Modern Power
Stations
INTRODUCTION
The power industry has been fundamental to ABB Analytical
Business for many years. Even as long ago as the early
1960’s the Company has developed automatic on-line
silica and sodium monitors targeted exclusively for this
market. Since then the Company has worked closely with
many power organisations around the world to develop
and extend the range of instruments that are offered.
This Technical Note is intended to give a brief description
on the various designs of power plants in use today. This
will enable those who are involved with the power industry
to have a better understanding of the different component
parts. Typical sampling points for on-line monitoring are
also given.
ELECTRICITY GENERATION
On 17th October 1831 Michael Faraday generated, in his
own words, ‘a wave of electricity’ by plunging a bar magnet
into a coil of wire. Some days later he rotated a copper
plate between the poles of a magnet and found that power
could be taken from the axis to the edge of the disc.
These two fundamental experiments provided the basis
for the production of all electrical power by mechanical
means. The electricity that supplies an enormous variety
of needs in homes, offices and factories all originate in
power stations which convert the chemical energy of coal,
oil, natural gas and nuclear energy into thermal energy.
The generation of electricity is an inefficient process with
fossil-fuel-burning stations losing almost two-thirds of
their thermal energy to the atmosphere.
There are, however, some energy sources that have
greater efficiency. For example, the use of dams, tidal
Coal Mills
Coal Air
Induction
Fan
Air
Fig. 1 Basic Fossel-fuelled Power Plant
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TECHNICAL NOTE
motion, solar energy or wind have no ‘fuel’ losses and are
essentially non-polluting. Over the next few years the
continued rapid depletion of natural resources and
increased pollution will make these methods more viable.
At the moment, however, the high capital cost of
constructing such alternative energy sources is restricting
its development.
FOSSIL FUEL POWER PLANTS
Fossil fuels are naturally occurring hydrocarbons derived
from anaerobic decomposition of organic material in the
earth’s crust. The most important for power generation are
natural gas, oil and coal.
Natural gas is a gaseous hydrocarbon, the major
constituent of which is methane, and is trapped
underground in large reservoirs usually associated with
oil deposits. Natural gas is the highest quality and cleanest
burning fossil fuel.
Oil is usually found trapped deep beneath impermeable
cap rock and above sedimentary rock. Although it is to be
found throughout the world, the majority of production
(54%) occurs in the Middle East. During the late 1960’s
crude oil was cheap and thus electricity generation changed
over from coal as a heat source. Because of the oil crisis
during the early 1970’s the price of oil rose sharply, and so
oilfired stations became less economical to fuel.
Coal is by far the most utilised form of fuel for power
stations. Deposits of coal are the most abundant of all the
fossil fuels; its vast reserves and improved methods for
more efficient combustion and pollution prevention means
it remains the most used resource.
Extraction Stack
Boiler Fan
Boiler Tube
Steam
Out
Ash
Removal
Ash
Precipitator
Air & Fuel
Mix Water In
 STEAM GENERATION
Whether the fuel source is gas, oil or coal the general type
of boiler design (see Fig. 1) is broadly the same. Gas- and
oilfired stations, however, do not include coal handling,
pulverising and ash removal plants.
Water, passed into a boiler, is heated in tubes to produce
steam. (The boiler comprises a large number of tubes
extending the full height of the structure.) The steam is fed
through to the steam turbine which in turn drives a
generator.
Most large, high pressure boiler plants operate at steam
pressures of around 150 to 180 bar. A few, known as
supercritical boilers, operate above 215 bar. All these
boilers require careful control of the chemical conditions
within the boiler to prevent corrosion and the build-up of
scale. Significant monitoring must be carried out at many
points in the steam/water cycle to enable the operation
staff to maintain the correct conditions.
Smaller, medium pressure boilers, between 100 and 150
bar are less critical from a chemical control point of view,
so less chemical monitoring is usually found. Low pressure
boilers, less than 100 bar, usually have minimal chemical
monitoring as the low temperatures, pressures and low
steam flow cause few problems.
For the more modern generation of power using natural
gas, a process called ‘combined cycle’ is used. The
primary process of this generation utilises a gas turbine;
the heat from the exhaust gases is then used to generate
steam and drive a more conventional steam turbine. Fig.
2 shows the primary process consisting of a combustion
chamber and the turbine itself. Air from the atmosphere is
compressed and mixed with natural gas before being
passed into the combustion chamber and burnt.
This process alone is only 33% efficient. However, this is
improved by combining a more conventional steam
generation system which increases the efficiency to 50%.
The heat from the exhaust gas is utilised by heat recovery
which produces low pressure steam to drive a single
turbine in the same way as with nuclear, coal and oil fuel
generation. Fig. 2 shows a schematic of the whole combined
cycle process.

