BMMS 10 CognitiveRadioNetworks Part2

Cognitive Radio Networks (Part 2)
Безжични мултимедиски системи 2022

Вонр. проф. д-р Милош Јовановиќ
Agenda
} Part 1
} Introduction
} Cognitive Radio System Concept
} Cognitive Radio Deployment Issues
} Part 2
} Cooperative Cognitive Radio Networks
} Multihop Cognitive Radio Networks
} Control and Coordination in Distributed CRNs
2 Безжични мултимедиски системи 2022

Cooperative Cognitive Radio Networks
Cooperative Communication, Spectrum Leasing

Cooperative CRN (CCRN)
} Most existing wireless networks and devices follow legacy
fixed spectrum access policies.
} Spectral bands are licensed to dedicated users and services (TV,
cellular networks, vehicular ad-hoc networks);
} Only PUs have the right to use the assigned spectrum;
} Others are not allowed to use it, even when the licensed spectral
bands are idle;
} The spectrum utilization and efficiency can be enhanced, if
SUs can transmit in the licensed bands
} when PUs are absent, or
} if such secondary transmissions are allowed to coexist with primary
transmissions in such a way that SUs cause no interference to PUs;
} Two methods to achieve this:
1. Cooperative communications between PUs and SUs
2. Spectrum leasing

Cooperative Communications between PUs
and SUs
} To gain transmission opportunities in a CCRN, one or
more SUs can act as relaying nodes for a PU.
} SU can provide a multihop relay service or an additional
transmission path to the destination of the PU;
} In return, the PU yields the licensed spectrum to its relaying SU
for a fraction of the time;
} Benefits for the PUs:
} Primary link establishment using multihop transmissions;
} Receiving PU can obtain diversity gain / enhance reception –
signals from direct + relayed paths;
} --> Spectral efficiency and utilization improves;

Cooperative Communications between PUs
and SUs
} Several models for cooperative communications:
} Three-phase TDMA-based cooperation;
} Two-phase FDMA-based cooperation;
} Two-phase SDMA-based cooperation;

Three-Phase TDMA-based Cooperation
} First phase: the PU transmits the primary traffic to its
intended destination and the selected relaying SUs.
} Second phase: the SUs relay the PU’s data.
} Third phase: the SUs transmit their own signals.
} Main parameters for both the PUs and SUs:

} optimal time duration of each phase;
} optimal allocation of transmit power levels (energy-efficiency);
} Main concern: multiuser cooperation in the time domain
may result in high overhead and collisions --> degradation
of the cooperation performance of a CCRN.
Two-Phase FDMA-based Cooperation
} The PU uses a fraction of its licensed band for relay
transmissions with an SU.
} Allocates the remaining resources for the SU to address
secondary transmissions;
} The SU continuously transmits its own signal on a
dedicated licensed band.
} So, the achievable throughput of the SU is guaranteed;
} The role of the CCRN is to guarantee the PU’s

transmission, while achieving an elastic throughput for
the SU according to the properties of wireless
environment.
Two-Phase SDMA-based Cooperation
} The SU exploits multiple antennas to enable MIMO
capabilities (e.g. spatial beamforming), to avoid
interference with the PU and with other SUs in CCRN.
} With the MIMO-CCRN framework, the SU can use the

degrees of freedom provided by the MIMO system to
concurrently:
} relay the primary traffic of the PUs, and
} transmit its own data, at the cost of complex antenna
operation and hardware requirements;

Spectrum Leasing
} PUs typically obtain licenses by paying spectrum
regulators (e.g. for cellular networks, TV broadcast, …).
} In the context of CCRNs, PUs can lease their temporarily
unused spectrum to SUs in return for a financial reward;
} Biggest challenge: the pricing model.
} Spectrum providers / PUs compete with each other to lease
their licensed spectrum to SUs;
} SUs compete with each other to lease spectrum from PUs;
} Models based on economic theory:
} Maximize PUs’ revenue;
} Maximize SUs’ satisfaction;
} Widely used approach: spectrum leasing via auctioning;

