NOx-Formation and CO-Burnout

in Water-Injected, Premixed
Natural Gas Flames at Typical
Gas Turbine Combustor
Residence Times

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Stephan Lellek
Lehrstuhl f€ur Thermodynamik,
Technische Universit€at M€unchen,
Garching 85748, Germany
e-mail: lellek@td.mw.tum.de
Thomas Sattelmayer
Lehrstuhl f€ur Thermodynamik,
Technische Universit€at M€unchen,
Garching 85748, Germany
With the transition of the power production markets toward renewable energy sources,
an increased demand for flexible, fossil-based power production systems arises. Steep
load gradients and a high range of flexibility make gas turbines a core technology in this
ongoing change. In order to further increase this flexibility research on power augmenta-
tion of premixed gas turbine combustors is conducted at the Lehrstuhl f€ ur Thermodyna-
mik, TU M€ unchen. Water injection in gas turbine combustors allows for the simultaneous
control of NOx emissions as well as the increase of the power output of the engine and
has therefore been transferred to a premixed combustor at lab scale. So far stable opera-
tion of the system has been obtained for water-to-fuel ratios up to 2.25 at constant adia-
batic flame temperatures. This paper focuses on the effects of water injection on pollutant
formation in premixed gas turbine flames. In order to guarantee for high practical rele-
vance, experimental measurements are conducted at typical preheating temperatures and
common gas turbine combustor residence times of about 20 ms. Spatially resolved and
global species measurements are performed in an atmospheric single burner test rig for
typical adiabatic flame temperatures between 1740 and 2086 K. Global measurements of
NOx and CO emissions are shown for a wide range of equivalence ratios and variable
water-to-fuel ratios. CANTERA calculations are used to identify nonequilibrium processes
in the measured data. To get a close insight into the emission formation processes in
water-injected flames, local concentration measurements are used to calculate distribu-
tions of the reaction progress variable. Finally, to clarify the influence of spray quality
on the composition of the exhaust gas, a variation of the water droplet diameters is done.
For rising water content at constant adiabatic flame temperature, the NOx emissions can
be held constant, whereas CO concentrations increase. On the contrary, both values
decrease for measurements at constant equivalence ratio and reduced flame tempera-
tures. Further analysis of the data shows the close dependency of CO concentration on
the equivalence ratio; however, due to the water addition, a shift of the CO curves can be
detected. In the local measurements, changes in the distribution of the reaction progress
variable and an increase of the flame length were detected for water-injected flames
along with changes of the maximum as well as the averaged CO values. Finally, a strong
influence of water droplet size on NOx and CO formation is shown for constant operating
conditions. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4038239]

Introduction turbines is a key technology in this field. With the constraint of

stringent emission regulations innovative concepts for power aug-
Stationary gas turbines are needed as key components within
mentation have to be found. Due to its moderating influence on
the modern power generation infrastructure. With steep load gra-
the flame temperature as well as its high potential regarding power
dients and a high range of flexibility, these engines can be used to
augmentation, water injection seems to be a promising option to
compensate fluctuations in the power demand or in the power out-
fulfill these requirements.
put of other power producers. Within the last few years, however,
The effect of power augmentation due to water injection mainly
the widespread introduction of power production from renewable
comes from an increased mass flow rate through the turbine sec-
energy sources has led to an increase in output fluctuations. Due
tion of the gas turbine. As the power output of the turbine is
to the stochastic nature of renewable energy sources like wind or
directly proportional to this mass flow rate, water injection
solar power new challenges arise, mainly in the compensation of
directly increases the turbine power output. Assuming a constant
short time power fluctuations. This energy transition has promoted
air mass flow rate through the compressor section and negligible
the role of gas turbines as a key component in the power produc-
power consumption for the compression of the liquid water, the
tion sector and stimulated research in the gas turbine community.
overall power output of the engine rises compared to the dry oper-
To guarantee for the compensation of power output fluctuations of
ating case. Besides this global thermodynamic influences, water
renewable energies and to ensure supply security in the electrical
injection also influences the combustion reaction itself. Two main
grid, the flexibility of gas turbines has to be increased further.
effects are often found in the literature:
Besides part load operation power augmentation for modern gas
 a reduction of the flame temperature (physical effect);
Contributed by the Combustion and Fuels Committee of ASME for publication in  an alteration of reaction pathways (chemical effect).
the JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING FOR GAS TURBINES AND POWER. Manuscript received July
3, 2017; final manuscript received August 22, 2017; published online December 19, The physical effect describes the dilution of the fuel air mixture
2017. Editor: David Wisler. with water and therefore an increase of the heat capacity of the

Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power MAY 2018, Vol. 140 / 051504-1
C 2018 by ASME
Copyright V
mixture. Consequently, in a combustion reaction, the flame tem-
perature decreases compared to dry operation. Due to the addi-
tional heat of vaporization, the physical effect for water injection
in combustors is significantly higher compared to steam-injected
operation [1]. The chemical effect on the other hand is related to
changes of reaction pathways and certain radical concentrations in
the flame due to the increased water content of the reactant mix-
ture. Several authors were able to identify H, O, and OH radicals
as important species for the chemical effect [2,3]. Additional con-
tributions to this chemical effect are related to the high third body
efficiency of water molecules in certain combustion reactions

