Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016

WHEAT

HAIRS OF BRUSH
(BEARD)

6. ALEURONE LAYER

5. NUCLEAR LAYER

4. TESTA

3. ENDOCARP

2. EPICARP

1. EPIDERMIS
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Wheat (Triticum) is a worldwide cultivated grass from the fertile soils in many continentst. Wheat grain is a staple food
used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, juice, noodles,
and couscous and for fermentation to make beer, alcohol, vodka or bio fuel.

WHEAT FLOUR IS the most important ingredient in the bakery industry. It provides bulk and structure to most of the
baker’s products, including breads, cakes, cookies, and pastries. Unlike the home cook who depends almost entirely on a
product called all-purpose flour, the professional baker has access to a wide variety of flours with different qualities and
characteristics. To select the proper flour for each product, and to handle each correctly, you need to understand the
Characteristics of each type of flour and how it is milled.
We can get quality flour from quality wheat. The quality of wheat depends upon the following factors:
 Soil
 Quality of seeds
 Climate
 Manure
 Farming techniques

WHEAT VARIETIES
WHEAT IS CLASSIFIED INTO ITS:
 Type
 Colour
 Hardness

According to type, there are

 Triticum aestium (also called hard wheat)
 Triticum compectum (also called soft wheat)
 Triticum durum (also called durum wheat)

The characteristics of a flour depend on the variety of wheat from which it is milled, the location where it is grown, and
its growing conditions. The most important fact the baker needs to know is that some wheats are hard and some are
soft. Hard wheat contains greater quantities of the proteins called glutenin and gliadin, which together form gluten
when the flour is moistened and mixed.

Gluten development, as you will learn, is one of the baker’s major concerns when mixing doughs and batters. Strong
flours—that is, flours from hard wheats with high protein content— are used primarily to make breads and other yeast
products. Weak flours—that is, flours from soft wheats with low protein content—are important in the production of
cakes, cookies, and pastries.

Major cultivated species of wheat

 Common wheat or Bread wheat — A species that is most widely cultivated in the world.
 Durum — Only form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.
 Einkorn — A species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but
never reached the same importance.
 Emmer —A species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.
 Spelt — Another species cultivated in limited quantities.
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IMPORTANT FROM CHEF’S VIEW

Triticum aestium -also called hard wheat

Triticum vulgare – used for making all-purpose flour
Triticum durum – used for making pasta dough
Triticum compactum – low gluten content, also known as club wheat

MAJOR WHEAT PRODUCING COUNTRIES

Countries Type of wheat Type of flour

1 England, Canada Red winter & durum Strong flour
2 Eastern Europe,North Medium flour
America,South America
Hard wheat
3 Australia Durum hard,white Medium flour
4 India Red & white Medium strong
5 England,Western Europe, Soft wheat Soft flour
Australia
6 North America Hard red spring,hard red Hard/strong
winter
7 North America Soft white Soft flour

Wheat is generally classified according to the color, hardness of grain. Hard wheat flour is high in good quality protein.
Such flours have high WATER ABSORPTION POWER (WAP), good mixing & fermentation tolerance & gas retention power
& excellent for bread making. Soft wheat have lower amount of protein and absorbs less water; this types of flours are
good for cookies, cakes & biscuits.
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SIX PRINCIPAL CLASSES OF WHEAT ARE:

1. Hard red winter. This wheat is grown in large quantities. It has moderately high protein content and is used primarily
for bread flours. The word “red” in the name refers to the dark color of the bran and husk layers of the wheat berry, not
the interior of the grain, which is white.

2. Hard red spring. This wheat has the highest protein content of North American wheat and is an important component
of strong bread flours. It is often blended with flours from other wheat varieties to make bread flour. Flour made only
from hard red spring wheat contains gluten proteins that are often too strong and difficult to stretch for making hand-
shaped breads.

3. Hard white. This high-protein winter wheat is grown in small quantities for bread flours. One interesting use for this
wheat is to make whole wheat flours that are lighter in color and not as strong in flavor as whole wheat flours made
from red wheat.

4. Soft white. This is a low-protein wheat useful for pastries, cakes, crackers, and other products in which a softer wheat
is required.

5. Soft red winter. This is low-protein wheat used for cake and pastry flours.

6. Durum. This hard wheat is used primarily for spaghetti and other macaroni products. Different wheat varieties are
grown in Europe. For example, four principal wheat strains grown in France—Recital, Scipion, Soissons, and Textel—are
softer—that is, lower in protein—than most North American varieties.