Spectrum Leasing
} Spectrum broker: a centralized platform that facilitates
TVWS spectrum trading and allocation to interested
operators / service providers.
} Broker: Can be a government-controlled body or an
independent third party;
} Players: The spectrum buyers should use the spectrum in
flexibly assigned TVWS frequency bands;
} Broker’s task: Controls the assignment of available resources,
to provide the desired QoS for each user and limit
interference;
} …

Spectrum Leasing
} …
} Resources: The resources for sale in a given trading area are:
} the available frequency bands (often fragmented),
} the allowable maximum transmit power in these bands, and
} the period for the licensing that grants temporary exclusive rights to
use the spectrum;
} Broker’s operational goals:
} achieve robust technical protection of the players,
} QoS provisioning to the players, and
} spectrum trading revenue maximization;

Spectrum Broker Functional Algorithm

System Architecture for CCRN
} Scenario: one primary network with a primary BS and multiple
PUs, and one secondary network with a secondary BS and
multiple SUs.
} The primary BS allocates network resources (spectrum, time
slots, etc.) to PUs.
} --> PUs can access the spectrum without interfering with each other;
} There’s also a dedicated control channel between the primary
and secondary BSs.
} SUs (via their CR) have the knowledge of channel state
information (SNRs) of their interesting users.
} Moreover, SUs are assumed to have advanced signal processing
functions: adaptive modulation, coding, and frequency agility;

} Goal: Achieve high spectral efficiency in the CCRN for user
cooperation.
} Methods to achieve the goal: Exploit the available
degrees of freedom in the wireless network:
} Time, space, coding, modulation, etc.;
} Efficient management and use of these degrees of

freedom is critical to the CCRN’s design and
implementation.
} Additional issue: how to stimulate motivation for PUs and
SUs to cooperate in a CCRN?


Multihop Cognitive Radio Networks
Multihop CRN Environments, Routing and Challenges

Multihop CRNs
} In multihop CRNs, the local view of available resources is
not necessarily identical in all nodes – due to the physical
separation of nodes.
} This difference grows as the peer nodes move further away
from each other;
} This has two effects:
} First, resource availability info should be disseminated.
} At least between neighboring nodes, and possibly beyond that;
} This ensures that P2P and E2E connectivity can be established;
} Second, establishment and maintenance of E2E paths
must have tight couplings with resource availability views
and allocation decisions.
Multihop CRNs
} The environment consists of several primary radio
networks (PRNs) and one secondary cognitive radio
network (CRN).
} All coexist in the same geographical space;
} PUs from a given PRN share the same
licensed spectrum.
} SUs form an opportunistic network, to
access the entire spectrum available to
all PRNs.
} Must operate using relatively low
transmission power to avoid degrading
the performance of PUs;
Multihop CRN Environment

Multihop CRNs
} Traditional MAC protocols are not well suited to the unique
characteristics of CRNs.
} An efficient MAC protocol for multihop CRNs:
} Should be transparent to PUs;
} Should provide guarantees on PRNs’ performance;
} Should allow cooperation among neighboring CR users at the MAC
layer, to improve spectrum efficiency and fairness among them;
} Should make efficient sensing and spectrum assignment decisions, to
explore both unused and partially used spectrum holes;
} Should provide an effective distributed coordination scheme for
exchanging control information without assuming a predefined
dedicated control channel;
} This is an ongoing research task.
Routing in Multihop CRNs
} Three categories, all depending on the PUs’ behavior:
static, dynamic and opportunistic (highly dynamic)
routing.
} Static scenario: the holding time of the used primary band
offers a relatively static wireless environment – once a
frequency band is available, it can be exploited for an
unlimited period;
} Dynamic scenario: the primary band can be exploited by a
cognitive user;
} Highly dynamic case: a possible solution for CRs is to
opportunistically transmit over any available spectrum band
during the short period of the spectrum’s existence;