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[3,4]. While investigations on the physical effect are widespread Fig. 1 Scheme of the combustion test rig with water injection
in the literature, controversial information about the existence of [14]
the chemical effect can be found. This is due to the fact that the
physical effect is dominating for typical operating conditions. The
160 mm, length 500 mm) is made of steel and is equipped with 11
chemical effect, however, is strongly influenced by the choice of
emission measurement ports (7) distributed over the length of the
operating conditions, which explains the inconsistency of findings
chamber to allow for probe measurements at different axial posi-
on this topic in the literature [3].
tions. In order to have a high spatial resolution at zones of high
The effect of water injection on combustion reactions also sig-
concentration gradients, a finer measurement grid is chosen close
nificantly influences the emission formation in premixed flames.
to the inlet of the combustion chamber. Due to the design of the
Basic numerical studies as well as more refined investigations can
ports, measurements at different radial positions are possible. For
be found mainly on the effect of steam injection, whereas almost
the introduction of water into the combustion chamber, an air
no information is available on the water injection in premixed
assist atomizer and an axial water injection lance (5) are used.
flames. While many investigations in the literature focus on the
Before entering the test rig, the water is filtered and de-ionized in
NOx reduction effect due to steam addition, only a few datasets
order to avoid deposition in the combustion chamber. The water
are available on CO formation and burnout characteristics [2,5].
lance is positioned on the centerline of the test rig with the nozzle
Similarly, most investigations focus on generic test setups with
outlet 70 mm upstream of the combustion chamber inlet. Detailed
low technical relevance and globally instead of locally resolved
information on the nozzle configuration is shown in Fig. 2. A
measurements [6,7]. For the addition of superheated steam, Bhar-
water tube (A) guides water to a water nozzle (C) with an outlet
gava et al. [5] achieved a significant reduction in global NOx and
diameter of 1.5 mm. Atomizing air flows through a concentric air
CO values at constant equivalence ratio. The changes were mostly
tube (B) to an air cap (D) with an outlet diameter of 5 mm. With
related to a reduction of the flame temperature, whereas a small
the concentric arrangement of the tubes, boiling of the water in
chemical effect could be detected. Similar results were found in
the inner tube is effectively prevented.
multiple investigations by G€oke [2,8] for modern swirl burners at
For all measurement points in this study, the test rig is operated
typical gas turbine operating conditions. Again, experimental and
at a main air mass flow rate of 80 g/s and a preheating temperature
numerical data were published for superheated steam and no
of 673 K. Natural gas is used as fuel at different equivalence ratios
direct deductions could be made for water-injected combustors.
between U ¼ 0.55 and U ¼ 0.92. The fuel mass flow rate in this
To overcome this lack of experimental data, this study concen-
study is calculated with respect to the main air mass flow rate. To
trates on the influence of water injection on the emission forma-
quantify the amount of water that is used for the measurements, a
tion processes in lean premixed natural gas flames. Global trends
nondimensional water-to-fuel ratio is introduced. The mass ratio
and spatially resolved CO and NOx concentrations are used to
X correlates the water mass flow rate with the fuel mass flow rate
clarify the effect of water addition for different operating condi-
tions. The results of the emission measurements are linked to m_ w
numerical CANTERA simulations as well as water droplet size meas- X¼ (1)
urements in order to identify relevant technical parameters influ- m_ f
encing the emission formation in premixed water-injected flames.
In this study, X is varied between 0 and 2.25. The atomizing air
After a brief description of test rig setup and measurement equip-
mass flow rate for the atomization of the water is varied in the
ment results are presented and evaluated. Finally, an analysis on
range of 2.5 g/s and 4 g/s. For the sake of simplicity, the atomizing
the practicality and usability of water injection in industrial sys-
air is not preheated. In order to clarify the influence of changing
tems is given.
flame temperature, two different series of experiments are
conducted:
Experiment  measurements at constant equivalence ratio and
Experimental investigations in this paper are carried out in an  measurements at constant adiabatic flame temperature.
atmospheric single burner test rig equipped with an A2EV swirl
For measurements at constant U, the flame temperature
burner [9]. The key components of this test rig are shown in
decreases for an increasing amount of water. For measurements at
Fig. 1. Air is preheated electrically to typical compressor outlet
constant Tad, however, additional fuel is added to the fuel–air
temperatures of modern gas turbines. Subsequently, air and natu-
ral gas are perfectly premixed in a mixing dome (1). Through a
cylindrical plenum (2) the mixture is then guided to the A2EV
swirler (3). This cone-shaped swirler consists of four tangential
and one axial opening and creates a rotating motion of the fuel air
mixture. Detailed information on the swirler can be found in the
work of Sangl et al. [9]. Through a conical mixing tube (4, length
140 mm) the mixture propagates toward a rapid area expansion
and into the combustion chamber (6) before it enters the water-
cooled exhaust gas duct (8). Due to the area jump at the inlet of
the combustion chamber, vortex breakdown in the swirling flow
occurs, and an aerodynamically stabilized flame develops close to
the combustor inlet. The combustion chamber (inner diameter Fig. 2 Scheme of the air assist nozzles [14]