COMPOSITION OF WHEAT The wheat kernel consists of three main parts:

 Bran – 14.5 – 15 %
 Endosperm – 83%
 Germ/Embryo – 2.5%
 Bran – it contains 6 principle layers; first three are
o Epidermis
o Epicarp
o Endocarp
Those three are collectively known as pericarp. The second three layers are collectively known as seed coat, which
consists
o Testa
o Nuclear layer
o Aleurone layer

The bran is the hard outer covering of the kernel. Darker in color than the interior of the grain, bran is present in whole
wheat flour as tiny brown flakes, but is removed in the milling of white flour. (In the case of whole wheat flour made
from white wheat, the bran flakes are a much lighter, creamy white color.)

Bran is high in dietary fiber and contains B vitamins, fat, protein, and minerals. The fourth layer testa contains the
coloring matter which decides the color of the wheat & flour as well. The sixth layer aleurone cell contains protease
enzyme that has softening effect on the wheat protein & consequently on the dough. Although bran is enriched with
vitamin B but the cellulose presents in bran tends to speed up the passage of food through the digestive tract reducing
the total nutritive contribution to the body. The sharp edges of bran fragments have a cutting action on gluten strands
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
which reduces the gas retention power of the dough which is not desirable. Due to those reasons bran contamination
should be avoided in flour more than what is unavoidable in good milling practices {0.4 – 0.5%}.
 Endosperm –
The endosperm is the white, starchy part of the kernel that remains when the bran and germ are removed. This is the
portion of the wheat kernel that is milled into white flour. Depending on its source, the wheat endosperm contains
about 68 to 76% starch and 6 to 18% protein. The endosperm also contains small amounts of moisture, fat, sugar,
minerals, and other components. It constitutes almost 85% of the whole wheat grain, it is the floury portion of the
wheat grains. In the endosperm there are innumerable starch packed cells which is again divided by cellulose wall.
Endosperm contains
o Starch
o Soluble proteins
o Insoluble proteins
o Oil
o Moistures
o Sugar
o Mineral.
The white flour/refined flour is milled out from the endosperm only, where as the whole meal flour is a product from
the whole wheat grain.

 Germ/Embryo –
Germ is responsible for developing plant from the wheat grains. Plumule develops into green shoot, radicle gives rootlet
to the plant & scutellum is the storehouse of vitamin. Germ is also not a desirable part in flour because germ contains oil
which reduces the keeping quality of the flour.
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POCESSING OF FLOUR--WHEAT MILLING PROCEDURE

There are two distinct methods of milling wheat

a) Stone milling
b) Roller milling

Any milling process consists of at least these 5 steps as mentioned below:

1. Grading
2. cleaning
3. Conditioning
4. Blending/ Gristing
5. Milling

1. Grading: grading is a procedure to remove different undesirable particles from wheat grains after receiving directly
from suppliers. Here we generally try to remove
 Damaged kernel
 Heat affected kernels
 Fungus affected kernels
 Castor bean
 Grass seed
 Glass
 Stone
 Animal filth
 Unknown foreign elements

2. Cleaning: this process includes the cleaning of wheat and much more complicated than may appear at first sight.
This process is carried out to remove any type of impurities & dirt from the grains. Nowadays a lot of modern
machineries are being used to clean grains before further processing.
 Separator – two reciprocating screens remove stone, sticks and other coarse material remained
after grading.
 Aspirator – air currents removes fine and lighter impurities.
 Scourer – beaters in in screen cylinders scour off impurities and roughage.
 Disc separator – barley and other foreign material is removed.
 Magnetic separator – iron objects are removed
 Washer – Stoner – high speed rotors circulate wheat and water. The process removes the stones.

3. Conditioning: conditioning takes place before milling to produce a uniform moisture content through out the grain.
It helps to prevent breakup of the bran during milling and improves separation from the floury endosperm. The
wheat conditioning for milling consists of two processes:
 damping
 tempering.
The water is added and has to penetrate into the grain. The goal is to modify and soften endosperm and seed
coat texture to yield large semolina and bran without endosperm, with minimal power consumption.
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Then dry air is passed through the wheat grains to control the percentage of moisture in the grains & to achieve the
suitable moisture percentage level in grain for milling. The amount of added water and the tempering time depend on
initial moisture, temperature and endosperm structure-texture. Suitable end moisture percentage of grain for milling is
16-17.5%.
Water addition is controlled by automatic systems nowadays. The tempering takes place when the wet grains are
stored into specific bins (Also known as “SILOS”). Hot water pipes and fitted electric fans are used to temper the wheat
grains.

