UNIT III

SOLID WASTEE MANAGEMENT

Wastes are any unwanted or discarded materials, which

do not generally carry any value to the first user. Solid wastes
are any such solid or semisolid, nonsoluble waste material
(including gases and liquids in containers) such as agricultural
refuse, demolition waste, industrial waste, mining residues,
municipal garbage, and sewage sludge which do not generally
carry any value to the first user.
While wastes have little or no value in one setting or to
the one who wants to dispose them, the discharged wastes may
gain significant value in another setting. Knowledge of the
sources and types of solid wastes as well as the information on
composition and the rate at which wastes are generated/ disposed
is, therefore, essential for the design and operation of the
functional elements associated with the management of solid

Types of Solid waste, their causes (sources), control and

processing
Classification of wastes based on their physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics, and based on their
source is as follows

5.1.1 Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes:

Biodegradable wastes mainly refer to substances consisting of
organic matter such as leftover food, vegetable and fruit peels,
paper, textile, wood, etc., generated from various household and
industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-organisms,
these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds.
Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable
materials such as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc. Below table
shows a comparison of biodegradable and non-biodegradable
wastes with their degeneration time, i.e., the time required to
break from a complex to a simple biological form:
 Table 5.1: The type of waste we generate and the
approximate time it takes to degenerate
Category Waste type Approximate
Degeneration
Time
Organic matter such A week or two
as
leftover food,
vegetable and fruit
Biodegradable peels
Paper 10 to 30 days
Cotton cloth 2 – 5 months
Wool items An Year
Wood 10 – 15 years
Metals such as 100 – 500 years
Tin,
Non-
Aluminium& other
Biodegradable
metal cans,
Wastes
Plastic bags A million years
Glass bottles undetermined
Source: NPTEL
Combustible and non-combustible wastes: These consist of
wastes generated from households, institutions, commercial
activities, etc., excluding food wastes and other highly
putrescible material. Typically, while combustible material
consists of paper, cardboard, textile, rubber, garden trimmings,
etc., non-combustible material consists of such items as glass,
crockery, tin and aluminium cans, ferrous and non-ferrous
material and dirt.

Classification of wastes based on the source is as follows

1. Municipal Solid Waste

2. Hazardous Waste
3. Biomedical Waste
4. Agriculture Wate

Municipal solid waste (MSW) consists of items that are

discarded by the public during their domestic activities.
Municipal solid waste consists of household waste (food &
vegetables, paper, cloth, plastic, etc.) construction and
demolition debris, sanitation residue, and waste from streets such
as street sweepings, dirt, leaves, litter, etc. In general the
termgarbage/trash (USA) is used for biodegradable waste
&rubbish/refuse (UK) is used for nonbiodegradable waste.
With rising urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits,
the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing rapidly
and its composition changing.
The typical moisture content of MSW may vary from 15
to 40 percent depending upon the composition of the waste and
the climatic conditions. The density of MSW depends upon the
composition and degree of compaction. The uncompacted
density of MSW is around “150 kg/m3 (250 lb. /yd3).” The
density of collected solid waste is “235-350 kg/m3.” The energy
content of MSW as collected is “9,890 kJ/kg (4,260 BTU/lb)”
Effects:
Improper disposal of solid waste contaminates the natural
resources like air, water and land and deteriorates the quality of
life and human health. Improper solid waste management shows
the impact on the planet earth and result in global warming and
climate changes. Surface water resources and ground water
resources contaminate due to the indiscriminate and improper
disposal of solid waste and generation of Leachate from the
landfills (Rajput et al., 2009). From these landfills, the solid
waste generates methane which is a greenhouse gas and has 21
times more global warming potential than the carbon dioxide.
Municipal solid waste can attract the insects, flies, rodents and
spread diseases such as dengue, malaria and plague.

Impacts caused by improper solid waste management are listed

below:
 Rag pickers working at waste disposal site are vulnerable
to many diseases like lung infections, skin problems etc.
 The burning of the solid waste at the disposal site causes
air pollution and consequently spread the diseases and
deteriorates health condition of surrounding people.
 Methane is one of the greenhouse gases and is the main
ingredient of landfill gas, leading to climate change and the
methane gas has more potential than the carbon dioxide as
a greenhouse gas.
 The improper disposal of solid waste can cause foul odor
and cause aesthetic nuisance.
 The chemical reaction between the pathological, toxic and
municipal solid waste components can have serious effects
on public health and the environment.
 The polluted water from waste disposal sites can
contaminate the water resources like lakes and ponds. If
these water resources contain chemicals they mix-up with
the water bodies and cause health problems.
 If the collection vehicles are not covered and designed
properly, during the transportation leads to foul odor and
can cause damage to the surface of the roads.
 Plastic bags are non-biodegradable substances and cause an
aesthetic nuisance (Dhayagode et al., 2011).
 Some health care items and dangerous items such as
explosive containers, broken glass, hypodermic needles,
blades, and blooded cotton may pose risks of injury to
people who sort through the waste.
 If there are no proper collection systems, waste collection
workers may face different types of problems.
 While manual handling the waste, the workers have to take
protective measures otherwise diseases may attack due to
direct contact of pathogens.
 If the solid waste is not collected regularly, it may
deteriorate the urban environment and cause unhygienic
conditions.
 From uncollected and decomposing wastes, dust particles
and Aerosols can spread (Thirumala et al., 2012) fungi and
other disease causing agents.
 The open burning and open dumping of municipal solid
waste causes air pollution.
 During the open burning of the solid wastes some of the
products may enter the environment which is hazardous.
 Solid waste is the best food for flies and the breeding of
flies spread so many diseases.
 Uncollected wastes mixing in drains, causing flooding and
unsanitary conditions.
 If the community bins are not covered, they may attract
stray dogs, which has been a major cause of the spread of
rabies.
 Open waste bins also attract stray and domestic cattle and
causes nuisance.
 Mosquitoes breed in blocked drains and in rainwater that is
retained in discarded cans, tire and other objects.
Mosquitoes spread disease, including malaria and dengue.
 Rats find shelter and food in waste dumps. Rats consume
and spoil food, spread disease, damage electrical cables
and other materials and inflict unpleasant bites.
  Garbage dumps contribute to the seepage of toxic
chemicals to ground water and such contaminations have
been linked up with increases in cancer incidences.