Stack

Boiler
Natural
Gas
Electrical
Power
Output

Low Pressure
Boiler Tubes

Gas Turbine

Hot Gases

Electrical Steam
Output
Steam Turbine

Cooling Tower Condenser

Water

Fig. 2 Schematic of a Combined Cycle Power Plant

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 NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
The growth of nuclear power has been rapid throughout
the world, with around 8% of all electricity being generated
from nuclear sources. Currently there are over 700 nuclear
reactors in use, 250 of which are in the United States of
America.
What is the difference between Nuclear and more
conventional power sources?
Electricity generation from nuclear power is produced in
much the same way as with the more conventional coal-
and oil- fired stations, i.e. heat converting water into steam
which in turn drives a steam turbine which in turn drives the
generator – the only difference being the heat source.
Reactor Carbon Dioxide Gas
(coolant gas)
Pressure Vessel Gas Blower
Fig. 3 Late Magnox and AGR Reactors
Coal, gas or oil is burnt to produce the heat whereas with
nuclear generation heat is released by splitting uranium
atoms. This process is called nuclear fission. Neutrons are
made to collide with a uranium nucleus causing it to split.
Heat is produced plus more ‘free’ neutrons which can now
collide with more nuclei. This is called a ‘chain reaction’.
During fission the reactor core becomes hot. Coolant
(which takes the heat away) is used to turn water to steam
which drives the turbine and in turn generates electricity.
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Magnox Reactors – Fig. 3
One early design of reactor adopted around the world
during the 1950’s was the MAGNOX (gas-cooled reactor).
These reactors operate at relatively low temperatures
(300 to 330°C) and use carbon dioxide gas to transfer the
heat from the reactor core to the boilers. The uranium fuel
is contained in magnesium alloy (Magnox) fuel cans, from
which the reactor derives its name.
Magnox reactors are refuelled whilst in operation. In older
Magnox stations ‘drum-type’ boilers generating the steam
for the turbine are located outside the reactor pressure
vessel. Later stations have ‘once-through’ boilers located
within the reactor pressure vessel. In this respect they are
similar to Advanced Gas-cooled
Reactors described in the following
section.
The Magnox reactors are now
reaching the end of their commercial
life and some are already being
decommissioned. Although this type
Steam out of reactor is inefficient in terms of
useful generating capacity per tonne
of fuel, it has an excellent safety
Heat Exchanger record.
Advanced Gas-cooled
Water in Reactors – Fig. 3
A more modern type of gas-cooled
reactor (confined to the UK) is the
AGR (Advanced Gas-cooled
Reactor). AGR’s also use carbon
dioxide gas to transfer the heat from
the reactor to the boilers, but they
operate at higher pressures, and
therefore, higher temperatures
(660°C) than Magnox reactors. AGR’s all have ‘once-
through’ boilers located within the reactor pressure vessel.
The fuel source in this case is enriched uranium oxide
contained as pellets in stainless steel fuel pins. Refuelling
can be carried out on-load.
 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)
Reactor Cooling Water
– Fig. 4
In a Boiling Water Reactor the heat produced
Steam out in the core is conducted away by water
which is allowed to boil in the reactor itself.
The steam produced is passed, under
pressure, directly to the steam turbines. It is
a very simple concept, but has one major
disadvantage. Because there is no boundary
between the reactor and the turbine, the
turbine area becomes radioactive during
operation and, therefore, must be shielded.
If there is fission product release (from leaking
Water in fuel pins) radioactivity may persist after
shutdown of the reactor, thus complicating
maintenance of the plant.
Recirculating Pump
The fuel in a BWR is enriched uranium oxide
Pressure Vessel contained in zirconium alloy (Zircolloy) fuel
Fig. 4 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) pins. Refuelling is carried out off-load.
For many years the BWR has competed with
the PWR as the most popular design of nuclear power
plant worldwide. Now, however, it has started to lose
ground to its competitor, largely due to the considerable
French input into PWR technology.