4. Blending/Gristing: After conditioning different batches of wheat are blended together (gristed) to make a suitable
mix which is capable of producing the required flour quality.

5. Milling:
Machine milling
This method simply can be described as separation of the bran and germ from the endosperm and the reduction of
endosperm to a uniform particle size by a series of breaking, grinding and separating operation.

 At first wheat grains passes through sets of break rolls, some bran is separated and lifted off by the air current
and very small amount of flour is milled and separated.
 Large chunks of kernel are again directed to the second set of break rolls. In this step bran are almost removed.
In this step we generally obtain semolina.
 At this stage the wheat grains are broken into pieces of various sizes which are graded and separated by a “Plan-
sifter”. This sifter consists of different size of sieve where the uppermost sieve has largest whole and in
descending order the lower most sieve has smallest whole to separate & collect the pieces of similar size.
 From the plan-sifter now different size pieces will directed to different break roll accordingly for further
processing/grinding.
 At least five times that above mentioned cycle is completed to finish the milling procedure.

Stone milling
This process was almost obsolete nowadays. This is a fairly simple construction and consists of two heavy circular
rough stones lying one top of the other. The bottom stone remains fixed while the upper stones revolves upon it. Wheat
grains are poured from the centre of the top stone (also known as “RUNNER”), trickled down, crushed and at last find its
way from outwards joining of two stones.

Characteristics of stone milled flour:

 Because of the excess heat produced by the friction of two large stones the natural fat from germ melts down
and absorbed by the flour very easily. Though it gives a good flavour, but it reduces the shelf life, as that fat
becomes rancid very quickly.
 Darker color than machine milled flour.
 Contains more amount of fiber.
 As well as releasing oils present in the germ, the stone milling process allows proteins and enzymes present in
the germ to come in direct contact with the endosperm. Some of these substances have an adverse effect on
gluten structure. Some of these substances known as glutathione - which is really a collective term for a group of
tripe tides - play the role of a 'reducing agent' when in contact with gluten strands. A reducing agent behaves a
bit like a pair of scissors cutting gluten strands into shorter units resulting in reduced fermentation tolerance,
smaller bread volume, sticky dough character, less extensibility, etc. This is why cooler dough temperatures and
slightly shorter fermentation times are usual when baking with stone-ground meal/flour.
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TYPES OF FLOUR

The TRITICUM AESTIUM: wheat flour contains more proteins. This flour is used for the production of bread.

The TRITICUM COMPECTUM:wheat flour contains low protein so it is used for the production of biscuits, cakes and
pastries.

The TRITIUM DURUM: wheat is according to colour, there are:

 Red wheat
 White wheat

This colour variation is due to the environmental factors.

According to hardness, wheat is classified into:

 Hard wheat
 Soft wheat

HARD WHEAT:

Bakery products are made from the hard type of wheat flour because it has the following chracterstics:

 More protein
 More water absorption power(WAP)
 Good mixing capacity, that is easy to mix.
 Fermentation tolerance.
 Good gas retention power.

Hence,it mainly used for yeast products (eg-breads) examples of hard wheat are:

 Hard red winter

 Hard red spring
 Durum
SOFT WHEAT:
Soft wheat flour contains the following characterstics:

 Less protein
 Less WAP
 Poor mixing capacity
 Poor fermentation tolerance

Hence it is mainly used to make biscuits,cakes and pastries. Ex-of soft wheat are:

 Soft red winter.

 Soft red spring.

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CONSTITUENTS OR COMPOSITION OF FLOUR:

Flour contains the following ingredients:

 Starch 70%

 Moisture 14%

 Protein 11.5%

 Ash 0.4%

 Sugar 1%

 Fat 1%

 Others (enzymes-alpha & beta)

STARCH:

Starch is not soluble in water until it is heated to about 140⁰F with water of six times of its weight. Then the starch cells
will swell and the cell wall burst. Now the starch becomes soluble in water. This process is called gelatinization. Starch
acts as filler as it gives elasticity to the bread dough. It combines with the water and forms gluten to retain the gas
during fermentation. This work is called B-dimension network.(starch liquids gluten)

During milling 6% of starch cells are burst and damaged due to the rollers, through wheat and moisture etc. The water
absorption power the flour mainly depends on the damaged starch. Enzymes (alpha and beta analyses) act only on
damaged starch to produce sugar for the yeast during fermentation. The damaged starch should not be more than 7-9 %
for bread making. The damaged starch is essential for cake or biscuit making. Hot bread directly from the oven cannot
be sliced immediately because the starch is not sufficiently stable and must be allowed to retrograde(slightly
harden)when the bread cools down, starch cells shrink and become rigid so that the bread can be sliced easily.