The Stakeholders Involved in the Management of MSWM in

INDIA are
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests
 The Central Pollution Control Board
 The State Pollution Control Board
 City Corporation
 Private Formal Sector
 Private Informal Sector
 Service Users: People who use the service of municipal
waste management.

Management of MSW:
MSW management is a major issue & cities in India spend
approximately 20% of the city budget on solid waste services.
The primary steps involved in MSW management are generation,
collection, sorting and separation, transfer and disposal/
utilization.
1. Waste generation encompasses activities in which
materials are identified as no longer being of value and are
either thrown out or gathered together for disposal.
2. The functional element of Collection includes not only the
gathering of solid waste and recyclable materials, but also
the transport of these materials, after collection, to the
location where the collection vehicle is emptied. This
location may be a material processing facility, a transfer
station or a landfill disposal site.
3. Waste handling and segregation involves activities
associated with waste management until the waste is
placed in storage containers for collection. Handling also
encompasses the movement of loaded containers to the
point of collection.
4. Segregating different types of waste components is an
important step in the handling and storage of solid waste at
 the source. The types of means and facilities that are now
used for the recovery of waste materials that have been
separated at the source include curbside collection, drop off
and buy back centers.
5. Transfer and transport involves two main steps. First, the
waste is transferred from a smaller collection vehicle to
larger transport equipment. The waste is then transported,
usually over long distances, to a processing or disposal site.
6. Today the disposal of wastes by land filling or land
spreading is the ultimate fate of all solid wastes, whether
they are residential wastes collected and transported
directly to a landfill site, residual materials from materials
recovery facilities (MRFs), residue from the combustion of
solid waste, compost or other substances from various solid
waste processing facilities.

A modern sanitary landfill is not a dump; it is an engineered

facility used for disposing of solid wastes on land without
creating nuisances or hazards to public health or safety, such as
the breeding of insects and the contamination of ground water.
Municipal solid waste can be used to generate energy.

Several technologies have been developed that make the

processing of MSW for energy generation cleaner and more
economical than ever before, including landfill gas capture,
combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, and plasma arc gasification.
While older waste incineration plants emitted high levels of
pollutants, recent regulatory changes and new technologies have
significantly reduced this concern.

HAZARDOUS WASTE
Hazardous wastes are those wastes which by reason of their
chemical activity or characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity,
reactivity and toxicity or other characteristics that are potentially
dangerous either immediately or over a period of time to human
beings and the environment.
As per Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and
Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016, hazardous waste means
“Any substance, whether in solid, liquid or gaseous form, which
has no foreseeable use and which by reasons of any physical,
chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive,
radioactive or infectious characteristics causes danger or is
likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone
or when in connection with other wastes or environment, and
should be considered as such when generated, handled, stored,
transported, treated and disposed off’. These include
 process based wastes like petrochemical industries wastes,
wastes out of production of plastic, etc. (Schedule I of the
above rule)
 constituents with concentration limits like waste
containing Arsenic above 5 mg/l, Hg above 0.2 mg/l, etc.
(Schedule II of the above rule)
 Characteristics based wastes like
- Toxicity: Waste toxicity is measured by using the Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP). The TCLP
extract is analyzed for lead (or other constituents) to
determine. If it is above 5 ppm (milligrams/ liter) such
wastes are considered as hazardous. Examples: pesticides,
heavy metals.
- Corrosivity: Corrosive waste has a pH that is either less
than or equal to 2 (highly acidic) or greater than or equal to
12.5 (highly basic), or which can corrode steel at a certain
rate. Unneutralized caustic paint strippers and acidic paint
strippers (including the resulting sludge) may be corrosive.
Examples: acids and base.
- Ignitability: Ignitable waste generally includes liquids with
flash points below 140°F (60°C), flammable solids and
compressed gases, and oxidizers. Certain solvents from
paint strippers (e.g., xylene) and the resulting sludge or
slurry waste may be ignitable. Examples: Gasoline, paint
thinners and alcohol.
- Reactivity: Reactive waste includes substances that are
capable of easily generating explosive or toxic gases,
 especially when mixed with water. These also include
waste that is unstable and undergoes violent change without
detonating. Examples: Gun powder, nitro glycerin.

Effects

Unscientific disposal of hazardous and other waste through

burning or incineration leads to emission of toxic fumes
comprising of Dioxins & Furans, Mercury, heavy metals,
causing air pollution and associated health-related problems.
Disposal in water bodies or in municipal dumps leads to toxic
releases due to leaching in land and water entailing into
degradation of soil and water quality. The workers employed in
such unscientific practices suffer from neurological disorders,
skin diseases, genetic defects, cancer etc. Hence, there is a need
for systematic management of hazardous and other waste in an
environmentally sound manner by way of prevention,
minimization, re-use, recycling, recovery, utilization including
co-processing and safe disposal of waste.

Applicable statute / Regulatory aspects

The Union Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate
Change (MoEF&CC) notified the Hazardous and Other Wastes
(Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016 which
provides for the scientific management of Hazardous and Other
Wastes in India.The salient features of Hazardous and Other
Wastes (Management &Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016
include the following:-
1. The scope of the hazardous waste been defined.
2. Waste Management hierarchy in the sequence of priority of
prevention, minimization, reuse, recycling, recovery, co-
processing; and safe disposal has been incorporated.
3. All the forms under the rules for permission, import/export,
filing of annual returns, transportation, etc. have been
revised significantly, indicating the stringent approach for
management of such hazardous and other wastes with
simultaneous simplification of procedure.
 4. The basic necessity of infrastructure to safeguard the health
and environment from waste processing industry has been
prescribed as Standard Operating Procedure (SOPs),
specific to waste type, which has to be complied by the
stakeholders and ensured by SPCB/PCC while granting
such authorization.
5. Procedure has been simplified to merge all the approvals as
a single window clearance for setting up of hazardous
waste disposal facility and import of other wastes.
6. Co-processing as preferential mechanism over disposal for
use of waste as supplementary resource, or for recovery of
energy has been provided.
7. The approval process for co-processing of hazardous waste
to recover energy has been streamlined and put on
emission norms basis rather than on trial basis.
8. The process of import/export of waste under the Rules has
been streamlined by simplifying the document-based
procedure and by revising the list of waste regulated for
import/export. The few waste items prohibited for import:
Waste edible fats and oil of animals, or vegetable origin,
Household waste, etc.