Three Possible Routing Approaches

Static Multihop CRNs
} When a primary frequency band is available for longer than
the actual communication time, static wireless networking
methods (defined for ad-hoc and mesh networks) can be
adapted for CRNs.
} E.g. static CRN over satellite / analog TV bands in a given
geographical area, GSM / CDMA BS in rural areas, etc.
} The differences between mesh networking and CRNs are:
} (a) the dynamic and heterogeneous spectrum access, and
} (b) the physical capability to transmit simultaneously over multiple
frequency bands.
} Here, (a) is reduced to statically available channels.
} Also, (b) can only be exploited on similar almost static bands.
} Special consideration for new arriving PUs over the exploited bands -
-> should be included in the routing design;

Dynamic Multihop CRNs
} First priority: find an available and stable path.
} One option is to accumulate the achieved throughput over
many bands on every hop of the path;
} Even if a first ineffective channel is selected, it can later be
reinforced by other channels;
} Selected channels must be really available and stable --
spectrum information should be part of the path selection
algorithm;
} Routing algorithms in multihop CRNs must be less
complex compared with algorithms in mesh networks.
} Computations must be fast and allow dynamic changes, based
on captured spectrum fluctuations;

Highly Dynamic Multihop CRNs
} If available time for CR activity over a primary band
becomes shorter than the time needed for CR
communication, establishing a full route is clearly
unthinkable.
} E2E path cannot be computed – for every sent packet the
network properties may change --> need for a new path;
} Each sent packet may be forced to follow a different path,
based on primary band availability;
} One potential approach: every packet is sent and
forwarded over opportunistically available channels.
} However, each CR may see different neighbors at different
times, based on primary channel behavior;

Challenges for Routing Information through
Multihop CRNs
} Spectrum awareness: the routing module has to be
continuously aware of the surrounding environment --> more
accurate decisions.
1. Spectrum occupancy information is provided by external entities
(e.g. TVWS DB);
2. Each SU locally gathers spectrum occupancy information;
3. A combination of 1 and 2;
} Setup of quality routes: the topology is highly influenced by
PU’s behavior.
} Traditional measurements of route quality (throughput, delay, energy
efficiency) should be combined with new metrics about path
stability, spectrum availability, PU presence, etc.
} Route maintenance: paths may need to be rerouted when a
new PU appears.
} Existing paths may become unusable, and need to be restored with
minimal effect on the perceived quality;

Information Routing in Multihop CRNs

Control & Coordination
in Distributed CRNs
Implementing the MAC Layer in Distributed CRNs
Control & Coordination in Distributed CRNs
} A distributed CRN is usually a more practical choice, as
compared to a centralized approach.
} Its easier and faster deployment, has lower system complexity,
and lower cost of implementation;
} The MAC protocol remains the key requirement for a
successful deployment of any CRN.
} Control and coordination of wireless communication happens
mainly at the MAC layer;
} Distributed CRNs usually form P2P architecture among
SUs.
} Very similar to conventional distributed networks;
} But, nodes of distributed CRNs also perform sensing, and
negotiate a common available channel;

Control & Coordination in Distributed CRNs
} The main characteristics of distributed CRNs are:
} The channel availability for SUs at any time and location
depends on the PUs’ activity at that time and location;
} The available channels are generally discontinuous and may lie
anywhere in the entire spectrum;
} The number of available channels is a time-dependent
variable, and the sets of available channels are different for
various nodes;
} There is no central unit to coordinate channel sensing, channel
access, and synchronization among SUs;

Distributed Medium Access Control
} MAC issues specific for CR:
} resource availability,
} interference to PU,
} presence of sensing error,
} channel sensing period and negotiation,
} time synchronization,
} QoS provisioning,
} multichannel hidden terminal problem,
} network coordination, and
} reconfiguration.