MOISTURE:

An ideal moisture content of flour is 14%.the source of moisture may be tampered or the package materials or the
humidity. If more moisture is in the flour it will reduce the storage life and reduce insect infestation, may get fungus and
bacteria and also will reduce the WAP of 0the flour. This could result in fewer yields during production.

PROTEIN:

Flour contains soluble and insoluble proteins, namely:

Albumin & globulin are soluble

Gliadin & glutenin are insoluble.

The soluble proteins (albumin and globulin) are useful in providing nourishment to yeast during the fermentation,
process for its growth and reproduction. The insoluble proteins, gliadin & gluetenin forms a rubbery material(texture)
developed is called gluten.
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
It gives structure to the baked products. The quality of flour is decided by the gluten content. If the gluten content is
more than flour will be suitable for high structured products like burst. This bread making flour should have the gluten
from 10 to 11.5%

If the flour contains less gluten the flour will be suitable for lower structured products like cakes and biscuits/cookies.
This flour requires a 7-10% gluten content.

ASH:

The source of ash content in flour is best.if the flour more ash,it means it has more bran.too much ash gives dark colour
to the flour and also cuts the gluten.flour with higher ash content will be retain as much gas during different stages of
processing and this affect the volume and gives poor texture to the products.

SUGAR:

Naturally,flour contains a small quantity of sugar,namely ,sucrose.it is used as yeast food to produce co₂ (carbon dioxide
gas)

FAT/LIPIDS:

Fat or lipds should not be more than 1% in flour.they contains the pigment caratene which gives colour to the
flour.there is a higher quantity of oil/fat in the low grade flour than is the high grade ones.the fat/oil when seprated
from the flour is a pale yellowish liquid without taste or smell.

ENZYMES:

Flour contains diastatic enzymes.they are alpha(a) analyses and beta(b) thus enzymes hydrolyze starch and converts it
into simple sugar is used by yeast to produce alionel and carbon dioxide.the gas production depends upon the amount
of enzymes found in the flour.indian flours have less alpha analyses.these enzymes are necessary for producing good
quality bread.

In rain damaged wheat,these enzymes will be available in excess.the bread made out of this flour will have dark crust
colour and sticky crumbs.if these enzymes are less,the bread will have poor volume and dull crust cream.

TYPES OF FLOUR:

Bakery use two primary types of white wheat flours,hard flour or strong flour and weak flour or soft flour.we get hard
flour from hard wheat. If contains 11.2%-11.8% protein,0.45%-0.50% ash,1.2% fat and 74%-75% strach.these protein
found in strong flour indicates a higher level of gluten.this type flour is mainly used for high-strong products like yeast
products,choux pastry and puff pastries.

We get soft flour from soft wheat.this type of flour contains 8.4%-8.8% protein,0.44%-0.48% of ash fat and strach.due to
the less protein ,content this flour is mainly used for low structure products like biscuits,cakes,sponges and sweet
paste.apart from the above flours there are other types of flours and they are classified according to the extraction
rate.some of them are giving below.

HIGH RATIO FLOUR:

High ratio flour is also known as special in flour.this type of flour absorbs high liquid,fats and sugars than a normal flour
does.it is normally manufactured for special recipes,because it gives the cake produced a very soft crumb and a light
moist,fine texture.the cakes are also sweeter,of greater volume and have a longer shelf life.the cakes made with
standard flour .this flour is normally bleached with chlorine gas.
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
BREAD FLOUR/WHITE FLOUR:

It is milled from hard,high protein,wheat and is also called strong flour or high grade flour or bakers flour.it has high
protein content,between 12% and 14%. It is unbleached and sometimes conditioned with ascorbic acid which increases
volume and creates better texture.this is good for yeast breads. higher proteins encourage gluten development in the
bread,which helps the breads,biscuits, cookies and cakes which need a lesser one. In making sour dough bread,this high
gluten content helps to dough this well.

WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR:

Whole wheat flour is milled from whole wheat grain and no bran or germ is removed.during milling. When using the
flour,it requires more liquids than mentioned in recipes,bran particles cut through the during mixing and kneading of
bread dough,is resulting in smaller and heavier loaf. It does not have as high a gluten level so often it is mixed with all
puprose bread flour when making yeast bread.

WHOLE MEAL FLOUR:

The whole meal flour is a mixture of refines flour.In it the content of bran and germ is more. It can also be made by
combining white and whole wheat flour. It is used in various baked products, including cakes, biscuits, scones and
muffins.