051504-2 / Vol. 140, MAY 2018 Transactions of the ASME

mixture in order to account for the temperature drop due to water
injection. The amount of fuel required for the compensation of the
temperature drop is calculated prior to the experiments using a
global energy balance of the combustion chamber. The behavior
of the test rig is assumed to be adiabatic in this calculation. Typi-
cal operating conditions for measurement series at constant adia-
batic flame temperatures are given in Table 1.
Measurement Techniques
Experimental investigations in this study focus on the determi-
nation of emissions in the exhaust gas. Measurements of water
droplet sizes and numerical CANTERA simulations are used to sup-
port the analysis of the data.
Global Emission Measurements. For all operating points, the
concentrations of O2, CO2, and CO are measured using a continu-
ous industrial ABB Advance Optima 2000 gas analyzer. A MAG-
NOS 16 module quantifies O2 concentrations in the dry exhaust
gas using the paramagnetic effect of oxygen. The analysis is con-
ducted with a measurement uncertainty of 60.1-vol %. Similarly,
an URAS 14 module employs absorption of infrared light to deter-
mine the CO and CO2 content in the dry exhaust gas. For the CO2
measurements, the uncertainty can be determined to 60.1 vol %,
whereas an uncertainty of 67.5 ppm is found for CO investiga-
tions. For the determination of NOx concentrations, an ECOphy-
sics CLD700EL-ht detector is used in the humid exhaust gas. The
detector is based on the measurement of NO chemiluminescence
and guarantees for a high resolution of 0.1 ppm. The exhaust gas
is extracted from the test rig with a water-cooled probe made of
alloy steel. The outer diameter of the measurement probe is 7 mm
with an intake opening of 1.5 mm diameter. The probe is cooled
with preheated water from a temperature controlled basin. The
temperature at the inlet was 353 K in order to quench the
extracted exhaust gas mixture quickly and to prevent condensation
of the water in the mixture. As the water temperature is chosen
well below the boiling temperature at given pressure, boiling of
the water in the probe can be avoided. After extraction, the gas
sample is transported to the analyzer in a heated tube to avoid
condensation of the water. The combustion chamber is accessible
at 11 axially arranged measurement ports. At each axial position,
six measurements are conducted at different radial positions.
Depending on the operating point of the test rig, the residence
time at the last port lies between 18 and 20 ms which is compara-
ble to typical residence times in industrial combustors. Figure 3
shows the resolution of the measurement positions in relation to a
Table 1 Operating points at constant Tad for measurements at
m_ a; sec 54 g=s. Adapted from Ref. [14].
Tpre (K) U X m_ f ðg=sÞ m_ w ðg=sÞ Tad (K)
673 0.625 0.0 2.92 0.0 1940.0
673 0.729 1.0 3.40 3.40 1939.4
673 0.875 2.0 4.09 8.17 1939.5
673 0.921 2.25 4.30 9.68 1939.3
Fig. 3 Measurement positions for local emission measurements
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
chemiluminescence image of a typical flame. Due to the high con-
centration gradients in the front part of the combustion chamber,
the spatial resolution has been refined here.
MATLAB is used to evaluate and process the data from the emis-
sion measurements. First, all values are time averaged over the
whole measurement time of about 60 s. In a second step, CO and
NOx concentrations are normalized to values at 15%-vol O2 con-
tent. Average concentration values of all measured components
are calculated using an area averaging approach over all radial
measurements at an axial position. The averaged values at the last
measurement position are treated as global emission values of the
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corresponding operating point. Using Eq. (2) and the spatially
resolved concentration values of CO2 and CO, fields of the reac-
tion progress variable are determined
½CO2 meas þ ½COmeas
c¼ (2)
½CO2 eq þ ½COeq
In this equation values with the subscript “eq” denote equilibrium
concentrations calculated numerically using CANTERA [10] equilib-
rium calculations.
CANTERA Simulations. To identify the effect of water injection
on the CO equilibrium concentration, CANTERA [10] equilibrium
simulations are conducted for each operating point using the GRI
Mech 3.0 [11]. The reactant mixture is assumed to be homogene-
ously mixed, and the mixture composition is chosen according to
the mass flow rates in the test rig. In the simulation liquid water is
treated as gaseous water. For water-injected simulations, a heat
loss is added in order to account for the enthalpy difference
between liquid and gaseous water. As the combustor residence
time for experimental measurements is high compared to typical
CO burnout reaction times, equilibrium state is assumed for the
global emissions 470 mm downstream of the burner exit (see
Fig. 3). In order to reproduce the heat losses in the experimental
setup, a second heat loss is introduced into the simulations. There-
fore, the numerically calculated CO values are adapted to the
experimentally determined CO values at dry operating conditions.
This is done for each measurement series by adjusting the heat
loss rate in the CANTERA simulations. Assuming a constant heat
loss rate within each measurement series, the heat loss at dry oper-
ation conditions is transferred to the simulations at wet operation.
Finally, a curve of the CO equilibrium concentration at typical,
nonadiabatic test rig operating conditions is obtained for each
measurement series and variable X.
Particle Size Measurements. The water spray quality is
assessed with a Malvern laser diffraction particle sizer. This sys-
tems determines the volumetric particle size distribution of sprays
with the line of sight-integrated laser diffraction measurements.
Parallel laser light is diffracted by particles in the path of the laser
beam before a radial-arranged array of detectors measures the dif-
ferent angles of diffraction at the measurement plane. This angle
strongly depends on the refraction index of the medium as well as
on the size of the droplets. Starting from the raw data an internal
routine calculates the droplet size distribution of the spray. Spray
investigations in this study are conducted in an external spray test
rig using identical water injector geometries as in the combustion
test rig. The data presented in this study are corrected to eliminate
measurement errors at low particle sizes, and the representative
diameters of the spray are calculated. The dV,90 diameter is a mea-
sure for the largest droplets in a size distribution. It is defined as
the diameter that is larger than 90% of the droplets in the distribu-