Management of HW:
Scientific disposal of hazardous waste through collection,
storage, packaging, transportation and treatment, in an
environmentally sound manner minimizes the adverse impact on
human health and on the environment. The hazardous waste can
be disposed at authorized (by MoEF) captive treatment facility
installed by the individual waste generators or at Common
Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities
(TSDFs). There are 40 Common Hazardous Waste Treatment,
Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs) available in 17
States/UTs.
Hazardous waste as lead acid battery scraps, used oil,
waste oil, spent catalyst etc. and other waste such as waste tyres,
paper waste, metal scrap, etc. are used as raw material by the
industries involved in recycling of such waste and as
supplementary resource for material and energy recovery.
Accordingly, it is always preferable to utilize such waste through
recycling, or for resource recovery to avoid disposal through
landfill or incineration. There are about 1080 registered
recyclers; 47 cement plants permitted for co-processing; and
about 108 industries permitted for utilization of hazardous waste.

BIOMEDICAL WASTE

Composition of Biomedical waste

85% of hospital waste is non-hazardous, 10% is infectious and
5% is non-infectious which are categorized as follows.
Treatment and
Category Type of Waste
Disposal Options
Human Anatomical Waste
Category
(Human tissues, organs, Incineration/Deep Burial
1
body parts)
Animal waste (Animal
tissues, organs, body parts,
Category carcasses, bleeding
Incineration/Deep Burial
2 parts,blood and
experimental animals used
in research)
Microbiology and
biotechnology waste(waste
from lab culture, specimens Local Autoclaving/
Category
from microorganisms, Microwaving/
3
vaccines, cell cultures, Incineration
toxins, dishes, devices used
to transfer cultures)
Chemical Disinfection
Waste Sharps (Needles,
Category Autoclaving/
Syringes, scalpels, blades,
4 Microwaving, Mutilation
glass)
and Shredding
Discarded medicines and
Category Incineration/Destruction
cytotoxic drugs (outdated,
5 and disposal in land fills
contaminated, discarded
 drugs)
Soiled waste (contaminated
Autoclaving/
Category with blood and body fluids
Microwaving/
6 including cotton, dressings,
Incineration
soiled plasters, linen)
Chemical
Category Solid waste (tubes, Disinfecion/Autoclaving/
7 catheters, IV sets) Microwaving, Mutilation
and Shredding
Liquid waste (Waste
Disinfection by chemical
Category generated from laboratory
treatment and discharge
8 and washing, cleaning,
into the drains
disinfection)
Category
Incineration ash Land fills
9
Chemical disinfection
Category
Chemical waste and discharge into the
10
drains

Biomedical waste generation in India

Developed Countries generate 1-5 kg/bed/day, with
variations among countries. The quantum of waste that is
generated in India is estimated to be 1-2 kg per bed per day in a
hospital and 600 gm per day per bed in a general practioner’s
clinic. Approximately, 506.74 tons/ day wastes are generated in
India, out of which only 57% waste undergoes proper disposal.

Impact
Proper disposal of biomedical waste is of paramount importance
because of its infectious and hazardous characteristics. Improper
disposal can result in the following:
· Organic portion ferments and attracts fly breeding
· Injuries from sharps to all categories of health care personnel
and waste handlers
· Increase risk of infections to medical, nursing and other
hospital staff
· Injuries from sharps to health workers and waste handlers
· Poor infection control can lead to nosocomial infections in
patients particularly HIV, Hepatitis B & C
· Increase in risk associated with hazardous chemicals and drugs
being handled by persons handling wastes
· Poor waste management encourages unscrupulous persons to
recycle disposables and disposed drugs for repacking and
reselling
· Development of resistant strains of microorganisms

Applicable statute / Regulatory aspects

The Government of India has promulgated the Bio-Medical
Waste Management Rules, 2016. They are applicable to all
persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat,
dispose or handle biomedical wastes. This includes hospitals,
nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries, veterinary institutions,
animal houses, pathological laboratories and blood banks. They
need to be segregated as in the following figure and the
segregated waste has to be handed over to authorized disposer
who needs to dispose the waste as follows.
Management of Biomedical waste
Stages of biomedical waste management
a) Segregation: Segregation refers to the basic separation of
different categories of waste generated at source and
thereby reducing the risks as well as cost of handling and
disposal. Colour coded segregation is shown in the above
figure.
b) Waste collection: collection of biomedical waste
involves use of different types of container.
c) Transportation and storage: The waste should be
transported for treatment. Special vehicles must be used
so as to prevent access to, and direct contact with, the
waste by the transportation operators, the scavengers and
the public. The transport containers should be properly
enclosed.
d) Treatment & Disposal: as follows

Incineration Technology
This is a high temperature thermal process employing
combustion of the waste under controlled condition for
converting them into inert material and gases.

Non-Incineration Technology
Non-incineration treatment includes four basic processes:
thermal, chemical, irradiative, and rarely biological which are
used for noninfectious biomedical wastes. The majority of non-
incineration technologies employ the thermal and chemical
processes. The main purpose of the treatment technology is to
decontaminate waste by destroying pathogens. Facilities should
make certain that the technology could meet state criteria for
disinfection.
Autoclaving
 The autoclave operates on the principle of the standard
pressure cooker.
 The process involves using steam at high temperatures.
(121 deg. C. and steam pressure of15 psi. for 60-90
minutes)
  The steam generated at high temperature penetrates waste
material and kills all the micro organism.
Microwave Irradiation
 The microwave is based on the principle of generation of
high frequency waves.
 These waves cause the particles within the waste material to
vibrate, generating heatthis heat generated from within kills
all pathogens.
Chemical Methods:
1 % hypochlorite solution can be used for chemical disinfection

Plasma Pyrolysis
Plasma pyrolysis is a state-of-the-art technology for safe
disposal of medical waste. It is an environment-friendly
technology, which converts organic waste into commercially
useful byproducts. The intense heat generated by the plasma
enables it to dispose all types of waste including municipal solid
waste, biomedical waste and hazardous waste in a safe and
reliable manner. Medical waste is pyrolysed into CO, H2, and
hydrocarbons when it comes in contact with the plasma-arc.
These gases are burned and produce a high temperature (around
1200oC)

AGRICULTURAL WASTE
Agricultural waste is waste produced as a result of various
agricultural operations. It includes manure and other wastes from
farms, poultry houses and slaughterhouses; harvest waste;
fertilizer run- off from fields; pesticides that enter into water, air
or soils; and salt and silt drained from fields.