CAKE FLOUR:

It is the fine textured silky flour and it is milled from soft wheat with low protein content. It has 7% to 9% of protein
content. It is chlorinated (a bleaching process leaves the flour slightly acidic) sets a cakes faster and distributes fat more
evenly through the batter to improve texture cake with greater volume and is used in some quick
breads,sponge,cakes,biscuits,cookie batter and some types of pastry that do not need to strech and rise much. It has a
high starch and low protein keeps cakes and pastries tender and delicate.cake flour for traditional cakes should be very
fine,white and clean.this enables it to hold more liquid.

PASTRY FLOUR / COOKIE FLOUR.

It is usually milled from soft wheat. It has 8-11% protein. It is used for a whole range of products.

It has protein content and should be very white and free of any bran particles to ensure a good pastry product. It also
has a low gluten content.though it contains a bit more than the cake flour does. It absorbs the liquid in recipes. It can
also be used for making cookies, biscuits , cakes ,muffins,crackers and similar products this slightly higher gluten content
aids the elasticity needed to hold together the buttery layers is flaky dough such as croissants and puff pastry. Protein
varies from 9-10%

ALL-PURPOSE FLOUR:

It is a blend of hard and soft wheat. It has 8-11% protein. It is used for a whole range of baking from crusty bread to fine
cakes and pastries. It is good for making cakes,cookies, breads and pastries. It is usually enriched and may be bleached
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
or unbleached. Bleaching will not affect the nutrient value. Bleached flour has less protein than the unbleached. The
unbleached flour is best for pie crusts, cookies, quiche ,breads, pan cakes and waffles. Use unbleach flour for yeast
breads, danish pastry ,puff pastry ,strudes ,pudding, eclairs and cream puffs. It is also called plain flour or standard flour.

SELF RISING FLOUR:

It has 8% to 9% proteins content and it is made by combining flour with baking powder and salt. These are shifted
together many times until they are throughly combined and baking powder is evenly distributed through the flour. It is
commonly used in biscuits and quick breads and its perfect for making piketes and scones but is not recommeded for
yeast bread. Also, if the flour is stored too long ,the baking powder will lose some of the strength and the baked goods
will not rise properly. So for the fresh one, mix 3 gm of baking powder and 1 gm or less of salt with 100 gms of all
purpose flour. It is for reducing salt and baking powder according of these proportions. If we test this flour, we should
reduce the baking powder quantity from the given formula.

UNBLEACHED:

Unbleached flour is similar in composition to all-purpose flour but has not been chemically bleached. Unbleached flour
can be used successfully in as many recipes as all-purpose flour. Unbleached flour is a good choice for those who are
concerned with flavor purity or exposure to chemicals.

STONE GROUND:

Stone ground flour is the same as whole wheat flour but is milled to a coarser texture. Stone ground flour is valued for
its characteristic rough texture and rustic look.

SEMOLINA:

Semolina is flour made from a specific variety of wheat known as Durum. Durum wheat has an exceptionally high
protein content, giving it a very dense, chewy texture. For this reason, semolina is most often used to make pasta.

SOME OTHER FLOURS

Almond Flour (Gluten Free) - Just a touch of this flour (about 1/4 of the flour mixture) is all you need to add moistness, a
little binding, light almond flavor, and density to baked goods. It is especially good in pastry crusts, cookies, and quick
breads.

Amaranth Flour (Gluten Free) - Amaranth is an ancient grain and the word amaranth means "everlasting" in Greek.
Amaranth contains more protein than any other gluten-free grain and more protein than wheat flour. You can substitute
up to 20 to 25% of the flour used in your recipe with this flour.

Barley Flour (Low Gluten) - A non-wheat flour made from grinding whole barley. It is a popular alternative to wheat flour
because, unlike many non-wheat flours, it contains some gluten. This flour has a mild, but very slightly nutty taste. This
flour also has slightly fewer calories and more than 4 times the fiber of all-purpose. By using barley flour instead of all-
purpose flour, you triple your fiber intake. When making yeast bread recipes, there is not enough gluten in barley flour
to properly develop the bread, and it is recommended swapping only one quarter of all-purpose flour for barley flour in
yeast bread recipes. Great in quick breads and pancakes.

Chickpea Flour (Gluten Free) - Also know as garbanzo flour, gram flour, and besan. Made from dried chickpeas ground
into a flour. Used in many countries, it is a staple ingredient in Indian, Pakistan, and Nepal cuisines. You can use this flour
as an egg substitute in vegan cookery. You can substitute up to half the amount of all-purpose flour called for in a recipe
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
with chickpea flour. It is also very easy to make your own Chickpea Flour by processing dried chickpeas in your blender
or food processor.