tion. Similarly, a dV,32 or Sauter mean diameter is calculated. This
representative diameter describes an equivalent diameter of a
droplet with the same surface to volume ratio as for the overall
distribution. Thus, it is often used to characterize heat and mass
transfer processes in particle flows. Assuming spherical droplets,
MAY 2018, Vol. 140 / 051504-3
the Sauter mean diameter can be calculated using the equation
given below:
1
d32 ¼ (3)
X
N
q3 ðdi Þ
i¼1
di
In this equation, q3(di) is the volumetric particle fraction at a drop-
let diameter of di.
Results
This section discusses three different aspects of pollutant for-
mation in water-injected flames. In the first part, global trends of
CO and NOx are shown in order to get a basic understanding and
to identify possible drawbacks of the water injection concept.
Subsequently, local concentration fields are discussed. The focus
lies again on the CO values as well as on distributions of the reac-
tion progress variable. Finally, the dominating influence of water
spray quality on pollutant formation in water-injected flames is
shown.
Global Analysis of Pollutant Formation in Water-Injected
Flames. Figure 4 shows global NOx concentrations for different
water to fuel ratios. All measurements have been conducted at an
axial distance of 470 mm from the combustor inlet on the combus-
tor centerline. This axial distance relates to a combustor residence
time of 20 ms for dry operation. Trends at constant adiabatic flame
temperature are shown for three different temperature levels
together with curves at constant equivalence ratios. Similarly,
Figs. 5 and 6 show measured and numerically calculated CO con-
centrations at the same operating conditions. In order to improve
comparability of the data points, all concentrations have been nor-
malized to 15%-vol O2 in the dry exhaust gas.
Generally, a higher overall level of NOx emissions can be
detected for higher adiabatic flame temperatures due to the
Fig. 4 Global NOx concentrations
Fig. 5 Global co concentrations at constant u. Comparison of
experimental (marker) and CANTERA (–) results.
051504-4 / Vol. 140, MAY 2018
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Fig. 6 Global CO concentrations at constant Tad. Comparison
of experimental (marker) and CANTERA (–) results.
increased reaction rate of NOx formation at higher temperatures.
However, independent of the exact flame temperature similar
trends for the different measurement series are found. For meas-
urements at constant equivalence ratio, the NOx values are
decreasing rapidly with rising water content due to the decreasing
flame temperature at wet conditions. With an increasing overall
flame temperature level, this drop of the emission values becomes
more distinct. For an equivalence ratio of 0.714 and an X value of
1, the NOx emissions decrease to about 30% of their original value
at dry conditions, whereas a smaller reduction can be found at
U ¼ 0.555. This reduced effect of water addition at lower equiva-
lence ratios originates from the lower temperatures of the flame at
this operating point. Due to the exponential dependency of the
reaction rate on temperature, a given temperature change has a
greater effect when starting from a higher temperature level.
Another effect that helps explaining the increased reduction at
higher temperatures results from the nondimensional parameter X
which directly relates the mass flow rates of water and fuel. Given
a constant air mass flow rate in the test rig, the fuel mass flow rate
increases with rising equivalence ratios. Consequently, at constant
X, the absolute water mass flow rate increases with rising U. This
leads to a larger temperature drop and a larger reduction of the
NOx formation rate at higher equivalence ratios. Consequently, as
the NOx formation in gas turbine combustors is a nonequilibrium
process, a change of reaction rates directly influences the meas-
ured concentrations at the outlet.
To emphasize the dominating effect of the flame temperature
on pollutant formation, a second series of experiments is con-
ducted at constant adiabatic flame temperatures. With increasing
X additional fuel is added in order to compensate the temperature
drop due to the water addition. NOx concentrations for this mea-
surement series are also shown in Fig. 4. For an adiabatic flame
temperature of 2085 K, measurements are conducted up to
X ¼ 1.5, and a corresponding equivalence ratio of 0.94 as the
operational range of the test rig was restricted due to limitations
of the fuel mass flow controller. At lower adiabatic flame tempera-
tures, the measurement range was limited due to impingement of
water droplets at the combustor wall. For increasing water con-
tent, NOx concentrations can be kept at a similar level. For an adi-
abatic flame temperature of 2085 K, NOx values are decreasing up
to an X value of 1. A similar trend can be found for an adiabatic
flame temperature of 1948 K. Qualitatively, these decreasing NOx
values are in accordance with the findings of Miyauchi et al. [12]
for steam-injected premixed methane-air flames. However, at X
values of about 1, the trend of the curves changes and the NOx
values keep increasing until a rise of about 50% is found at X of
2.25. For an adiabatic flame temperature of 1828 K, the concentra-
tion values are already at a very low level. Nevertheless, only a
slight increase of the NOx values can be found up to X ¼ 2. Due
to the complexity of the experimental setup, no distinction is done
between the thermal and the chemical effect of water injection.
However, similar results for the behavior of NOx emissions in
water-injected flames have already been shown before [13,14].
Transactions of the ASME
 Regarding CO emissions, however, a different behavior is
found. Generally, the influence of water injection on the CO for-
mation can be divided into two different effects:
 influences on the chemical equilibrium and
 influences on nonequilibrium processes like quenching.
Figure 5 gives results for measurements at constant U, whereas
measurements for constant adiabatic flame temperature are shown
in Fig. 6. With the help of CANTERA simulations both effects on the
CO formation are separated, and the results can be interpreted.
For experimental investigations at constant equivalence ratio,
Fig. 5 shows a strong decrease of the CO concentration with
increasing X independently of the exact value of U. Again, lower
levels of emissions can be found for smaller equivalence ratios.
Similar to the previous findings, on NOx concentrations, this
effect can be related to the reduced overall flame temperature
level. As shown in Ref. [15], the CO equilibrium is strongly
dependent on temperature. Therefore, the lower flame temperature
at higher water contents shifts the equilibrium to lower values