Following Table provides an estimate of annual production of

agricultural waste and residues in some selected countries.
Among the countries in the Asian and Pacific Region, People’s
Republic of China produces the largest quantities of agriculture
waste and crop residues followed by India.
Effects
Agricultural waste may produce several harmful effects,
including health risks and contamination of surrounding water
bodies and the atmosphere. Following are the important effect
out of Agricultural waste, if not properly disposed.
 Reduced soil fertility: Agricultural waste dumped on farm
land may lead to immobilization of nutrients, reduced
nitrogen fixation, enhanced erosion, loss of nutrients, etc.
leading to reduced soil fertility.
 Ecosystem: Imbalance in flora & fauna affecting the whole
ecosystem. Agricultural waste can also negatively affect
aquatic animals and plants because fertilizers, manure,
ammonia and waste make their way into local
environments and disrupt ecosystem processes
 Water pollution: Water becomes contaminated through
fertilizer and pesticide residue, along with pathogens such
as viruses and bacteria, which may enter drinking water
systems. Agricultural pollution is a primary source of
pollution in water and lakes, as chemicals and toxins make
their way into groundwater upon settling at the bottoms of
these large water bodies. The accumulation of these
substances ultimately leads to health issues such as blue
baby syndrome and neurological ailments.
 Human health: Agricultural waste, if not properly disposed
of, can cause short-term and long-term effects on human
health due to exposure to contaminated air, water
&ecosystem.Although developed countries have rules to
regulate Agricultural waste, India is still in nascent stage to
enact relevant rules.

Management of Agricultural Wastes:

Major portion of the agricultural waste is biomass & it is

quite combustible as well as biodegradable. The Specific energy
of some of the Agricultural waste is given below.
 Fuel type Specific energy (MJ/kg)
Straw 4.4
Bagasse 9.6
Chaff (seed casting) 14.6
Animal dung 10- 15
Dried plant 10 – 16
Wood 16 – 21
Whereas that of coal is 30

Hence Agricultural waste can be used to generate environmental

friendly energy as follows.
a) Compaction: Waste can be compressed to produce refuse
derived fuels (RDF) (11MJ/kg) which may be in the form
of pellets or briquettes.
b) Gasification: It is the thermo chemical decomposition of
biomass in the presence of controlled amounts of oxygen,
producing a CO, H2, CO2, etc. (Producer gas – 15
MJ/kg). This gas can be used in any combustion systems
to produce energy. This technology is highly suited to
generate electric power from agricultural wastes like rice
husks, groundnut shells etc.
c) Pyrolysis: It is similar to gasification except that the
chemical decomposition of biomass wastes takes place in
the absence or reduced presence of O2 at high temp.
Mixtures of gases result from decomposition including
H2, CO, CO2, HC, depending on the heating rate &
heating temperature of the pyrolysis unit and the organic
nature of waste matter. Along with this fuel gases
pyrolysis oil (17.5 MJ/kg) & charcoal/char (30 MJ/kg)
also is formed. These components can be used for power
generation.
d) Biogas production: Animal wastes, food processing
wastes and other organic matter are decomposed an
aerobically to produce a gas called biogas. It contains
methane (55 MJ/kg) and CO2. The methane can be used
for domestic use heating &cooling purpose. The
byproduct of this technology is slurry, settled out the
 bottom of the digester. This can be used as manure. On
fermentation of the Agricultural waste, ethanol (26.8
MJ/kg) can be produced which can be used as a substitute
to fossil oils.
e) Agricultural waste like corn cobs, paddy husk, bagasse of
sugarcane, waste of wheat, rice and other cereals, cotton
stalks, coconut wastes, jute waste etc. can be used in
making of paper and hard board.

Estimation of solid waste quantities

Solid waste generation rates estimate the amount of waste
created by residences or businesses over a certain amount of time
(day, year, etc.). Waste generation includes all materials
discarded, whether or not they are later recycled or disposed in a
landfill. Waste generation rates for residential and commercial
activities can be used to estimate the impact of new
developments on the local waste stream. They may be useful in
providing a general level of information for planning purposes.
The quantity and general composition of the waste material that
is generated is of critical importance in the design and operation
of solid waste management. Waste quantities are usually
estimated on the basis of data gathered by conducting a waste
characterization study, using previous waste generation data or
some combination of the two approaches.
a) The load-count Analysis: In this method the quantity
and composition of solid wastes are determined by
recording the estimated volume and general composition
of each load of waste delivered to a landfill or transfer
station during a specified period of time. The total mass
and mass distribution by composition is determined using
average density data for each waste category.
b) Mass volume analysis is another method that is similar
to the above method with the added feature that the mass
of each load is also recorded. Unless the density of each
waste category is determined separately, the mass
 distribution by composition must be derived using
average density values.
c) Mass volume analysis is another method that is similar
to the above method with the added feature that the mass
of each load is also recorded. Unless the density of each
waste category is determined separately, the mass
distribution by composition must be derived using
average density values. This is the only way to determine
the generation and movement of solid wastes with any
degree of reliability for each generation source, such as
an individual home or a commercial or industrial activity.
Preparation of Materials Mass Balances:
a. Draw a system boundary around the unit to be
studied. It will be possible to simplify the mass
balance computations.
b. Identify all the activities that cross or occur within
the boundary and affect the generation of wastes.
c. Identify the rate of waste generation associated
with each of these activities.
d. Using appropriate mathematical relationships,
determine the distribution which like percent
rubbish , percent wood and related products, and
percent miscellaneous wastes (painted or
contaminated lumber, metals tar- based products,
plaster, glass, white goods, asbestos and other
insulation material, and plumbing, heating and
electrical parts).