Coconut flour (Gluten Free) - It is ground from dried, defatted coconut meat. It is high in fiber, and low in digestible
carbohydrates. It has a very light coconut flavor. Coconut flour can replace up to 20% of the flour in a recipe, but you will
need to add an equal amount of liquid (oil) to compensate as this flour soaks up the liquid. You will also need more eggs
- usually double the eggs (or more).

Corn Flour (Gluten Free) - It is a powdery flour made of finely-ground cornmeal and is milled from the whole kernel.
Corn flour comes in yellow and white and is used for breading and in combination with other flours in baked goods.
White corn flour is used as a filler, binder and thickener in cookie, pastry and meat industries.

Instant Flour (Wondra from Gold Medal) is granular and formulated to dissolve quickly in hot or cold liquids. It will not
work as a substitute for all-purpose flour, although there are recipes on the container for popovers and other baked
goods. It is used primarily in sauces and gravies.

Millet Flour (Gluten Free) - Millet is one of the oldest foods known and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for
domestic purposes. Millet flour is most commonly used in desserts and sweet breads largely because of the grain’s
naturally sweet flavor. When substituting for wheat flour, it is usually best to start with about a 3-to-1 ratio of wheat to
millet.

Oat Flour (Gluten Free) -This flour tends to make a baked good more moist than wheat flour. It is made from ground
whole oats - yes the old-fashion oats used for cereal. It is very easy to make your own oat flour. Just place the dried oats
in your blender and grind. 1 1/4 cups rolled oats makes 1 cup oat flour.

Pumpernickel Flour (Low Gluten) - This flour is made from coarsely-ground whole rye berries. It is the rye equivalent of
whole wheat flour. Pumpernickel breads tends to be dense, dark, and strongly flavored.

Quinoa Flour (Gluten Free) is one of the most nutritious grain flour available. Quinoa is considered a grass/seed and not
a grain. This powerful little grain is a great addition to any diet, but is an ideal solution for those following a gluten free,
vegan or vegetarian diet. You can substitute this flour for 1/2 of the all-purpose flour in many recipes or completely
replace wheat flour in cakes and cookie recipes. This is a very expensive flour to purchase.

Rice Flour (Gluten Free) - Rice flour is a form of flour made from finely milled rice. This flour can be made from either
white or brown rice and can be used interchangeably. White Rice Flour (also called Mochik) is lighter, milder, and easier
to digest than wheat flour. Some people find white rice flour to be slightly gritty, but many find it preferable to bean
flours. It is great as a thickening in sauces. You can also make your own rice flour - just place rice of your choice (white or
brown) in your blender and process until it forms a powder.

Rye Flours (Low Gluten) - There are light, medium, and dark colored varieties of rye flour. The color of the flour depends
on how much of the bran has been removed through the milling process. It is also a low gluten flour. Rye bread may be a
better choice than wheat bread for persons with diabetes. Because rye flour is low in gluten, a general rule suggests
substituting 1/3 of the amount of rye with wheat flour to ensure the bread will rise properly.

Soy Flour (Gluten Free) - Made from ground soy beans. Full-fat and low-fat soy flours work best in sweet, rich, baked
goods like cookies, soft yeast breads, and quick breads. Soy flour can be substituted approximately 10% to 30% of the
wheat or rye flour in your recipes.

Spelt Flour (Low Gluten) - One of the most popular and widely available of alternative baking flours. The full name of
spelt is Triticumaestivum var. spelta. Triticum denotes that it is of the wheat family, but the fats are more soluble and
the nutritional content higher than traditional wheat flour. People who have issues with wheat digestion, but who are
not gluten, will tolerant often do well with Spelt. Spelt flour has a nutty and slightly sweet flavor similar to that of whole
wheat flour. It does contain gluten and is a popular substitute for wheat in baked goods.
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Tapioca Flour (Gluten Free) - It is also known as tapioca starch. It is a starchy white flour with a slight sweet flavor. This
flour is make from the starch extracted from the South American cassava plant. This flour helps bind gluten-free recipes
plus improves the texture of baked goods. This flour is also an ideal thickening agent. Use tapioca for thickening a wide
variety of baked goods, sauces, and desserts. This flour can also be used to replace corn starch (use 2 tablespoons
tapioca flour for each 1 tablespoon corn starch).