and, consequently, the measured CO value decreases. For the
numerical study on the CO equilibrium values similar trends are
found. A strong decrease of the CO equilibrium concentration
shows the influence of the reduced flame temperature at higher
water contents. The differences between measured and numeri-
cally computed values are small. For measurements at an equiva-
lence ratio of 0.714 and X of 1.5 and higher the measured CO
concentration is larger than the calculated equilibrium value of
CO which indicates CO production from nonequilibrium proc-
esses like quenching.
For measurements at constant Tad, Fig. 6 shows a different
trend. With increasing water to fuel ratio, CO concentrations start
to increase steadily until the initial value is more than doubled at
X of 1.5. This effect is directly related to the increasing equiva-
lence ratio for measurements at higher water content. Due to the
addition of fuel, the overall concentration of fuel molecules in the
reactant mixture rises which directly influences the CO equilib-
rium value in the exhaust gas. However, it can be seen from Fig. 6
that the measured CO values increase stronger than the equilib-
rium CO concentrations at comparable operating conditions. This
is true especially for measurements at higher water contents and
shows that a significant amount of the CO emissions originates
from nonequilibrium processes in the combustor. The difference
between measured values and equilibrium values increases for
higher X values as well as for lower equivalence ratios in the
flame. For decreasing values of U, the overall temperature level in
the combustor drops. Consequently, quenching of the flame can
be achieved more easily and the likelihood of quenching rises. For
a temperature level around 1948 K, the measured CO values fol-
low the equilibrium CO line up to X values of 1. Due to the higher
temperature level, the CO burnout reaction is improved and the
likelihood of quenching decreases. For higher X values, the water
droplet concentration in the combustor rises. As the droplets are
acting as a local heat sink, local flame quenching phenomena are
more likely, and the CO concentration at the combustor exit rises.
For measurements at a very high flame temperature of 2085 K,
measured CO values and equilibrium values are in good agree-
ment over the complete operating range. The high temperature
level increases the reactivity of the mixture, and chemical equilib-
rium is reached.
Using the data of all the measurement series, a strong depend-
ency of the measured CO concentrations on the overall equiva-
lence ratio can be detected. This dependence of the exhaust gas
CO concentration on U is shown in Fig. 7 for different water to
fuel ratios. For dry operation, CO keeps rising with increasing U.
With increased X similar curves are found, however, the CO con-
centration curves are shifted to higher equivalence ratios. On the
one hand this shows that the CO emissions of a combustor drop
significantly due to the addition of water. On the other hand this
shows that operation at increased equivalence ratio is possible at a
similar level of CO emissions due to water addition. However,
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
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Fig. 7 Dependency of global CO concentrations on U
Fig. 6 shows an increased level of CO at constant Tad. Conse-
quently, the temperature level in the combustor has to be lower at
wet conditions in order to maintain a constant level of CO emis-
sions. This shows that CO formation in gas turbine combustors can
be controlled using water injection. A suitable choice of the operat-
ing conditions therefore allows operation of gas turbine combustors
within the limits of emission regulation at water-injected operation.
In conclusion, the results in this section show the importance of
flame temperature for pollutant formation. Both CO and NOx
show a distinct dependency on this parameter. Due to its moderat-
ing influence on Tad, water injection can therefore be used to con-
trol the temperature level as well as the pollutant concentrations in
the combustor. While water addition at constant equivalence ratio
decreases CO and NOx emissions both values rise for operation at
constant Tad. However, a suitable choice of X allows to adjust CO
and NOx concentrations to the desired values even for an increased
equivalence ratio. Consequently, water addition allows to increase
the power output of the gas turbine at constant emissions.
Local Species Concentration Measurements. To get closer
insight into the effects of water injection, the combustion reaction
is now investigated using spatially resolved species concentration
measurements. The focus of these local emission measurements lies
on the distribution of the reaction progress variable as well as CO
formation and burnout in the combustor. First, the distribution of the
reaction progress variable is analyzed in Fig. 8. Figure 8(a) shows c
at dry operating conditions and an equivalence ratio of 0.625. Figures
8(b) and 8(c) show the distributions at constant adiabatic flame tem-
peratures and rising water to fuel ratios, whereas Fig. 8(d) illustrates
the behavior at constant U and decreasing flame temperature.
The reaction progress in the dry operating case shows a com-
pact reaction zone close to the inlet of the combustion chamber
with a recirculation zone in the center of the combustor. At a dis-
tance of about 100 mm c has reached the maximum value of 1
over the whole combustor cross section. Comparing images at
constant adiabatic flame temperature in Figs. 8(a) to 8(c) reveals a
displacement of the reaction progress distribution in downstream
direction due to water addition. This downstream shift can be
found in the center zone of the combustor as well as in the regions
close to the walls. However, in the zones close to the combustor
walls, the length of the reaction zone is increased in addition to
this downstream shift. The combination of the two effects finally
leads to a stronger influence of water injection on the reaction pro-
gress in the outer flame zones. This increased effect of water has
already been found in OH* chemiluminescence images in a for-
mer publication [14]. Due to the flow field in the combustor with
a vortex breakdown close to the combustor inlet and a central
recirculation zone, an inhomogeneous distribution of the water
droplets develops. As shown in Ref. [14], this leads to lower water
droplet concentrations on the combustor centerline and higher
concentrations close to the combustor walls. Unfortunately, no
detailed information is available about the water concentration in
the gas phase; however, due to the higher droplet concentration in
the near wall regions a higher water concentration in the gas phase
MAY 2018, Vol. 140 / 051504-5

