draw a graphical scale for 1" to 4 miles

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4. RF to graphic scale
• Here the denominator must be changed in to
ground distance measurement unit, like Kms,
miles
Example
• convert an RF of 1:250,000 to a graphic scale is:

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5. Linear scale into areal scale and vice versa
• Once the linear scale is known, the areal scale
can be determined simply bysquaring the linear
scale.
•Linear scale in the other way can be defined as
the square root of areal scale.
• Convert the following linear scales into areal
scales.
Linear scale (1/ 100,000), thus, areal scale =
( 1/100,000) 2 = 1:10,000,000,000

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6.5 Map scale enlargement and reduction
• The three methods used to enlarge or reduce
maps are
1. Instrumental method: panthograph, camera
and eidograph
2. Cartographical method: the square method and
triangle method
3. Photographical method: this is by the help of
camera producing

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Example: Square method
• Measuring the size the square and enlarge it by
the required proportion
1: 100,000
(original map)
1: 50,000 (enlarged map)

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Chapter 7: Analysis and graphical representation
of geographical data
7.1 Marginal and

border information
•The information
added around the
mapped area
known as marginal
and border
information.

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• The type and position of the information
are standardized as:
i.Margin : the area of paper surrounding the
outer framework of the map
ii.Neat line : the line (graticule or grid)
enclosing the mapped area.
iii.Border : the area between the neat line and
the outer framework of the map.
iv.Map face : mapped area enclosed by the
neat line.
v.Outer framework: A thick/bolded line for
decorating the map

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1. Compulsory marginal information
(a) Sheet name is placed in the center of the upper
margin in large type and in the bottom right corner
of the lower margin in medium of or large type.
(b) Series name is to be placed in the top right
corner and the bottom left corner of the margin in
medium type inside the panel described in
paragraph (e).
(c) Sheet number is identified beyond possibility of
doubt by a system of numbering, either national or
international.
•The sheet number is to be shown in the top right
comer and bottom left corner in medium type inside
the panel described in paragraph.

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(d) Edition designation identifies that particular
version of sheet and placed in the top right
corner and bottom left corner in medium type.
( e) Sheet identification panel helps to identify a
map sheet, both in use and in map store or
library.
• It is placed in the upper right and the lower left
corner of the sheet.
• The panel is a box containing the following
information:
(i) Series number
SERIES ETH4
(ii) Sheet number SHEET 1239 A4
(iii) Edition designation EDITION EMA1996

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(f) Numerical scale is to appear in medium type in
the lower margin, near the graphic scales.
(g) Graphic scale- is in kilometers and statute miles,
with the addition of meters and yards, it is to be
placed in the center of the lower margin.
(g) Units of elevation noteselevation in meters
(h) Contour interval is to be show in medium type in
the lower margin near the graphic scales. It should
be in the form of : "Contour interval ....... meters (or
feet)“
(i) Conventional sign legend or reference is the
conventional signs used on the sheet.
(j) Index to adjoining sheet shows the sheet in
relation to the adjoining sheets.
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Index to adjoining sheet
1239 A1 1239 A2 1239 B 1

TIRARE BORA MAICHEW
1239 A3 1239 A4 1239 B3

SEKOTA BECHEKA KOREM
1239 Dl
1239 C1 1239 C2
ALAMATA

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(k) Note concerning the grid (s) is to be given as
to the grids to which lines, thick and figures refer.
(l) Instruction on the use of the grid- every girded
map is to carry instructions on the use of the grid
reference system.
(m) Information on True North. Grid North and
Magnetic North is to contain the information
necessary to determine the true, grid and
magnetic bearings of any line within the sheet.

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• True North (TN) is the direction of meridian to
the North Pole at any point in the map.
• Magnetic North (MN) is the direction of the
magnetic North Pole as shown on a compass
free from error or disturbance.
• Magnetic Declination is the angle between
magnetic north and true north at any point.
Sometimes the term magnetic variation is used
and this is on Nautical and Aeronautical charts.
• Grid convergence is the angle between grid
north and true north.
• Annual Magnetic change is the amount by
which the magnetic declination changes
annually.

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(n) Names and boundaries disclaimer is shown
as Example
“ : "This map is NOT an authority on
International boundaries."
(O) Projection. Spheroid. Geodetic Datum.
Leveling datum relates to the basis geodetic
data
(p) Publication note is required to show the
publishing agency (in the case of our country
the responsible body is Ethiopian Mapping
Authority) responsible for the map.