Teff Flour (Gluten Free) - Teff is an ancient and intriguing grain, tiny in size yet packed with nutrition. It is simple to
prepare and similar to millet or quinoa in cooking. Teff is a great addition to your diet for nutrition, taste, and variety. It
is higher in protein than wheat and has a high concentration of a wide variety of nutrients, including calcium, thiamin,
and iron. Since the grains are so small, the bulk of the grain is germ and brand. It is very high in fiber and is thought to
benefit people with diabetes as it helps control blood sugar levels. Teff is excellent in making dark breads and rye
breads.
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LAMINATED DOUGHS

Laminated dough consists of alternative layers of puff margarine, butter, lard or even oil and soft pliable dough. This is
done by rolling the dough into thin rectangle then folding it several times after encasing fat by it.

Different types of laminated pastries that used in bakery are –

 Puff pastry
 Danish pastry
 Croissant
 Phyllo/ Filo pastry
 Strudel dough

A laminated pastry can be made from both fermented and flat dough.

HOW LAMINATED PASTRY IS AERATED??

DOUGH
DOUGH HEAT
FAT FAT HAS MELTED, STEAM
DOUGH WANTS TO ESCAPE,
HENCE,PUSHING UP THE
UPPER LAYER OF DOUGH
DOUGH
All the methods of making laminated pastries are designed to produce a laminated structure in which thin layers of
tough fat are interleaved with equally thin layers of dough. When we bake the pastry the thin layer of fat melts and form
oily layers between two leaves of dough preventing them from sticking together, or simply it lubricates the doughy
layers. As the heat penetrates more, the water in the doughy layer as well as in fat layers changes into steam. The
steam finds its way between the various layers of dough, and causes expansion of elastic gluten strands or films of the
dough by pushing lubricated doughy layers apart from each other. This produces a great increase in the volume of the
piece of the pastry. Later the gluten of the flour is coagulated while the excess water is dried out, so by that time it is
properly cooked and able to retain the shape and fluffy volume.

DESIRED QUALITY OF THE COMMON INGREDIENTS TO BE USED FOR LAMINATED PASTRY

1. FLOUR - laminated pastry must be made with reasonably strong flour, and its gluten should be still further
strengthened by addition of acids. To handle the pressure of the steam, the gluten quality has to be good and
very elastic in nature, either the pastry will tear because of the steam pressure from inside which can cause the
total steam to escape out through the torn part, which will ultimately cause to collapse the pastry.
2. FAT – the most important two characteristics that a fat requires to be suitable for laminated dough making are -
 High melting point – it must have a high melting point otherwise it will melt during rolling and
folding because of the heat generated from friction of dough with rolling pin and work table.
 Plasticity – this indicates to the power to retain its shape and elasticity of the fat. Plasticity can be
checked by following method - Numerous pieces are cut off the margarine (approximately 1 - 1½
cm in width). The pieces are bent and kneaded. If the margarine exhibits a poor plasticity, the
margarine will break during bending; the poorer the plasticity, the more breaking.

Some other important things that one needs to check before selecting fat for laminated dough are –

 Flavour
 Mouth feel
 Kneading quality.
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016
Most suitable option for making laminated is a specially prepared PUFF MARGARINE with high melting point, plasticity
and low moisture content. Sometimes lard or a slab of butter-flour mixture also can be used.

3. ACIDS – citric acid (lemon juice), diluted acetic acid (vinegar), and cream of tartar can be used to increase the pH
value of the dough in order to strengthen the gluten strands.
4. SALT - Salt is used mainly as a preservative, and seasoning to the dough.
5. MOISTURE – Generally 50 – 55% of moisture is used to make the dough. Water is the most common source of
moisture in this case, but milk, egg also can be used partly to enrich the dough (mostly in case of Danish pastry
and croissant). The moistures have to be chilled to be used in laminated dough to control the temperature of
the dough, to avoid the melting of fat during working.

PUFF PASTRY

This type of laminated pastry is most common of its category, made from soft smooth non fermented dough, can be
classified on the basis of amount of fat that has incorporated by lamination process:

1. Rough puff – below 50% fat of the weight of flour

2. Flaky pastry – 50 – 75% fat
3. Full puff – 100% fat

Products that can be made from puff pastry are –

 Patties
 Turn over
 Pie / tart shell
 Vol-au-vent
 Cheese straw
 Palmiers
 Khara biscuits
 Pithiviers
 Mille feuille etc.