Fig. 8 Distributions of the reaction progress variable at differ-
ent operating conditions: (a) U 5 0.625, X 5 0, Tad 5 1948 K, (b)
U 5 0.796, X 5 1.5, Tad 5 1948 K, (c) U 5 0.877, X 5 2.0,
Tad 5 1948 K, and (d) U 5 0.625, X 5 1.5, Tad 5 1739 K
is assumed here. As a result, the reduction of the mixture reactiv-
ity is stronger in the near wall regions. Consequently, a stronger
influence of the water can be detected at higher radii. The differ-
ence between the c-distributions at dry operation and at X ¼ 1.5
and constant Tad is significant, whereas only small changes can be
found between the distributions at X ¼ 1.5 and 2. Despite the
changes in the distributions of the reaction progress, a c value of
unity is reached at an axial distance of about 150 mm for all oper-
ating points at constant adiabatic flame temperature.
For measurement series at constant equivalence ratio with
decreasing adiabatic flame temperature, a different situation is
found as shown in Figs. 8(a) and 8(d). The distribution for
X ¼ 1.5 at constant equivalence ratio shows a downstream shift
and a significant increase of the length of the reaction zone. Due
to the reduction of Tad of more than 200 K, the reactivity of the
mixture is significantly reduced resulting in a larger influence of
the water injection on the reaction zone. Similar to the effects
found for constant adiabatic flame temperature, a stronger influ-
ence of the water close to the combustor walls can be detected.
Due to the additional heat loss over the combustor walls as well as
the increased water concentration, the flame length at the near
wall regions is increased stronger than in the center of the com-
bustion chamber. Unfortunately, it is not possible to separate these
two effects as no measurement data about the wall heat flux or
local water concentrations in the combustion chamber are avail-
able. Nevertheless, the reaction zone in this case is lengthened up
to an axial distance of about 200 mm.
In order to quantify the effects of water, the area averaged val-
ues of c are plotted over the axial coordinate in the combustor in
Fig. 9. As shown before, a significant downstream shift of the
051504-6 / Vol. 140, MAY 2018
reaction progress is found for operation at constant Tad. Further-
more, an even bigger displacement of the reaction progress can be
found for operation at constant U. These effects can clearly be related
to the reduced reactivity of the reactant mixture under the given oper-
ating conditions. Having this effect in mind, the emission formation
in water-injected flames can now be analyzed in more detail.
This section clarifies the influence of water injection on the CO
formation in the flame. The focus lies on the peak concentrations
of CO in the flame as well as changes in the CO burnout in the
combustor. Typically, CO is formed during the consumption of
fuel molecules. As the fuel consumption zone is relatively com-
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pact, high concentrations of CO occur in this part. Given suffi-
ciently high temperatures of the mixture, CO is consumed in the
CO burnout zone downstream of this zone of high CO production
[16].
Figure 10 shows the distribution of the CO concentration in the
combustor for dry and water-injected operation and varying U.
For dry operation in Fig. 10(a), a compact zone with high CO con-
centrations is found close to the combustor inlet for axial distan-
ces smaller than 150 mm. Downstream of this zone, the CO
burnout quickly reduces these high concentrations. For rising
water contents at constant Tad, the distributions are shown in
Figs. 10(b) and 10(c). The overall level of CO concentrations
increases considerably at higher water contents. Furthermore, the
zone of high CO concentrations is shifted downstream and closer
to the combustor walls. Similar as for the reaction progress in
Fig. 8 this shift is related to the reduced reactivity of the mixture.
Due to the nonadiabatic setup of the combustor, higher tempera-
tures are found in the center of the combustion chamber which
results in a quicker burnout of the CO. The reduced temperatures
close to the combustor walls slow down the burnout here, and the
zone of high CO concentrations is lengthened. Unfortunately, no
measurements of the combustor wall temperatures are available.
Consequently, no quantitative estimation on the influence of heat
loss on the CO formation can be given. Nevertheless, as shown in
Fig. 6, an increased amount of CO from nonequilibrium processes
is found for increasing X. Due to the shift of the reaction zone
closer to the wall, the effects of quenching increase, and conse-
quently, CO equilibrium concentration at the outlet cannot be
achieved for higher water contents.
For operation at constant U, the distribution of the CO concen-
tration is shown in Fig. 10(d). The zone of maximum CO concen-
trations is shifted downstream and closer to the walls due to the
reduced reactivity. Furthermore, the maximum CO values are
decreased. Similar as for water-injected operation at constant Tad
water injection influences the CO burnout. While the CO concen-
tration on the combustor centerline is quickly reduced to equilib-
rium values, a significant increase of the length of the burnout
zone is found for near wall zones. This burnout zone close to the
wall extends far downstream. However, due to mixing processes
at higher axial distances, the high CO values close to the wall are
reduced to values close to the equilibrium concentration.
After this qualitative overview over the CO formation in water-
injected flames, a quantitative study is done. Figure 11 shows
Fig. 9 Axial distribution of the area-averaged reaction pro-
gress variable
Transactions of the ASME