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(q) History note
Examples
• Edition 1 Prepared Ethiopian Mapping Authority in
1996,
• Field survey Data by EMA
• Air photograph by SWEDSURVEY November 1994,
• Field compilation by EMA, March 1994
(r) Copyright note is to protect the copy right of a map.
Example:
•Copyright reserved to the Ethiopian Government, 1996.
• Copyright reserved to the State of the Netherlands, 2002

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2. Non compulsory info: border information
• Border is the area between the neat line and
the outer framework.
• Any relevant information displayed in the
border area is known as border information.
(a) Geographical co-ordinates of sheet corner is
the geographical coordinates of the sheet
comers are shown in degrees, minutes and
seconds to any appropriate accuracy.
(b) Values of graticules lines or ticks- are shown
at intervals around the neat line.

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(d) Destination of roads/railways is the
destination is normally shown at an angle
across the border in continuation of the line of
the road or railway.
(e) Names of large features is the names of large
features or areas are shown, when practicable,
in the center of the feature (name placement).

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7.2 Determining distance and area from map
& scale
• The ground distance which can be calculated
using the scale of a map and by measuring a
straight line distance is known as map distance.
• Map distance is the “crow fly distance’ which
does not consider the ups and downs of the
earth’s curvature
• It assumes the two locations are at the same
elevation--or that the terrain is flat.

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a) Measuring distance
• Suppose we have a map with a scale of 1:50,
000.
• We measure the distance along a property
boundary as 1.7 cm.
• What is the length in the boundary in the
ground?
Solution:
• To find ground distance, we must use the
map scale to convert map distance to
ground distance.
• If 1cm=0.5 km (since we have to divide it by
100,000).
• Then, 1.7 cm= X kms
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117
X= 1.7 cms X 0.5kms X=0.88 kms
1cm
Example 2:
• On a map scale 1: 50,000, what is the ground
distance represented by six inches on the map?
• If 1inch=0.79 mile (since we have to divide it by
63360)
• Then 6 inch= X mile

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• X= 6 inches X 0.79 miles X=4.74 miles
1inch
b) Measuring area from map & scale
• Area must be expressed in areal units, which
are distance units squared -- cm2, mi2 and so
on.
• We must used squared conversion factors
when finding area from map measurements

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• We measure a rectangular piece of property is 3
cm by 4 cm on a map. The map is at a scale of 1:
24,000.
• What is the area of the parcel?
• The scale reads 1cm on the map represents 0.24
kms on the ground. Here, it is better to convert
the sides of the rectangle in to kilometers to
have the same units based on the scale.
• Therefore, when we calculate one side of the
rectangle, 1cm =0.24 kms 3cm= X,
then, X= 3cms X 0.24 kms
1cm = 0.72kms
• The other sides of the rectangle is, 1cm=
0.24 kms, 4cm= X
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Then, X= 4cms X 0.24kms
1cm X= 0.96kms
Finally the area of the rectangular shape parcel
is 0.72kms X 0.96kms =0.69km 2
• Exercise:
Suppose we measure a circular shaped
property measured with the radius of 4cm on a
map.
• The map is at a scale of 1:100,000.
• What is the area of the parcel?

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c) Determining scale from a map
• Every map expected to have a scale.
• However, map scale may be missing on:
• aerial photographs
• Specially designed maps for examination
purposes
• Here, we can determine scale from a map

which may be missing the scale by using the
two methods:
i) By measuring object of known size on map or
photo
ii) By using the latitudinal difference
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Example
• Given the distance between points A and B on the

ground is 80 kilometers. Calculate the R.F. scale for
the map given above.
• By using ruler measurement, the map distance
between A and B is assumed to be 4 cm.

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• If 4cms on the map = 80 kilometers on the
ground, then
1cm = X kilometers
X= 1cm X 80kms , X= 20kms
4cms
• We have to multiply by 100,000 to change in to
the same units of centimeters and the scale of
the map becomes 1:2,000,000

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Example 2: If latitude is given
• Suppose that the map of Ethiopia extends from
3000’ – 15000’N latitudes.
• The map distance from the south tip to the
north tip part of the country is measured
20cms.
• What will be the scale of the map?
• Note: 10 of latitudinal difference on the ground

near the equator is roughly 110.5 km or
approximately 111kms.
• Since Ethiopia is located north of the equator,
first we have to deduct southern tip from the
northern tip (15000’ minus 3000’) which is
equal to 12000’.
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125
• If, 10 = 111km
120= X
X= 120 X 111Km , X= 1332Kms
10
• Then, if 20 cms= 1332 kms
1cm = X
X= 1cm X 1332 km , X= 66.6 kms
20cms
• Therefore, we have to convert it in to
centimeters, to have the same units, and we
should multiply it by 100,000. Hence the scale
6,660,000
is 1:
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126
Field distance measurement by given altitudes
• Suppose the map distance from A to B is 8 cms and
where A is located at an altitude of 3500 masl and B is
at 1500 masl.
• Calculate theground distance andfield distance at a
scale of 1: 50,000 and interpret the results.
•Solution: Ground distance = scale x map distance

