Introduction + Qualities of Measurement

EIM
Electronic Instruments &

z
Measurement
ETEC – 207
Vaibhav Nijhawan, ECE (MAIT)
G.G.S.I.P.U Delhi
2
Agenda:
VAIBHAV NIJHAWAN, MAIT (ECE)
INTRODUCTION COURSE BRUSHING UP STATIC AND

TO COURSE SCHEDULE BASIC CONCEPTS DYNAMIC
OBJECTIVES. CHARACTERSTICS
3
z Brushing up basic concepts
WHAT IS FULL SCALE RESOLUTION, CALIBRATION

ELECTRONICS? DEFLECTION? PRECISION?
HOW WE JUDGE THE

PARTICULAR
INSTRUMENT IS THE
BEST?
4
z
1. Electronics deals Electrical deals with power
with electrical producing instruments while
circuits that involve electronic deals with
active electrical
components such
instrument using that power.
as vacuum tubes,
transistors, diodes.
it is distinct with Electrical deals with flow of
electrical as-- electrons while electronics
deals with flow of electrons
and holes.
In electrical we work at high

voltage while in electronics the
work at small voltages.
5
z
2. Full scale Maximum voltage
deflection available/ maximum
deflection.
3. Resolution It is fineness to which an

instrument can be read.
4. Precision It is finest to which an

instrument can be read
repeatedly and reliably
6
4. Calibration It is comparison between

Measurements- one of known
magnitude or correctness made
or set with one device and
another measurement made in
as similar way as possible with
second device.
5. How we
judge an It depends upon how faithfully

the system measures the
instrument desired input and how
thoroughly it rejects
system is undesirable inputs.
best?
7
z
Find the equivalent resistance at
point A&B.
z
8
9
Chapter – 1
Qualities of
z
Measurement
10
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this
chapter,
students should
be able to:
Calculate and
Explain the static Describe the basic
analyze the
and dynamic elements of
measurement error,
characteristics of an electronic
accuracy, precision
instrument. Instruments.
and limiting error.
11
INTRODUCTION
Measurement is the process of
comparison between the standard
and unknown, resulting in knowing
the magnitude of unknown in
terms of the standard value.
Instrument is the device that

allows us who make the above
comparison.
12
z
The two essential characteristics of an
electrical instrument are:
It's operational power consumption should be minimal.

The instrument should not change the ambient

condition of the circuit in which it had been introduced.
13
z
Performance Characteristics
of instruments
For specific measuring jobs, selection of

appropriate measuring instrument and performance
characteristic knowledge is essential. There are two
basic characteristics named as
Static Dynamic
characteristics characteristics
14
z All the static performance

characteristics are obtained by one
Static form or another of a process called
Characteristics calibration. Used for measuring
unvarying conditions.
• Accuracy --- A degree of exactness of a
measurement compared to the expected
value.
• Resolution --- The smallest change in the
measured variable to which an instrument will
respond.
• Precision --- Measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurements, that is
successive reading do not differ.
• Error --- The deviation of true value from
desired one.
• Sensitivity --- Ratio of change in output of the
measurement two change of input or
measured value.
15
z
Error in measurement
Any measurement is affected by many variables

therefore the results rarely reflect the true
value. Therefore we normally use expected value in
place of true value.
The degree to which a measurement nears the

expected value is expressed in terms of the error of
measurement. Error may be defined as the difference
between the expected value of variable and the
measured value of the variable.
16
z Measurement always introduce an error. Error may

be expressed either as absolute error or percentage
error. Mathematically,
E = Yn- Xn
Where,
E = Absolute error / Static error

Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value
17
Percentage Error
% Error = E/ Yn x 100
Yn-Xn/ Yn x 100
18
▪ The absolute error does not indicate precisely the

accuracy of measurement.
▪ As an example, an error of 2mm is negligible when

length being measured is of the order of
1 meter(1000mm), while the error of 2mm is
intolerable when length under measurement is of 10
mm. Thus quality of measurement is provided by

relative static error. Mathematically,
Relative accuracy
19
z
Example 1.1
Given expected voltage value across a

resistor is 80V. The measurement is
79V. Calculate,
▪ The absolute error

▪ The % of error
▪ The relative accuracy
▪ The % of accuracy
20
z
Solution 1.1
Given that , expected value = 80V
measurement value = 79V
▪ Absolue Error – E = Yn-Xn Therefore E = 80-79 = 1 V
▪ % error = (80 – 79 / 80) x 100 = 1.25%

▪ Relative Accuracy =
0.9875
▪ % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

21
z
Example 1.2
A thermometer reads 95.45

degrees Celsius and the
static correction given in
correction curve is - 0.08

degrees celsius. The true
value is?
22
z
Solution 1.2
E = Yn-Xn
Or
Yn = E + Xn
Yn = 95.45° - 0.08° C
= 95.37°C
23
z
Exercise 1.3
A voltage has true value of 1.50 V. An

analog indicating instrument with scale
range of 0 - 2.50 V shows voltage of 1.46
V. What would be the value of absolute

error. Express the error as a fraction of
the true value and full-scale deflection.
24
z
Pricison
It is quantitative or numerical indication of the

closeness with which are repeated set of
measurement of the same variable agree with
every set of measurement.