Factors that affect generation rates:

As we know, wastes cause pollution. While the nature of wastes
determines the type and intensity of pollution, it also helps us
decide on the appropriate application, engineering design and
technology for management. For example, the nature of wastes
has implications for collection, transport and recycling. For
effective SWM, therefore, we not only need information about
the present but also the expected future quantity and composition
of wastes. There are several factors, which affect the present as
well as the future waste quantity and composition, and some of
which are listed below:
a. Geographic location: The influence of geographic
location is related primarily to different climates that can
influence both the amount of certain types of solid wastes
generated and the collection operation. For instance,
substantial variations in the amount of yard and garden
wastes generated in various parts of India are related to
the climate. To illustrate, in the warmer southern areas,
where the growing season is considerably longer
compared to the northern areas, yard wastes are collected
in considerably larger quantities and over a longer period
of time.
b. Seasons: Seasons of the year have implications for the
quantities and composition of certain types of solid
wastes. For example, the growing season of vegetables
and fruits affect the quantities of food wastes.
c. Collection frequency: A general observation is that in
localities, where there are ultimate collection services,
more wastes are collected. Note that this does not mean
that more wastes are generated. For example, if a
homeowner has access to only one or two containers per
week, due to limited container capacity, he or she will
store newspapers or other materials in some specified
storage area. However, the same homeowner will tend to
throw them away, if there is access to unlimited container
services. In this latter situation, the quantity of waste
generated may actually be the same but the quantity
collected, as it relates to the frequency of collection, is
considerably different.
d. Population diversity: The characteristics of the
population influence the quantity and composition of
waste generated. The amount of waste generated is more
in low-income areas compared to that in high-income
areas. Similarly, the composition differs in terms of paper
and other recyclables, which are typically more in high-
income areas as against low-income areas (see Table 2.1).
 e. Extent of salvaging and recycling: The existence of
salvaging and recycling operation within a community
definitely affects the quantity of wastes collected.
f. Public attitude: Significant reduction in the quantity of
solid waste is possible, if and when people are willing to
change – on their own volition – their habits and
lifestyles to conserve the natural resources and to reduce
the economic burden associated with the management of
solid wastes.
g. Legislation: This refers to the existence of local and state
regulations concerning the use and disposal of specific
materials and is an important factor that influences the
composition and generation of certain types of wastes.
The Indian legislation dealing with packing and beverage
container materials is an example.
In short elements that relate to waste generation include land use
characteristics, population in age distribution, legislation, socio
economic conditions, household and approximate number.

5.2. Management - On site handling, collection, storage and

processing techniques,
Waste management is the processes involved in dealing
with the waste of humans and organisms, including
minimization, handling, processing, storage, recycling, transport,
and final disposal. It is necessary to minimize the growing stress
on our resources & to minimize their impact on the health &
environment. Functional elements of scientific MSW
management system involves
1. Waste generation (Waste Minimization)
2. On-site handling – segregation & storage,
3. Collection & transfer and transport
4. Recovery & Processing and
5. Disposal.
5.2.1. Waste Minimization (At Source Reduction and Reuse)
Waste management aims to: Minimize the amount of
waste generated (source reduction), Recover waste materials and
recycle them & Dispose of waste safely and effectively. Waste
minimization results in reducing the amount and/or impact of the
wastes produced. Minimization is the most preferred waste
management strategy in the hierarchy as it reduces the quantity
of waste to be handled, the cost associated with its handling, and
its environmental impacts.
It is estimated by State and regional offices of the CPCB that
urban India generated 1,27,486 Metric Tons of municipal solid
waste per day in 2011-12. Of this waste 40-60% is organic and
10-20% are recyclables. Reduction in the use of environmental
and material resources accrues as a result of waste minimization
programs. In addition, the rapidly decreasing land bank in urban
areas, rising costs of procuring land for processing and disposal
and associated environmental impacts are all critical and
significant reasons to promote waste minimization. Disposal of
waste results in large scale emissions of greenhouse gases
(GHG) methane (CH4) and Carbon dioxide (CO2), waste
minimization would lead to a reduction in GHG emissions and
associated climate change impacts.

CONCEPT OF REDUCE, REUSE AND RECYCLE

Waste reduction may occur through
Reduce:
 The design, manufacture, and packaging of products with
minimum toxic content, minimum volume of material,
and longer useful life. Reduce office paper waste by
implementing a formal policy to duplex all draft reports
and by making training manuals and personnel
information available electronically.
 Improve product design to use less materials.
 Redesign packaging to eliminate excess material while
maintaining strength.
 Work with customers to design and implement a
packaging return program.
 Switch to reusable transport containers.
Reuse - Cleaning and using the material over and over again,
increasing the lifespan of the product.
Recycling is collecting materials that can be broken down and
reprocessed to manufacture same or new items. Household
Recycling products are: Paper Products, Glass, Aluminum, Steel
and Some plastics. Implementing programs taking Factors that
affect waste generation rates into account viz. Geographic
location, Seasons, Collection frequency, Population diversity,
Extent of salvaging and recycling, Public attitude, Legislation.
Source Segregation
Source segregation is the setting aside of inorganic and
organic waste at their point of generation by the generator.
Separating waste at source ensures that organic and inorganic
waste is less contaminated and can be collected and transported
for further processing. Segregation of waste also optimizes waste
processing and treatment technologies. It results in high
proportion of recyclables that could be recycled and reused
leading to less consumption of virgin material. Indirectly, source
segregation also impacts climate change and has many other
advantages which are discussed below in this section.

Storage of Municipal Solid Waste at Source (Primary

storage/ Reception)
At the household level dry
waste and wet waste should be stored
in separate garbage bins, of
appropriate capacity and colour.
Capacity of bins depends on
frequency of collection (daily,
alternate day or on demand) and
quantity of waste generated.

A container of 12 to 15 liter (0.015 m3) capacity for a family of

5 members should be adequate for dry and wet waste each, if
collection takes place daily. It is not desirable to use plastic bags
in waste bins.60 liters (25 kg) garbage bins suitable for 12
households, 120 liters (24 kg) garbage bins suitable for 24
households or 240 liters (96 kg) garbage bins suitable for 48
households, etc. of standard quality, HDPE, injection molded,
UV tested, durable and withstand rough handling, ,and
compatible with lifting mechanism on primary collection vehicle,
if applicable. The specific size of the containers depends on the
number of connected households and the frequency of collection.

Typically four wheeled, HDPE, injection molded, international

standard, UV tested bins or metal bins of different capacities, for
instance for 240 litres (96 kg), 600 liters (270- 280 kg), 770 liters
(315-350 kg), 1100 liters (449 – 495 kg), may be used for bulk
waste. These bins should be compatible with auto lifting by
standard universal bin lifting device on mobile compactors and
other vehicles.Special wastes should not be mixed with either the
wet waste or dry waste, but to store such wastes separately and
hand over to the special waste collection centers.