Reactor Steam Generator Pressurised Water

Reactors (PWR) –
Steam out Fig. 5
The Pressurised Water
Reactor, as its name implies,
Secondary Circuit is also cooled by water, but at
a higher pressure than a BWR
so as to suppress boiling.
Water in
There are two water circuits
linking the reactor to the
turbine. In the first, or Primary
Circuit, hot, pressurised water
emerging from the reactor is
Primary Pressurised
Water Circuit routed through a series of tubes
in a steam generator where
the heat is transferred to the
Pressure Vessel Containment Recirculating Pump Secondary Circuit. The
Fig. 5 Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR) Secondary Circuit is a more
conventional steam/water
system producing the steam
to drive the turbine.
The fuel used is enriched uranium oxide contained in
zirconium alloy (Zircolloy) fuel pins. Refuelling is carried
out off-load.
The PWR is now the most common nuclear reactor
system throughout the world.

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 ELECTRICITY GENERATION
Whether the heat source is fossil-fuelled or nuclear, three the necessary repairs can be carried out. Some condensers
schematics (see Figs. 7, 8 & 9) can be shown to illustrate are divided into separate compartments; these
the various power designs. compartments can be isolated and repaired whilst the
plant is running at a reduced load.
Apart from the boiler variations the generation side is fairly
consistent. The two main generating parts of the power MAKEUP WATER
station, the turbines and the generator which are common
The water in the system is taken from the water treatment
to both fossil fuel and nuclear heat sources, have undergone
plant. This plant consists of a demineralisation process
intensive development to produce the most efficient
which produces very high purity water. The water the plant
machines possible. Thus the efficiency of power stations
produces is known as ‘makeup water’ which, via large
has increased from 5% in 1900 to 40% in 1975. In other
storage tanks, is usually fed into the condenser.
words in 1900 power stations would burn 8 times as much
fuel to produce the same amount of energy as those in EXTRACTION PUMP
1975.
This pump is used pull the condensate out of the near
The various components of the generation cycle can be vacuum of the condenser up to a small positive pressure.
described as follows: On a big power plant the pump requires between 5 to
10MW to operate it.
FEEDWATER SYSTEM
Most of the chemical monitoring of the condenser takes
The feedwater system is the part of the steam/water cycle
place at the extraction pump discharge. The pump is also
between the condenser extraction pump and the boiler.
susceptible to oxygen ingress around the pump glands.
The water is preheated (in some cases de-ionised),
deaerated, and pretreated chemically before it can be in CHEMICAL DOSING
the suitable condition to be presented to the boiler. If this
Normally, low pH conditions in the steam/water circuit is a
is not done chemical contamination builds up in the boiler
cause of corrosion in the feed system or boiler and should
which would lead to the build up of scale on the boiler
be avoided. For this reason an alkaline solution, such as
tubes and turbines or could result in boiler corrosion. Both