100,000
FD2= AD2 + GD2
Where, FD is Field Distance
AD is Altitude Difference
GD is ground Distance
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• We have to find the altitude difference and ground
distance to compute field distance.
• AD= 3500m - 1500m which is 2000m and if we
divide it by 1000m, it will 2kms
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GD = 50,000 X 8 cms which is 4 kms
100,000
Finally, we have to substitute to the field distance
formula
FD2= AD2 + GD2
FD2= (2km)2 + (4km)2
= 4km2 + 16 km2
= 20 km2
• The extra distance that shows the
relief displacement on the field
distance along AB is 0.5km, i.e. FD (4.5
FD= 4.5 kms kms) minus the GD measurements
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d) Comparing scales and areas between
different maps
• If we do have two maps, with the given R.F. scales
simply divide the larger map scale by the smaller
scale factor.
one to get the
• For instance, if the two maps A & B have R.F
scales of 1:10,000 and1:50,000 respectively, the
scale factor will be
• SCALE FACTOR = R.F. of Map A = 1:50,000 =5
R.F. of Map B 1:10,000

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7.3 Locating places on a map
• It is important to have a systematic way of
locating features, areas and points on the map.
• This can be done using the following:
a) Place names: towns, villages, parishes
b) Outstanding features: mountains, hills, rivers
c) Direction and bearing
d) The grid system: national grid
e) Latitudes and longitudes: create cells

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• The numbers running west to east along the
top and bottom of the sheet is calledEasting.
• Those running from north to south along the
right and left margins are calledNorthing.
• The four main directions of a compass are
known as cardinal points: north (N), east (E),
south (S) and west (W).
• The half-cardinal points of north-east (NE),
north-west (NW), south-east (SE) and south-
west (SW) are shown on the compass.

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• There are eight more points on the compass.
• They are called thesecondary intercardinal
points.

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Compass points Compass bearing
North 000o or 360o

NNE 022.5o
NE 045o
ENE 067.5o
East 090o
ESE 112.5o
SE 135o
SSE 157.5o
South 180o
SSW 202.5o
SW 225o
WSW 247.5o
West 270o
WNW 292.5o
NW 315o
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Steps to find the bearing
• Identify the points in question: X & Y.
• Draw a line using pencil to join X & Y.
• If the distance between the two points is very short,
extend the line through the two points.
• Through point X from which the bearing is required,
draw a pencil line pointing to the true north and at
right angles to it draw another line running east-west.
• Align the protractor at X and in a clockwise direction
and measure the angle from the north to the lone
joining X and Y.
• State the bearing in degrees for example the bearing
of Y from X is approximately 312o.
• Use the compass to find the nearest direction; for
example, Y is north west of X.
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• The bearing of Y from X in the above figure is
312ô North West
mountain

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• The angular difference between true north and
magnetic north is known as thedeclination .
• If your declination iswest , then magnetic north
is less than true north and the map bearing is
less than the magnetic bearing.
• Map mearing = magnetic bearing - declination.
• If your declination iseast then magnetic

north is greater than true north the map
bearing is greater than the magnetic
bearing.
• Map bearing = magnetic bearing +
declination.

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Example:
•If the magnetic variation from the true north of the center of Mekelle town was 50
East in 1980 E.C, and it was increasing by 05’ annually. What will be the magnetic
variation from the true north in 1989 E.C?
•Solution: 1989-1980= 9 years
•If 05’ is increasing annually, then it will be 45’ increment in 9 years.
•The magnetic variation from the true north in 1989 E.C. is 5oE + 45’= 5o45‫ ׳‬E

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7.4 Slope, gradient, contour and types
What is a slope?
__________________________________________
•Slope plays vital role in the life of landscape.
•It determines the drainage pattern.
•It has influence on the transportation and
communication, construction & settlement.
•Irrigation canals are influenced by slope.
•Flora and fauna of the land is influenced by
slope.

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• Four types of slopes:
1.Uniform slope
2.Convex slope
3.Concave slope
4.Undulating slope
1) Uniform slope
• In a uniform slope, the degree of slope is the
same throughout.
• Uniform slopes are equi-spaced, called even
slope.