Fig. 10 Distributions of the CO concentration at different oper-
ating conditions: (a) U 5 0.625, X 5 0, Tad 5 1948 K, (b)
U 5 0.796, X 5 1.5, Tad 5 1948 K, (c) U 5 0.877, X 5 2.0,
Tad 5 1948 K, and (d) U 5 0.625, X 5 1.5, Tad 5 1739 K
curves of the area-averaged CO concentrations for dry and water-
injected operation and varying U. A steep rise of the CO concen-
tration close to the combustor inlet is found which leads to the
maximum values at an axial distance of around 50 mm. For dry
operation, these maximum values lie at around 5500 ppm of CO.
Then, CO concentration quickly drops down to 280 ppm within a
distance of 80 mm. Finally, the axial decline of CO becomes sig-
nificantly slower for axial distances larger than 200 mm.
Water addition at constant Tad changes this ideal behavior.
First, the position of the maximum CO concentration is shifted
downstream by about 30 mm for X ¼ 1.5 and X ¼ 2. With rising
X, higher maximum CO values are found. From 5500 ppm at dry
operation these values rise to 6400 ppm at X ¼ 1.5 and 7200 ppm
at X ¼ 2. Due to the strong dependence of the maximum CO val-
ues on the flame temperature, this indicates increased local tem-
peratures in the water-injected flame. Incomplete evaporation of
the water droplets as well as inhomogeneities in the water
Fig. 11 Axial distribution of the area-averaged CO
concentration
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power
distribution might be the reason. Furthermore, the length of the
zone of high CO content is increased for the wet cases in compari-
son to dry operation due to the reduced reactivity of the mixture.
Subsequently, the CO burnout reaction strongly reduces these
maximum values within a short distance of 80 mm before the CO
curves keep decreasing with an almost constant slope. Further-
more, Fig. 11 shows that the overall rate of CO reduction in the
burnout zone increases with rising X at constant temperature.
However, due to the high maximum values and the increased
quenching probability, at wet operation equilibrium state is not
reached at the combustor exit plane. Consequently, super-
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equilibrium CO contents are measured for water-injected operat-
ing conditions.
For measurement series at constant U, different tendencies are
found. First, the maximum of the curve at X ¼ 1.5 is shifted to a
higher axial position at 90 mm. In accordance with the findings
for the reaction progress variable in Fig. 9, this shift is more dis-
tinct than for operation at constant temperature. This finding can
again be related to the decreasing reactivity of wet mixtures and
the lower flame temperature which leads to lower reaction rates.
Second, the maximum value of the CO concentration drops by
about 20% to a value of 4400 ppm. Similar to the findings in
Fig. 5, the maximum CO value shows a close dependency on the
flame temperature. Compared to CO measurements at constant
Tad a smaller reduction of the CO concentration in the CO burnout
zone is found. As shown in Fig. 10, the reaction zone is moved
closer to the combustor wall, which increases the quenching prob-
ability in this case; however, due to the low maximum values of
CO and the intense mixing processes in the combustor, these
super-equilibrium CO values can be reduced in the burnout zone.
As a result, low CO values close to the equilibrium concentration
are measured at the combustor outlet.
In conclusion, a reduction of the reactivity can be found for
water-injected flames even if the adiabatic flame temperature is
held constant. Consequently, reaction progress and local emission
formation in the flame is influenced. Finally, this leads to an
increase of the length as well as a shift of the reaction zone.
Depending on the operating conditions of the test rig this influen-
ces the maximum CO concentration and also the CO values at the
outlet. While equilibrium CO values are declining for decreasing
flame temperatures, developments are opposite for constant flame
temperature and increasing water content. Additionally, as the
reaction zone as well as the CO burnout zone is moved closer to
the combustor walls a rising share of CO from nonequilibrium proc-
esses is found for rising X. The CO burnout is increased for water-
injected conditions at constant Tad; however, due to the increased CO
production and the rising quenching probability for wet operation
super-equilibrium CO concentrations are found at the outlet. Never-
theless, a suitable choice of the operating conditions allows operation
within the boundaries of the given emission legislation.
Influence of Water Droplet Size on Emission Formation.
This section of this study clarifies the influence of the water drop-
let size on the pollutant formation in water-injected combustion
systems. In order to change the size of the water droplets, the
atomizing air mass flow rate m_ a; sec is varied. Changes in the drop-
let size distribution at different nozzle operating conditions are
investigated using an industrial particle sizer. The results for the
droplet size distributions at different atomizing air mass flow rates
are shown in Fig. 12. Figure 12(a) shows a spray with a high con-
centration of big droplets around 100 lm. Consequently, a Sauter
mean diameter of 38.9 lm and a dV,90 of 84.2 lm is found. With
an increased atomizing air mass flow rate of 4 g/s, a spray with a
dV,32 of 28.9 lm and a dV,90 of 65.7 lm is generated. The droplet
size distribution in Fig. 12(b) shows a spray with a maximum vol-
ume fraction around 35 lm and only very few droplets in the
range of 100 lm.
As shown in Fig. 13, NOx concentrations show a strong depend-
ence on the size distribution of the water droplets. For a higher
MAY 2018, Vol. 140 / 051504-7
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_ a; sec 5 2:0 g/s, X 5 1.5 and (b) m
Fig. 12 Droplet size distributions for different atomizing air mass flow rates: (a) m _ a; sec 5 4:0 g/s,
X 5 1.5