ammonium hydroxide, is added to the feed water to
problems lead to boiler or turbine failure which in turn
maintain a mild alkaline condition. This may be
results in expensive down time and loss of electricity
supplemented by additional dosing with a nonvolatile
production. It is interesting to note that in the 500MW
alkali e.g. sodium hydroxide at the boiler drum.
boiler, 1500 tons of water is boiled off per hour (1,000,000
tons per month). Most of the chemical contamination is Oxygen can be very corrosive to the boiler tubes and is
nonvolatile, so much of this is left behind in the boiler. normally reduced to a level of less than 5µg/l. The removal
Even very small levels of chemical contamination rapidly of the remaining trace levels of oxygen in the deareation
build up in the boiler to levels causing considerable outlet is achieved by the addition of an oxygen scavenger.
damage. It is in this part of the system where most of the Hydrazine is usually added to high pressure boilers, but in
chemical monitoring is carried out. small, low pressure boilers, sodium sulphite may be used.
However, in some once-through systems, oxygen is added
CONDENSER
at a low level to control the corrosion. Both regimes are
This consists of a series of tubes. Cooling water is passed equally acceptable for protecting the carbon steel surfaces
through these tubes which is used to condense the steam, of a feed system, but with the latter, more careful control
from the turbine, on the outside of the tubes. The cooling of the chemical conditions is required.
water is taken from a local source (e.g. rivers or sea) but
is first pretreated to remove silt, mud and organic matter. CONDENSATE POLISHING PLANT
The now warm cooling water is either returned directly to
Generally these plants use a demineralisation process
the river or sea, or is recirculated having first been passed
and are only present on once-through (Fig.7) and PWR
through a cooling tower. The water is sprayed into the
(Fig. 8) boiler systems. Occasionally they are found on
tower about a third of the way up, and, as it falls into a pond
drum boilers to overcome particular plant design or local
below, it is cooled by the air that is drawn in at the bottom
situations, i.e. sea water cooling where very small cooling
and out at the top of the tower.
water ingress in the condenser would be a significant
The condenser operates at a near perfect vacuum, because problem. These plants ensure that the water purity is
the steam from the turbine is cooled and condensed back adequate for the more stringent requirement of this type of
into water. The condenser is prone to leaks allowing boiler.
cooling water, which is very high in chemical contamination,
The steam generator blowdown treatment plant used on
to enter the condensate compartment. This should be
a PWR system (see Fig. 8) is very similar to a condensate
avoided at all times, but is impossible to prevent indefinitely.
polishing plant. In this case, however, the contaminated
Eventually leaks may occur but, if small, the plant could
water from the steam generator is treated before being
still be operated. Close monitoring of the situation must be
returned into the system.
maintained. If the levels of contamination exceeds a
predetermined level, the plant is then shut down so that