Collection and Transportation

Types of Collection
Community Bins:The community bins collection system is
commonly found in developing countries. This method is
cheaper compared to the other methods. In this method,
community bins were placed in different locations and the
numbers of community bins placed are depending on the total
population of that area. The surrounding community members
carry and throw the waste in community bins. In this method one
of the most important factor is, the bins should be covered
properly, collected the waste regularly and kept clean always.
Otherwise may cause a public nuisance. Separate bins should be
provided for biodegradable and non- biodegradable waste
materials.

Door-to-Door Collection:This is the most convenient method

for householders. In this method, the waste collector collects the
waste from each and every house. The household member should
keep the dustbin at the doorstep when the collector arrives and
the collector should collect the waste separately.

Block Collection: In this method, for the collection of waste

from the households, the collector set time, day and particular
place in the collection vehicle. Households throw that waste in
that vehicle consists of containers for collecting the waste.

Curbside Collection
The home owner is responsible for placing the containers to be
emptied at the curb on the collection day and for returning the
empty containers to their storage location until the next
collection.

Transportation to Disposal Sites

The material collected in community bins is transferred to
transport vehicles for transport to the processing or disposal site.
The fleet of transport vehicles should have sufficient capacity for
average and peak loads and should be utilized at optimum levels.
Regular disposal of refuse is essential to maintain proper
sanitation.

Transfer refers to the movement of waste or materials

from collection points to disposal sites. Transportation of waste
from collection point to disposal sites is carried out by using
different types of vehicles depending on the distances to be
covered by them. Larger vehicles carry the waste from the
collection points to the disposal sites. Comparatively small
vehicles discharge waste at transfer stations (secondary storage
sites) where the wastes are loaded into larger vehicles for
transportation to the disposal sites. In metro cities transfer
stations are located at different places to support intermediate
transfer of waste from the surrounding areas up to the dumping
grounds.

Transfer stations are centralized facilities where the waste

is unloaded from smaller collection vehicles and re-loaded into
larger vehicles (Dumper placers/skip loaders, Refuse collector
without compactor, etc.) for transport to a disposal or processing
site. Geographic Information System (GIS) and other
Management Information Systems (MIS) are important tools for
ULBs to manage solid waste in large and mega cities.
 Skip Truck Medium size Transfer of waste
(Dumper Placer) compactor truck from secondary
collection
bins to Refuse
Compactor
Processing and Recovery
The Solid Waste Management system involves following waste
management hierarchy with an aim to reduce the amount of
waste being disposed, while maximizing resource conservation
and resource efficiency.

Recycling & Recovery:

Generally dry waste can be subjected to this process. Recycling
is the process by which materials that are otherwise destined for
disposal are collected, processed and remanufactured or reused.
Recycling diverts a significant fraction of municipal, institutional
and business waste away from disposal and, thereby, saves
scarce resources as well as reduces environmental impacts and
the burden of waste management on public authorities. If
appropriate market mechanisms are established, recycling can
generate revenues, contributing to the overall cost recovery for
municipal solid waste service provision.

As per data received from CPCB, it is estimated that urban India

generated 1, 27,486 metric tons of municipal solid waste per day
in 2011-12. Of this waste 40-60% is organic and 10-20% is
recyclables (paper, plastic, metal, and glass). This indicates a
clear waste minimization potential of 12,750 metric tons –
25,500 metric tons per day through recycling and recovery.
Mechanized material recovery process employ following
process.
Pre-Sorting: Bulky waste is removed by manual sorters as the
waste passes along a conveyor belt, which carries the pre-sorted
waste to the mechanized sorting unit.
Mechanical Sorting: Mechanical processes based on principles
of electro-magnetics, fluid mechanics, pneumatics, etc. are used
to segregate the different waste streams in the pre-sorted waste.
Mechanical processes require specialized equipment for
segregation of co-mingled municipal waste. Mechanical sorting
typically employs the following processes:
Ferrous Metal separation: electromagnets are used for
separating heavy ferrous metals from mixed waste.
Air Classification: The residual waste stream is passed through
an air stream with sufficient velocity to separate light materials
from heavy material, specifically for separating out light weight
plastics and paper from the mixed stream.
Non-ferrous metal separation: The non-ferrous metal separator
segregates zinc, aluminium, copper, lead, nickel and other
precious metal from commingled waste. An eddy current
separator removes non-ferrous items from the comingled waste
based on their electrical conductivity.
Detect and Route system: This system separates out various
grades of paper, plastics and glass, which are not sorted out in
the air classifier. This system works in two stages. The first stage
employs programmed optical sensors to determine the nature of
different materials. In the second stage, based on information
received from the sensor, sorted material is routed to appropriate
bins by directional air jets.
Size reduction: Sorted materials after segregation are usually
too large for further use or processing, they should be reduced to
smaller sizes using ball mills & then compressed to bails using
hammer mills.
Recovered materials are then routed for recycling & the sorted
waste for disposal.
Recycling techniques for MSW
Composting
The third preferred choice in the MSWM strategy,
Composting is a process of controlled decomposition of the
organic waste, typically in aerobic conditions, resulting in the
production of stable humus like product, compost, so it may be
recycled for other purposes – plant nutrient, stabilization of soil
in remediation process or soil amendment for recovery of poor
soils.
Organic matter + O2 + aerobic bacteria CO2 + NH3 +
H2O + other end products + energy
Organic waste contributes to environmental pollution in more
ways than one. Composting and other biological stabilization
processes mitigate the impact of uncontrolled decomposition of
organic municipal solid waste and should be adopted by urban
areas. Composting is an environmentally beneficial waste
recycling mechanism and not a waste disposal mechanism.
Considering the typical composition of wastes and the climate
conditions, composting is highly relevant in India and should be
considered in all MSWM concepts. Several biological, chemical
and physical processes contribute to the success of the aerobic
composting as shown in the figure.
 Fig: Process of aerobic composting.
MSW in India has an initial C/N ratio of around 30:1, ideal for
decomposition. Suitable moisture content, aeration particle size
and absence of toxic materials matter for the overall composting
efficiency.
Technologies for composting can be classified into the following
general categories.
a) Windrow Composting: Windrow composting process
consists of placing the pre-sorted feed stock in long
narrow piles called windrows that are turned on a regular
basis for boosting passive aeration. The turning operation
mixes the composting materials and enhances passive
aeration.
b) Aerated Static Pile Composting: Aerated static pile
composting is a technology that requires the composting
mixture (of pre-processed material) to be placed in piles
that are mechanically aerated. The piles are placed over a
network of pipes connected to a blower, which supplies
the air for composting.
c) In Vessel Composting: In-vessel composting systems
enclose the feedstock in a chamber or vessel that provides
adequate mixing, aeration, and moisture.
d) Decentralized Composting: Transportation of municipal
solid waste through cities is a big issue. Decentralized
composting is one of the options to reduce the burden of
transportation of MSW on the ULB. Decentralized
 composting is the composting of source separated organic
waste in limited quantities from households, apartments,
neighborhoods, markets, gardens or from the entire ward.
The decentralized composting approach reduces
transportation costs, makes use of low-cost technologies
based mainly on manual labor.
e) Vermi Composting: Vermi-compost is the castings of
earthworms. Vermicompoting is the process of
composting the biodegradable fraction of municipal solid
waste with the help of earth worms, resulting in the
production of vermicompost which can be used in
agricultural fields as a soil conditioner and nutrient
supply. Vermicompoting is typically suited for managing
smaller waste quantities. It is an ideal technology for
towns which generate upto 50 tonnes of mixed municipal
solid waste per day. The worm species that are commonly
considered are Pheretimasp.,Eiseniasp. &Perionyx
excavates sp.
Incineration

Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves

combustion of dry combustible waste at very high temperatures
(@11000C), in the presence of oxygen and results in the
production of ash, flue gas and heat. Incineration is feasible for
dry combustible waste which is devoid of hazardous material
(which may release carcinogenic dioxins in to the atmosphere
during combustion.

The potential for energy generation depends on the composition,

density, moisture content and presence of inert in the waste. In
practice, about 65 to 80 % of the energy content of the organic
matter can be recovered as heat energy, which can be utilized
either for direct thermal applications, or for producing power via
steam turbine generators.

Besides the potential for energy use, incineration of municipal

waste helps to reduce landfill volumes. Incineration is an option
especially where other better options of processing of waste are
not feasible and land for landfilling and other waste processing
methods is scarce.
An 8 MW power plant is in the process of being set up in
Bangalore. This initiative is carried out under a PPP framework
between M/s SrinivasaGayithri Resources Recovery Ltd and
Bruhat Bangalore MahanagarPalike (BBMP).

Biomethanation/ Biogasification
Production of biogas under controlled condition is often termed
as Biogasification / biomethanation, also known as Anaerobic
Digestion (AD). In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic bacteria
decompose wet waste organic matter (90% moisture is desirable)
to produce biogas as follows:
Organic matter + anaerobic bacteria CH4 + CO2 + H2S + NH3
+ other end products + energy

Biogas is a mixture of gases composed of methane (CH4) 40 –

70 vol.%, carbon dioxide (CO2) 30 – 60 vol.%, other gases 1 – 5
vol.% including, hydrogen (H2) 0 – 1 vol.% and hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) 0 – 3 vol.%. Pure methane has an upper calorific
value of 39.8 MJ/m3.

Anaerobic processing of organic material is a three-stage

process, where large organic polymers (starch, cellulose, etc.) are
microbiallyhydrolyzed to simpler molecules (like sugars). These
monomers are then fermented into short-chain volatile fatty
acids. These acids are then converted into methane and carbon
dioxide. It takes 14 – 30 days to efficiently complete the
conversion & complete conversion is not possible as carbon will
fixed in microbial body mass.
 Biogasification of Organic Waste: Metabolic Stages

The process is carried out in an airtight reactor, which can as

shown below.

Deenbandhubiodigester:
Action for Food Production (AFPRO), a voluntary organization
based in New Delhi developed this model in 1984.

Merits OfBiomethanation Process

Ecofriendly energy generation
Reduction in land requirement for MSW disposal
Reduction of environmental impacts from land filling by
avoiding contamination of land and water sources from
Leachate
 Biomethanation of biodegradable organic material would
ultimately result in stabilized sludge which can be used as
a soil conditioner.
Equivalent quantity of fuel for 1 m3 of biogas
Fir Sof
Name Cowd Furn Co
Keros e- Charc t Buta Electri
of the ung ace al
ene wo oal cok ne city
fuel cakes Oil gas
od e
Equiva
lent
quantiti 3.4 1.6 1.1
12.296 1.458 0.43 0.417 4.698
es to 0.620 74 05 77
kg kg 3 kg 1 kWh
1 m3 kg kg m3
of Bio-
gas
To process wet waste, 5 ton capacity Bio–methanization
plants are being established at 16 locations, out of which 4 have
been made functional. The biogas generated from these plants is
being utilized to light the street lights in that locality. Few of
them are BBMP Biomethanization plant, at S.K.R. Market,
BBMP, Nagapura near Mahalakshmi layout, Biomethanization
plant, Domlur east zone, etc. (Municipal Solid WasteAnnual
Report 2013-14 of KSPCB)

Pyrolysis:
Pyrolysis involves an irreversible chemical change brought about
by the action of heat in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen.
Synonymous terms are thermal decomposition, destructive
distillation and carbonisation. Pyrolysis, unlike incineration is an
endothermic reaction and heat must be applied to the waste to
distil volatile components. Process of converting plastic to fuels
through pyrolysis is possible, but yet to be proven to be a
commercially viable venture.

Pyrolysis is carried out at temperature between 500 and 1000°C

and produces three component streams.
 Mechanism of pyrolysis
i) Gas: A mixture of combustible gases such as hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, methane, carbon dioxide and some
hydrocarbons (Sungas - 2800-4800 kcal/Nm3(10 and
20MJ/Nm3)..
ii) Liquid: Consisting of tar, pitch, light oil and low boiling
organic chemicals like acetic acid, acetone, methanol, etc.
iii) Char/Charcoal: Consisting of elemental carbon along with
the inert materials in the waste feed. It is having better calorific
value that that of coal.
The char, liquids and gas are useful because of their high
calorific value. Part of the heat obtained by combustion of either
char or gas is often used as process heat for the endothermic
pyrolysis reaction. It has been observed that even after supplying
the heat necessary for pyrolysis, certain amount of excess heat
still remains which can be commercially exploited.
Many plastics, particularly the poly-olefins, which have high
calorific values and simple chemical constitutions of primarily
carbon and hydrogen, are usually used as a feedstock in pyrolysis
process. More recently, pyrolysis plants are being tested to
degrade carbon rich organic materials such as municipal solid
waste. Pyrolysis is also used for biomass.