Fig. 13 Global NOx concentrations at different atomizing air Fig. 14 Global CO concentrations at different atomizing air
mass flow rates mass flow rates. Comparison of experimental (marker) and
CANTERA (–) results.

mass flow rate of atomizing air lower NOx concentrations are

measured in the exhaust gas. Previous optical investigations [14]
point out that this change might be related to the different evapo-
ration behavior of the water spray. Smaller droplets have a higher
area to volume ratio which enhances transport processes like heat
transfer and evaporation. For water-injected flames, this means
that the same amount of water will evaporate quicker if the droplet
size distribution contains smaller particles. Consequently, the
water concentration in the gas phase at the same position in the
combustor is higher for well-atomized water sprays compared to
sprays with bigger droplets. This in turn effects a stronger reduc-
tion of the reactivity of the mixture and a lower local flame tem-
perature. Together with the dominating influence of the flame
temperature on NOx formation, this explains the highly different
pollutant concentrations with different degrees of atomization. Fig. 15 Global CO concentrations at different X values
Similarly to the results for nitrogen oxide, a strong dependence
of global CO concentrations on the atomizing air mass flow rate is
found as shown in Fig. 14. While a relatively high CO concentra-
tion of 66 ppm is found at X 1.5 for a case with larger droplet Figure 15 shows the dependency of the CO emissions at the com-
sizes, this amount is reduced by almost 50% for a well-atomized bustor outlet on the droplet diameter. For low water to fuel ratios,
spray. As the operating conditions for both cases are almost simi- only a small increase of the CO concentration can be detected
lar, the decrease in CO concentration cannot be caused by a with increasing droplet diameter, whereas a strong dependency is
change in overall fuel concentration. A comparison with the cal- found for higher values of X. Due to the low local droplet concen-
culated data reveals that the equilibrium CO concentration at this trations for low X values, evaporation of the water droplets occurs
operating point is 36 ppm. The measurements show that the chem- upstream of the main reaction zone, and water is mixed with the
ical equilibrium is reached for the case with the well-atomized reactants well ahead of the main reaction zone. Consequently, a
spray, whereas a significant amount of CO originates from none- relatively homogeneous distribution of the temperature in the
quilibrium processes in the case of a bad atomization quality. The combustion zone is achieved, and CO burnout can occur. How-
bad atomization of the spray increases the inhomogeneity of the ever, as shown before [14], the overall droplet concentration rises
water distribution in the combustion chamber. Consequently, the with increasing water to fuel ratio. Due to the flow structure in the
temperature at zones with high water content is reduced stronger combustor, the distribution of the water droplets in the combus-
than at zones with low water content. This favors local quenching tion chamber is highly inhomogeneous. This inhomogeneity rises
effects and therefore increases the overall CO concentration. This for increasing X. Zones with high local droplet concentrations at
dependency of the CO emissions on the water droplet size higher radial positions coexist with zones with lower water con-
becomes even clearer in Fig. 15. The figure combines results of tent close to the combustor centerline. The high droplet concentra-
droplet size measurements with CO concentration values from tions at higher radial positions lead to an increased cooling of the
Fig. 14. In this case, the dV,90 diameter is used as a representative flame at these positions and eventually to local quenching of the
measure of the droplet size distribution at each operating point. flame. As a consequence, CO burnout breaks down, leading to

051504-8 / Vol. 140, MAY 2018 Transactions of the ASME

super-equilibrium CO concentrations at the outlet (see Fig. 6). Funding Data
With decreasing atomizing air mass flow rate, the average droplet
size rises which increases the inhomogeneity in the combustor.  TUM Energy Valley Bavaria in the framework of the
Consequently, quenching effects already occur at lower X values research program on flexible power plants.
and higher CO values are measured.
Nomenclature
Conclusions and Outlook c¼ reaction progress variable
Pollutant formation in a water-injected lab-scale gas turbine d¼ diameter
combustor has been investigated for a wide range of operating dV,32 ¼ Sauter mean diameter
points. With the help of global and local CO and NOx measure- dV,90 ¼ D90 diameter
m_ ¼ mass flow rate

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ments, the influence of water injection on pollutant formation was
identified. Additionally, a study on the influence of atomization
quality was conducted using global concentration measurements.
The analysis of the measured data revealed the following effects:
 Global emission measurements show a strong dependency of
CO and NOx emissions on the global flame temperature.
NOx emissions can be held constant for increasing water to
fuel ratios and constant temperatures. However, due to inho-
mogeneities in the spray distribution at high X values, NOx
concentrations keep rising for X values above 2.
 The dominating influence of the equivalence ratio on the CO
concentration has been shown. For water-injected conditions,
a shift of the concentration curves to higher equivalence
ratios can be found. This shift can be explained with the tem-
perature reducing effect of water injection which directly
influences the CO values.
 A comparison of the measured data with numerical CANTERA
simulations separates the influence of water injection on
the CO equilibrium value from CO generated from nonequi-
librium processes. The share of CO originating from none-
quilibrium processes increases with decreasing flame
temperature as well as with increasing X.
 For locally resolved measurements, a downstream shift as
well as an increase of the length of the reaction zone was
found for cases with water addition. A stronger effect on the
reaction progress was found for cases with decreasing adia-
batic flame temperature.
 Local CO measurements showed higher maximum values as
well as higher equilibrium values for water-injected cases at
constant adiabatic flame temperature in comparison to dry
operation. The increased maximum CO values are related to
increased local temperatures in the combustor which might
be caused by an inhomogeneous distribution of the water.
 The importance of the droplet size distribution for pollutant
formation was shown. Due to higher local temperatures, NOx
concentrations increase for identical operating conditions if
the atomization quality drops. Equally, CO concentrations
are rising with increasing water droplet sizes at identical
operating conditions. This effect is assumed to originate
from local inhomogeneities of the water distribution in the
combustor which leads to local quenching effects and supere-
quilibrium CO concentrations at the outlet.
Based on these findings basic principles for the operation of
water-injected gas turbine combustors can be drawn. Water injec-
tion in premixed flames is a suitable possibility to increase the
power output of gas turbine engines at a constant level of emis-
sions. In order to avoid negative effects due to local hotspots in
the combustion chamber, water must be distributed evenly over
the combustion chamber. It is important to guarantee a complete
evaporation of the water droplets upstream of the main combus-
tion zone. Consequently, a water spray with small droplet sizes is
preferable. Given a sufficient atomization quality of the water, the
NOx emissions can be held constant for constant Tad and increas-
ing X. However, as the CO equilibrium values are rising for
increasing U, the adiabatic flame temperature at wet conditions
has to be reduced in order to control CO emissions. At these con-
ditions, high CO values at the combustor outlet mark the limit of
the operating range.
r, x ¼ coordinates
Tad ¼ adiabatic flame temperature
Greek Symbols
/ ¼ equivalence ratio
X ¼ water to fuel mass ratio
Subscripts
a¼ air
CC ¼ combustion chamber
eq ¼ equilibrium
f¼ fuel
meas ¼ measured value
pre ¼ preheating
sec ¼ secondary
w¼ water
Abbreviations
NOx ¼ nitrogen oxides
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Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power MAY 2018, Vol. 140 / 051504-9