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LOW AND HIGH PRESSURE FEEDHEATERS

These operate by using steam, bled from the low pressure Economiser Tubes
turbines and the boiler blowdown, to pre-heat the feedwater The economiser boiler tubes are sited in the part of the
prior to entry into boiler. The purpose of these feedheaters boiler where the burnt combustion gases are being
is to extract as much heat as possible from the waste extracted. Although this is the coolest part of the boiler,
steam to reduce the operating losses. The efficiency of the it is useful to heat the feedwater before entering the
boiler can be significantly increased by the use of these boiler itself, so extracting as much heat as possible
feedheaters which can in turn reduce costs of operating from the furnace area. The economiser inlet is a useful
the plant. point to carry out chemical on-line monitoring to give a
final indication of what is entering the boiler.
DEAERATOR
This is a large vessel where the water is sprayed into an Boiler Drum
evacuated chamber. The dissolved gases, such as oxygen, This is a very large vessel, situated at the top of the
is one of the main causes of boiler corrosion, are stripped boiler, where the steam is separated from the water.
from the solution. The bulk of the oxygen is removed by the This is where the chemical contamination is allowed to
deaerator, but trace levels will remain, i.e. up to 20µg/l. build up since most of this contamination is not carried
This is then reduced further by the use of a chemical over in the steam. When this contamination reaches a
oxygen scavenger. The performance of the deaerator predetermined level, it is removed by operating the
needs careful monitoring; if most of the oxygen is not boiler ‘blowdown’ which slowly bleeds boiler water from
removed at this point, the oxygen scavenger will not be the drum. The level in the drum is maintained by the
able to achieve the necessary low levels of oxygen entering addition of makeup water, added to the condenser, to
the boiler. offset the losses. However, since this water is anything
up to 350°C and 160 bar pressure, it will be flashed off
FEED PUMP
as steam on the roof of the boiler house. This process
The feed pump is very much like the extraction pump, but is very wasteful in terms of loss of heat and high purity
in this case the pump is pushing the water into the boiler water so it is only carried out when it is essential. The
which can operate up to 180 bar pressure. Like the operation needs to be controlled; if it occurs too
extraction pump, 5 to 10MW of power may be required to frequently it becomes expensive and inefficient.
operate the pump on a large boiler.
Boiler Tubes
The boiler tubes cover
Saturated Superheated the walls of the boiler.
Steam Steam The hot gases from the
Electrical furnace heats the water
Boiler
Power in the risers which,
Output through convection, flows
Drum
Turbines back into the drum. This
0 structure can be ten
Steam
9 Makeup meters square and 50
Water Water
meters high so the
@ surface area in contact
with the furnace can only
Super Condenser be described as massive.
Heater
The water from the drum
Condensate Cooling
Economiser Water is heated in these tubes
Extractor and then returned to the
Pump 4 drum.
8 Boiler Chemical
Boiler Dosing
Tubes Chemical Superheater Tubes
Dosing
The saturated, or wet,
Blowdown steam from the drum then
7 6 enters the superheater
Feed Pump tubes. These tubes are
H-P Heater Deaerator L-P Heater sited at the very hottest
Fig. 6 Typical Drum Boiler Circuit part of the boiler (the top
of the furnace area) and
THE BOILER are used to increase the temperature to the highest
possible. The steam leaving these tubes is known as
The boiler comes in one of three basic types: the superheated or dry steam. This is then passed on
1) A Drum-Type Boiler, Fossil-fuelled Only – Fig. 6 to the high pressure turbines to provide the necessary
This consists of economiser tubes, the boiler drum itself, energy to cause rotation.
boiler tubes, boiler blowdown, and superheater tubes.

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 2) A Once-through
Boiler – Fig. 8
A once-through boiler
Electrical consists of a series of
Superheated Power parallel pipes so there
Steam ! Output is basically water in and
Turbines superheated steam
Makeup Water
out. These boilers are
@ therefore much more
Condenser
simple in design but
Superheater this is offset by one
Extractor major problem. There
Pump Cooling
Water is no boiler drum to
remove any build up of
4 c h e m i c a l
Condensate
Boiler Polishing contamination. Once-
Plant
through boilers turn
8 Boiler Tubes water into steam in one
Chemical 5 Chemical particular area in the
Dosing Dosing
boiler tubes. It is at this
point where most of the
7 6 boiler corrosion takes
Feed Pump place. As very small
H-P Heater Deaerator L-P Heater levels of chemical
contamination (a few
Fig. 7 Typical Once-through Boiler Circuit
micrograms per litre) in
the feedwater causes
premature boiler failure, the level of this contamination
would normally be in the order of 1/10th of the acceptable
levels entering the boiler on a drum type of system.

3) PWR Boiler – Fig. 9

In a PWR, heat from
the primary circuit is
used to heat the water
Electrical
Power in the secondary circuit
! Output with a heat exchanger
known as the steam
Steam Turbines
generator. So again it
Makeup
Water is water in, steam out.
But in this case the
@
Condenser water in the steam
generator can be
monitored and
Steam Generator Extractor
Cooling
controlled by blowdown
Pump
Water in the same way as a
drum boiler.
Chemical 4
Chemical
8 Dosing Dosing
Note. Some
H-P Heater Deaerator plants may include a
Feed
Pump condensate polishing
Primary plant, but these would
Cooling 7 6 depend on the
Circuit
to Reactor L-P Heater particular design.
9
£
Steam Generator Blowdown
Treatment Plant
Fig. 8 Typical PWR Circuit for the Nuclear Industry