} Due to the opportunistic access by SUs, they are likely to
cause some level of interference to the data
transmissions between PUs.
} So, the goal for the MAC would be to minimize interference;
} Sensing errors are always possible, due to hardware
limitations in a practical SU node.
} Also, sensing is necessary, but it comes with the price of
increased overhead – the length and frequency of the MAC
sensing phase should be carefully designed;
} Negotiation and coordination between SUs is crucial.
} Common control channel (CCC): for control message exchange,
but can introduce additional overhead;
} Time synchronization: necessary before data transmissions;

} MAC is also responsible for QoS provisioning.
} Needs to employ necessary signaling, resource scheduling, and
admission control mechanisms;
} The multichannel hidden terminal problem can drastically
degrade the system performance in distributed CRNs.
} If each node has one transceiver, it can only work either on the
control channel or on a data channel;
} Solution: MAC signaling and synchronization;
} Multitransceiver nodes don’t have this issue – but are more
expensive and complex to implement;
} Network coordination and reconfiguration can be
achieved by the use of a CCC.
} But, this will be costly in terms of overheads;

Classification of Distributed Cognitive
Medium Access Control Protocols

Conclusion
Concluding Remarks
Conclusion
} The cognitive radio system can be characterized as a radio
system capable of obtaining knowledge and adjusting its
operational parameters and protocols.
} A paradigm for opportunistic access of licensed parts of the
spectrum by unlicensed users;
} Provides solutions for interference scenarios & enhances scalability;
} Currently, international standardization of CRS is being
performed at all levels.
} ITU, IEEE, ETSI, ECMA, etc.;
} CR technology plays a significant role in optimal usage of
scarce spectrum, to support the fast-growing demand for
wireless applications.
} Multimedia streaming inside homes, healthcare applications, public
safety, etc.;

Q&A
Quiz questions to refresh what we just learned

Question 1
} Which are valid methods for achieving cooperative CRNs?
} Cooperative communication between PUs and SUs
} Decentralized communication between SUs
} Spectrum contention
} Spectrum leasing

Question 2
} What do SUs provide to PUs, in exchange for access and
usage of their spectrum?
} SUs provide a multihop relay service for the PUs;
} SUs provide an additional transmission path for the PUs;
} SUs provide additional bandwidth for the PUs;
} SUs don’t provide anything to PUs;

Question 3
} What’s true about three-phase TDMA-based
cooperation?
} SUs and PUs share the same spectrum, but in different time
periods
} SUs and PUs communicate in parallel, but use different
frequency channels
} SUs and PUs use beamforming to avoid interference
} SUs and PUs use phase-shifting to avoid interference

Question 4
} What is spectrum leasing?
} A cooperative CRN method, where SUs can lease their
opportunistically obtained spectrum to other SUs, in return for
a financial reward
} A cooperative CRN method, where PUs can lease their
temporarily unused spectrum to SUs, in return for a financial
reward
} A cooperative CNR method, where PUs can lease their
temporarily unused spectrum to other PUs, in return for a
financial reward

Question 5
} What’s true about static multihop CRNs?
} Can be used when a primary frequency band is available for
very long times
} Has to change the communication spectrum very often, very
fast
} Can use adapted networking methods from ad-hoc and mesh
networks
} Requires expensive hardware, for the high-levels of processing

Question 6
} What’s true about highly dynamic multihop CRNs?
} The path might need to be rebuilt after each packet
} E2E paths can easily be computed and maintained
} The SUs need to be actively aware of their wireless
environment
} The PUs should be more permissive towards SUs, to allow
them to use their spectrum more often

Questions?


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Cognitive Radio Networks (Part 2)

Безжични мултимедиски системи 2022

2 Безжични мултимедиски системи 2022

Cooperative Communication, Spectrum Leasing

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} Main parameters for both the PUs and SUs:

} The role of the CCRN is to guarantee the PU’s

} With the MIMO-CCRN framework, the SU can use the

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} Efficient management and use of these degrees of

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Multihop CRN Environments, Routing and Challenges

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Quiz questions to refresh what we just learned

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