Methods of making puff pastry:

1. ENGLISH METHOD – firstly a clear dough has to be made and then rested for a short while to mature the gluten
strands, 10% of fat from total fat to be used for lamination can be added to the dough to get a shortened crisp
effect on the finished product. Then we need to knead the fat to give it a homogenous, pliable texture and have
to divide that in to three equal portions. Next step is to roll the dough in to a rectangle of 1” thickness and apply
one portion of fat to 2/3 portion of the rectangle, then the untreated 1/3 part has to be folded first to cover half
of the fat treated area, and then the remaining fat treated 1/3 portion to be folded to get a rectangle of smaller
size. This folding procedure is known as HALF TURN. After few minutes of resting, preferably in refrigerator the
pastry again needs to be rolled to a rectangle of 1 to 1/2 “ thickness and again to be folded following the same
manner, but without applying fat this time, hence we will complete another half turn. These two half turns will
complete one full turn.
In English method total 3 full turn or 6 half turn has to be given to the dough, among which three half turns to
be given with fat, and three half turns to be given without fat. Half turn with fat and half turn without fat should
be given alternatively. In this method we will get a dough with 729 layers.

2. FRENCH METHOD –
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016

X 4X X

Dough

Incision X

***** X = Thickness of the dough

Make the dough and rest it for few minutes, then give two deep incisions like the picture. Then roll the dough
from four cut corners two get star shape dough with four flaps, like the picture. The thickness of the flap should
be 1/4th of the thickness of the middle part of the dough. Place all the fat at the middle of the dough and
envelope the fat completely with the flaps. Then like English method only we need to give 6 HALF TURNS. But
here the folding should be a BOOK FOLD or FOUR FOLD TURNS where the two ends meets at the centre and
then again fold over once. Here we will get 1024 layers.

3. SCOTCH METHOD – This is a method which is widely used commercially to prepare a very flaky type of puff with
uneven texture, which is also known as “Rough puff” by few bakers. This is a very simple method where we mix
dices of puff margarine with flour, moisture, egg and acid to make lumpy type of paste. Then it has to be rolled
and folded like English method only. While rolling the cubes of butter become rolled out in very thin flaky layers
to gibe a laminated effect. Usually an extra half turn is given to puff pastry made by scotch method to allow the
first half turn to act as a “Clearer turn”.

4. SWISS METHOD OR CRUSTLESS PUFF PASTRY – Swiss confectioners use a very unique method to make a
crustless or moist crust puff pastry. The method adopted is the very simple of one of revering our normal
procedure in that bthe dough is enfloded in the puff margarine so that the outer covering/layer is unable to
form a dry crust. To enable this to be done the butter or margarine is first blended with about a quarter of its
own weight of flour. (eg. In case of a full puff 1kg of margarine is blended with 250 gms of flour and then a 750
gm flour has to be used to make the dough, that to be laminated).

For the first rolling generally excess amount of dusting is needed, and then there will be no difference with
French method. In this method the pastry will give a bright shine than puff dough made by any other orthodox
method.

DANISH PASTRY

Danish pastry is a sweet pastry which has become a speciality of Denmark and the neighbouring Scandinavian countries
and is popular throughout the world, although the form it takes can differ significantly from country to country.It is a
yeasted laminated dough which can be stuffed with dry fruits, nuts, custards, marzipan and can be flavoured with
various suitable spices like cinnamon, cardamom etc. generally served as breakfast roll.
 Wheat & Wheat Flour 2016

CROISSANT

A croissant is a buttery flaky bread or pastry named for its distinctive crescent shape. It is also sometimes called a
crescent or crescent roll. Croissants are made of a leavened variant of puff pastry. The yeast dough is layered with
butter, rolled and folded several times in succession, then rolled into a sheet, a technique called laminating. Croissants
have long been a staple of French bakeries and patisseries. Variations may be a cheese, chocolate, cream, savoury filling
such as bacon filled croissant. It is also a breakfast roll.

PHYLLO/FILO PASTRY

Phyllo, filo, or fillo dough is paper-thin sheets of raw, unleavened laminated flour dough used for making pastries in
Greek, Middle Eastern and other regional cuisines. Can be used for various snacks and dessert like baklava, savory
envelops etc.

STRUDEL DOUGH

A strudel is a type of layered pastry with a — most often sweet — filling inside, often served with cream. It became well
known and gained popularity in the 18th century throughout the world. Strudel is most often associated with Austrian
cuisine but is also a traditional pastry in the whole area formerly belonging to the Austro-Hungarian empire. Here first an
oil shortened dough is pulled and stretched by hand and then brushed with oil, after putting filling it has to be rolled like
a Swiss roll. It is a good example of oil laminated dough.