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TURBINES CHEMICAL MONITORING
This component consists of several stages of turbines to Typical sampling points, shown as numbers in Figs 6 to 9,
ensure that the maximum amount of energy from the for on-line chemical monitoring are shown in Table 1.
steam is harvested. The first turbine is a high pressure These are examples only; specific boilers may be monitored
type where steam (up to 600°C) gives up most of its at other points.
energy. The exhaust steam from this stage is returned to
Table 1 Sampling Points
the boiler and reheated before being passed to the
intermediate pressure turbine and finally low pressure 1) Cation Na+
Detect resin exhaustion
turbine(s). Many stations have one high pressure turbine Exchanger Cond.
producing 27% of the power, one intermediate turbine 2) Anion SiO2
Detect resin exhaustion
Exchanger Cond.
producing 31% of the power and three low pressure
3) Mixed Bed SiO2 Monitor anion resin exhaustion
turbines developing 42% of the power.
and final water quality
The shaft of the turbine is connected to the generator and Na+ Monitor cation resin exhaustion
rotates at a speed set by the frequency of the electricity and final water quality
supply. In most parts of the world it is 3,000 revolutions per Cond. Monitor resin exhaustion and
final water quality
minute (r.p.m.) corresponding to an alternating supply of
4) Extraction DO Monitor oxygen ingress via
50Hz (or cycles per second). In the United States, however,
Pump Discharge extraction pump glands or
the turbine speed is 3,600r.p.m., corresponding to a 60Hz condenser leaks
supply. Na+ Detect condenser tube leaks
The generator consists of two electrical windings; one is Cond. Detect condenser tube leaks
connected to the turbine shaft (called the rotor) and the 5) Condensate •Na+ Monitor cation resin exhaustion
other is a surrounding shroud (called the stator) fixed to polishing plant •SiO2 Monitor antion resin exhaustion
outlet •Cond. Monitor resin exhaustion
the floor. The relative motion of the two windings with •Cl– Monitor treated water quality
respect to each other generates electricity. 6)–7) Deaerator Inlet DO Monitor deaerator performance
To ensure that the best performance is gained from the 7) Deaerator Outlet DO Monitor performance
generator, constant cooling is necessary. Modern rotor
and stator designs use windings of hollow copper tubes 8) Economiser •SiO2 Monitor excessive silica levels
Inlet (Boiler
with hydrogen circulating through them.
Feed)
Electricity is generated at 25,000 volts and even though DO Montor effectiveness of
most domestic use is 110/220 volts, it is stepped up to hydrazine dosing
275,000 or 400,000 volts as at these voltages electricity N2H4 To avoid under or over dosing
becomes cheaper to transmit. pH To enable pH to be kept within
control limits
•NH3 Monitor ammonia levels assisting
WATER TREATMENT PLANT correct pH control
Operating details of this system are given in the Technical Cond. Monitor total dissolved solids.
Note Ion Exchange – Simply Explained. Fig. 9 shows a Before and after cation gives
Na+, Cl–, SO42– and NH3
typical arrangement.
•Na+ Monitor sodium is within
acceptable limits
Na+ Ca++ 9) Boiler Drum * SiO2 Monitor silica/chloride build up
* Cl– in boiler
NH3+ K+ Mg++
* pH Ensure pH of boiler water is
(Cl- SO4-- NO3-)
Cl- SO4-- H2 O within acceptable limits
NO3- SiO2 with slight 10) Saturated Steam SiO2 Monitor silica carry over
Raw Water Na+ Monitor sodium carry over
(H+) impurities
Inlet 11) Superheated Cond. Monitor total dissolved solids
Steam carry over. Before and after
cation gives Na+, Cl–, SO42– and
+ R.H+ NH3
R.H R.OH- 12) Condenser Cond. Monitor condenser tube leaks in
R.OH-
each compartment
13) SG Blowdown †Cond. To monitor, performance
Cation Bed Anion Bed Mixed Bed
Treatment Plant
* Drum boilers only
1 2 3 • Once through boilers only
High
Purity † PWR boilers only
H2O

Treated Water
Outlet

Fig. 9 Complete Demineralisation Process

Technical Support Department

May 1999

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