Gasification
Gasification is a partial combustion of organic or fossil based
carbonaceous materials, plastics etc. into carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. This is achieved at high
emperatures (650°C and above), with a controlled amount of
air/oxygen and/ or steam. The process is largely exothermic but
some heat may be required to initialize and sustain the
gasification process. The main product is syngas, which contains
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane (producer gas).
Typically, the gas generated from gasification will have a net
calorific value of 4 - 10 MJ/Nm3.The other main product
produced by gasification is a solid residue of non-combustible
materials (ash) which contains a relatively low level of carbon.

Disposal –
This is the least preferred option for the management of
solid wastes and employed only when there is no option but to
dispose of wastes. The waste which cannot be subjected to any of
the processing may be disposed through following engineered &
non engineered methods depending on the type of waste to be
disposed & other relevant needs (like filling low lying areas,
space availability, etc.)methods.

Non-engineered (/ uncontrolled dumping) disposal:

Open Dumping
Open dumping is the most common and oldest method for
disposal of solid waste in India, because it is a cheap method and
requires no planning. Inert waste (soil and dirt) are suitable for
open dumping. Low lying areas which may be brought up to
grade by filling are generally chosen for the dump.
However, serious nuisances and hazards will result if garbage or
mixed refuse is disposed of in this manner. They include odours,
dust, wind borne paper, flies, fires, rats and mosquitoes that will
breed in rain water held in cans, GHG emissions, leachate
formation leading to ground water pollution, storm water mixing,
etc.

Ocean Dumping
The disposal of refuse by dumping into sea is possible only in
case of coastal cities, where available land is less. While
dumping the refuse, care is taken to take the refuse in barges,
sufficient distance away, 2 to 3 km from the beach and dumped
there. The refuse may be washed ashore under tidal conditions.
This method is very costly and is not used in India.

Site selection: Sanitary landfill operation

Pursuant to guidance in the SWM Rules, 2016 and based on
good practices, the following criteria for site selection are listed
in the below table. However, construction of sanitary landfills for
municipal waste within restricted zones should be avoided at all
costs.
 Table: Criteria for Identifying Suitable Land for Sanitary
Landfill Sites

Develop a list of potential landfill sites, taking into

account the proximity of restricted zones, hydrogeological
aspects, drainage pattern, soil pattern, water table, sub-ground
form (pervious/impervious), etc.Subject the sites to assessment
for environmental impact, social acceptance, land availability,
transportation costs, and sanitary landfilling costs. Select the site
which is having least impact and proceed to construct the landfill
after taking necessary permits and consents.
Design & Construction of a sanitary landfill

The size, type and number of buildings required at a landfill

depend on factors such as the level of waste input, the expected
life of the site and environmental factors.
Design Life: Life of a sanitary landfill comprises the Active
period of 20–25 years & the Closure and post-closure period of
15 years more after active period, for which a sanitary landfill
will be monitored and maintained.
Capacity and Area: An in-depth capacity calculation will be the
first step in the design process, taking into account the municipal
solid waste management (MSWM) plan, infrastructure
requirement and computed waste amounts for the active period
of the sanitary landfill.
Layout: For each sanitary landfill site, a layout has to be
designed incorporating
the essential landfill
components like -
Base Sealing/liner: It is
placed at the bottom & at
the sides of the landfill to
prevent migration of the
leachate into the
surrounding soil & water.
It consists of multiple barriers & drainage layers. It may consist
of compacted mineral sealing liner (clay or equivalentamended
soil of 90 cm), durable synthetic plastic of 1.5 mm (polyethylene,
high-density polyethylene (HDPE), or polyvinyl chloride).
geosynthetic clay liner (bentonite sandwiched between
geotextiles),to guard against tearing of plastic liner & leachate
drainage layer (of 30 cmof filter gravel).

Cells/phases: Waste is stored in a

series of “cells” within the landfill.
Each cell contains one day’s trash,
which has been compacted and
covered in soil.
Leachate collection Monitoring System: The bottom of each
landfill is typically designed so that the bottom surface of the
landfill is sloped to a low point, called a sump. This is where any
liquids that are trapped inside the landfill — known in the waste
industry as Leachate (which may contain dissolved heavy metals,
pathogenic microbes, etc. and is highly dangerous to the human
& environment). — are collected and removed from the landfill.
The Leachate collection system typically consists of a series of
perforated pipes, gravel packs and a layer of sand or gravel
placed in the bottom of the landfill. Once the Leachate is
removed from the sump, it is typically pumped or gravity-flowed
to a holding tank or pond, where it is either treated on site or
hauled off site to a public or private wastewater treatment
facility.
 Leachate collection

Leachate pond

Advantages of Landfilling:
 In addition to provide an option for waste management, it
also serves to improve/ reclaim poor quality land.
 It raises the ground elevation/surface grade of the site.
 Completed landfills have been converted to municipal
parks, playgrounds, golf courses, community land use
projects.
 It is the most economical alternative for SW disposal
which accounts for its frequent application.
 Other disposal methods are not entirely safe and efficient
throughout the year.
 Thus landfilling is the most convenient option -
Incineration is a costly process, residue requires ultimate
disposal on land. Composting is a seasonal option. It is
not possible to reclaim and recycle all SW material.
Disadvantages of Landfilling:
 Difficult to find suitable site within economically feasible
distance.
 It is not possible to build a completely safe and secure
SW landfill.
 Some of the pollutants may escape in the environment in
the form of leachate.
 Potential harm to public health due to air, soil, water and
noise pollution
 Damage to local ecosystem due to the construction,
dumping, etc..
 Public oppose due to fear of mishandling, pollution,
odours issues, etc.
Control Measures:
 It is important to minimize contamination from landfill to
the surrounding environment. Hydrology (GW flow) and
geology (Rock type, soil permeability) of the site has a
direct influence on the possibility of water pollution (GW
pollution).
 Landfill should not be located in low lying wetland areas
i.e. near marshes, swamps, as the waste should not come
in contact with surface/ GW.
 It should not be located in flood plains of streams/ rivers.
There should be minimum distance of 60m from any
lake/pond.
 Vertical separation of 1.5 m between base of landfill and
seasonally high GW table elevation.
 It should not be located in unstable areas or if it is present
it must be designed to resist forces caused by seismic
activity.