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2. Convex slope
• A convex slope is marked
by an outward bulge.
• The slope rises more
steeply at the foot but less
steeply or more gently at
the top.
• The slope is greater at the
foot & less at the top.
• The contour lines close
together at the foot and are
comparatively wide apart at
the top.

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3. Concave slope
• It is marked by an
inward bend on relief
feature.
• It is opposite of a
convex slope.
• The slope is less at the
foot but more at the
top.
• The wide valleys (e.g.,
V-shaped valleys) and
the hanging valleys are
examples of the
concave slopes.
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4. Undulated slope
• It is irregularly marked by outward bulges and
inward bends.
• Its contour lines are variably spaced.
• It the combination of concave and convex slope
• Gentle slope:
contour lines are
widely separated.
• Steep slope:
contour lines are
drawn closer
together.

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• Slope is expressed by degree, gradient and
percent.
1. Degree
• It is obtained by the help of protractor or
trigonometrically.
• Suppose in the right angled ABC, AC
represents the slope distance. CB is the
horizontal equivalent and AB is the vertical
interval.
• The angle ACB will represent the slope in
degrees, and can be measured with the help of
protractor.
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• If vertical distance is 10 cm and the horizontal
equivalent is 150 cm, then the slope
measurement in terms of degree
trigonometrically is as follow.
Tan ө (tan ABC) = AB =V. I
CB H.E
Therefore, Tan ө = 10 = 0.0666
150
• From the trignometrical tables, using scientific
calculator, 0.0666 is 3.8o, which is
approximately 4o.
• Thus, the slope of the feature is approximately
4o .
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2. Gradient
• The slope when expressed in terms of fraction,
whose numerator is unity, is called thegradient .
• It is the ratio between the vertical height (V.I) and
the horizontal distance (V.E).
• Example, If V.I. = 5feet and H.E. = 10 feet, the
gradient will be 5/10 = ½ which indicates a rise of
1feet after 2 feet horizontal distance.
• If the denominator becomes large number, it
represents that the slope of the gradient is gentle.

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3. Percent
• If we multiply the gradient by 100, we shall get
the slope in percent:
% of slope = V.I. x 100
H.E.
• If some one needs to find out the gradient from
the given angle slope, the angle of the slope is
divided by 60 (or more accurately 57.3) and the
numerator is made unity (1), e.g., for a slope of
3o, the gradient will be 3/60 = 1/20.

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Standard slopes
Angle of Gradient Description remark
Slope of slope
Less than 1o 1/60 Gentle Steel railway gradient
1o to 3o 1/60 to Moderate Cyclist walk
1/20
3o to 6o 1/120 to Stiff Horse driven vehicles proceed
at a walk.
1/10
6o to 12o 1/10 to 1/5 Steep Cars find gradient difficult, have
to change gear.
Horses descend obliquely on slopes
12o to 20o 1/5 to 1/3 Very steep
greater than 15o and horse drawn
vehicles can not ascend.
20o to 30o 1/3 to 1/2 Very steep Limit for car
Over 30o Over 1/2 Precipitous Man can ascend using his feet
and hands.

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7.5 Relief representation and cross-section
• Relief is the shape of the ground surface
• Relief on a map is shown by:
1. Layer tinting is a method of showing relief by
color.
• A different color is used for each band of
elevation.
2. Relief shading indicates relief by a shadow
effect achieved by tone and color that
results in the darkening of one side of terrain
features, such as hills and ridges.
• The darker the shading, the steeper the
slope.
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3. Hachures are short, broken lines used to show
relief.
4. Spot height are shown by dots with heights in
figures.
5. Bench marks are made by surveyors to record a
point of known position/height above mean sea
level.
6. Trigonometrical station s are indicated on maps
by a small triangle with the heights.
6. Contours are a method of depicting the 3D
character of the terrain on a 2D map.
• They are the most standard methods of
representing relief.

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Cross-section
• Topographic profiles are constructed based on:
1.Lay a strip of paper along a line across the area.
2.Mark on the paper the exact place where each contour,
stream, valley and hill top crosses the profile line.
3.Label each mark with the elevation of the contour it
represents.
4.Prepare a vertical scale on profile paper by labeling the
horizontal lines corresponding to the elevation of each
contour line.
5.Place the paper with the labeled contour lines at the
bottom of the profile paper and project each contour to
the horizontal line of the same elevation.
6.Finally connect the points.

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For example:
Cross sectional profile of hill

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Vertical exaggeration
• When graphing distances and heights on one
graph, it is necessary to report the vertical
exaggeration of the cross-section.
• Vertical exaggeration means that your vertical
scale is larger than your horizontal scale.
• It is needed to show how much the vertical scale
has been exaggerated to show the details of
changes in elevation.
• Without vertical exaggeration, the profile may be
so shallow that only the highest peaks stand out.

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• To determine the amount of vertical exaggeration
used to construct a profile, divide the real-world
units on the horizontal axis by the real-world units
on the vertical axis.
Example :
• If the vertical scale is one 1cm=100 m and the
horizontal scale is 1cm=2000 m, the vertical
exaggeration is 20 times (2000m/100m).

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Vertical exaggeration graph
• One unit (1 cm) on the horizontal scale
represents 1000 m and one unit (1 cm) on
the vertical scale represents 50 m.
Horizontal 1000 m
VE    20 
Vertical 50 m
• The vertical scale is 20 times more exaggerated than the

horizontal scale.
• 20 units on the vertical scale represent the same distance/height
as one unit on the horizontal scale.

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7.6. Types of contour line in topographic maps
•Contour lines are lines that connect the same
elevation.
1. Indexes start at zero elevation or mean sea
level, every fifth or tenth contour line is a heavier
line.
•These are known as index contour lines.
2. Intermediates fall between the index contour
lines are called intermediate contour lines.
•These lines are finer and do not have their
elevations given. There are four/nine intermediate
contour lines between index contour lines.
3. Supplementary resembles dashes or broken
line.
•These lines are found where there is very little
change in elevation, such as on fairly level terrain.
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Representation of contour types

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7.7 Graphical representation of thematic maps,
graphs and diagrams
• Thematic maps are data maps of a specific
subject or for a specific purpose.
• Statistical thematic maps include a variety
of different thematic map types such as
choropleth or shaded maps, dot maps, flow
line maps and isopleths maps.
• Geographical data can be represented by
means of diagrams, graphs, cartogram and
proportional symbol maps.

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• During the production of the map, the
conventional colors need to be used every where:
• Black - man-made features such as roads,
buildings, etc.
• Blue – water bodies, lakes, rivers, streams, etc.
• Brown - contour lines, spot heights.
• Green - areas with substantial vegetation.
• White - areas with little or no vegetation; white is
also used to depict permanent snowfields and
glaciers.
• Red - major highways, boundaries of public land
areas.
• Purple - features added to the map since the
original survey.
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Four most common types of thematic maps
1. Choropleth map are based on numerical data
on some topic.
• Example: density information, expressed as
per unit area.
2. Dot maps are convenient method for
representing absolute quantities or numbers
on a map.
• Each dot is taken to represent a certain
quantity, and therefore, the number of dots
to be placed in an area, political can be easily
determined.
• Example: A dot might represent 1000 people.
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Choropleth map Dot map

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3. Isopleths map
• Isopleths maps portray continuous
distributions.
No Types of Description
Isopleths
1 Isohyet Lines representing points ofequal precipitation
2 Isoneph Lines representing points ofequal cloud cover
3 Isohume Lines representing points ofequal humidity
4 Isotherm Lines representing points ofequal Temperature
5 Isogeother Lines representing points ofequal mean
m temperature
6 Isodose Lines representing points ofequal intensity of radiation
7 Isobath Lines representing points of equaldepth under
water
8 Isobar Lines representing points ofequal pressure
9 Isotach Lines representing points ofequal wind speed
10 5/2/2022
Isohypse Lines representing points
H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map of equal elevation
reading,
162
GeES, MU
4. Flow line maps
• Flow line maps represent the flow direction of
phenomena by giving different weight of the
lines.
• Fore example, the flow direction of river and
migration flow of inhabitants.

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5. Graphs and diagrams
• Graphs are drawn to show the relationship
between two variables: number of students over
time, or amount of rainfall in time.
Example:
Pie chart

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Proportional symbol map
• The maps scale icons (most often circles)
according to the data they represent.
• The populations of different cities are depicted
on graduated circle maps.
Example:
Proportional
symbol map

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The END!

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Cartography All Unit Bahirdar

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Mekelle University

College of Social Sciences and Languages

Cartography and Map Reading

Instructor : Hailemariam Meaza (PhD)

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• Diagrams of map making

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• The data must be organized into a form which

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• TheGreenwich prime meridian is the line of

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• Coordinate system can be deﬁned by either

• The shape of the ellipsoid is deﬁned by its

• Cartesian coordinate system are two types:

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• The square containing point A, the normal

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• Find the NNGR of the ﬁve

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

3. Based on aspects or position tangent

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• Earth's graticule has the following properties:

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• Suitability of map projection is base on

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

• We can calculate the distance, which must be

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

containing the same number of

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,

H/mariam Meaza (PhD), Cartography & Map reading,