25
Accuracy and precision

of measurements
Please refer example depends not only on

1.2 of book, chapter 1. quality of measuring
instrument but also on
person using it.
26
z
Types of Static Error
It is numerical difference
between true value of quantity
and its value obtained by
measurement.
Can be categorized as :
• Gross error
• Systematic error
• Random error
27
z
Gross Error
▪ These errors are mainly due to human

mistakes in recording observations or in using
instrument etc.
▪ Also due to incorrect adjustment of

instruments and computational mistakes.
▪ These can be minimized but cannot be

eliminated completely.
28
These errors occurs due to shortcoming of the

instrument, such as defective or worn parts,
aging effects etc.
Systematic
Error
The constant uniform deviation of the

operation of an instrument is known as
systematic error. There are three types of
systematic errors :
Instrumental Environmental Observational

29
Instrumental Occurs due to mechanical structure (inherent).
Due to misuse.
Due to loading effect.
Improper use of instrument for measurement. For example

: voltmeter has loading effect on circuit, that means when
voltmeter connecting across high resistance circuit it gives
misleading reading, while when connected across low
resistance circuit, may give more dependable readings.
30
z
Occurs due to conditions external
Environmental to the measuring device, including
conditions in the area surrounding
the instrument.
Such as change in
temperature, humidity, magnetic
and electrostatic fields.
Can be avoided by air conditioning

using magnetic Shields
31
Observational
Introduce by observer.
Most common Example is

parallax error? ---- observer
introduce an error when
consistently holding an
instrument and mark reading
not from the middle.
32
Static errors are caused by

limitation of measuring device
or the physical laws governing
In general systematic errors
its behavior, while dynamic

can also be subdivided into
errors caused by the instrument
static and dynamic errors.
not responding fast enough to
follow the change in measured
variable.
33
z Due to accumulation of large number of

small effects and may be of real concern
only in measuring high degree of
accuracy.
Random Errors These are generally unknown causes

based on random process (probability).
Example: even For the same

device, reading for intervals should be
different, even cannot controlled by
calibration.
34
z
Poor maintainance.
Sources of
Errors
Poor design.
Errors caused by person operating

instrument.
Change in process parameters, irregularities

etc.
Insufficient knowledge of the

process parameters and design conditions.
Certain design limitations

35
Dynamic The dynamic behavior of an

Characteristics instrument is determined by
subjecting its primary
element (sensing element) to
some unknown and
predetermined variations in
the measured quantities as
follows :
• Step change
• Linear change
• Sinusoidal change
36
z
Continue...
1. Speed of response
2. Fidelity- degree to which an instrument indicates the

changes in measured variable without dynamic error.
3. Lag - retardation or delay in response.
4. Dynamic error - Difference between True value of

quantity changing with time and value indicating by
instrument, if no static error assumed.
37
z
Important terms
Statistical analysis - it allows the analytical determination of
uncertainty of final test results; different analysis methods are:
Arithmetic mean
38
Example 1.3
For the following given
data, Calculate
• Arithmetic mean
• Deviation of each value
• Algebraic sum of the deviation
Given : x1 = 49.7; x2 =
50.1; x3 = 50.2; x4 = 49.6;
x5 = 49.7
z
39
40
▪ Average Deviation
▪ Standard
Deviation
41
z
Limiting Error
▪ Example : 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within ± 2% at full

scale. calculate limiting error when instrument is used to measure voltage
of 250 V.
limiting error = 0.02 X 600
= 12V
For 250 Volt it is 12/ 250 X 100 = 4.8%
Each instrument specify accuracy within certain % of full-scale reading. It

means full scale deflection reading is guaranteed to be within limits of ± 2%.
Exercise 1.2
z
42
z
43
44
z
Electrical Standards and
Calibration
▪ A standard is a known accurate measure of physical quantity. Standards
are used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the
comparison method. All standards are preserved at the International
Bureau of Weight and Measures (BIMP), Paris. Four categories of
standard:
1. International Standard
2. Primary Standard
3. Secondary Standard
4. Working Standard
45
▪ International Std - Defined by International

Agreement. Represent the closest possible accuracy
attainable by the current science and technology.
▪ Primary Std - Maintained at the National Std Lab

(different for every country). Function: the calibration
and verification of secondary std. Each lab has its

own secondary std which are periodically checked
and certified by the National Std Lab. For example, in
Malaysia, this function is carried out by SIRIM
46
▪ Secondary Standard - Secondary standards are basic

reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries. Each industry has its own secondary
standard. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary
standard to the National standards laboratory for calibration and
comparison against the primary standard.
▪ Working Std - Used to check and calibrate lab instrument for

accuracy and performance. For example, manufacturers of
electronic components such as capacitors, resistors and many
more use a standard called a working standard for checking the
component values being manufactured.
47
z Define the terms accuracy, error, precision, resolution, expected

value.
State three major categories of error. A person using an ohmmeter

reads the measured value as 470 ohm when the actual value is 47
ohm. What kind of error does this represent?
Chapter State three basic elements of electronic instrument.
Review:
State the classifications of standards.
What are primary standards? Where are they used?
What is the difference between secondary standards and working

standards?

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Introduction + Qualities of Measurement

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EIM

Electronic Instruments &

INTRODUCTION COURSE BRUSHING UP STATIC AND

z Brushing up basic concepts

WHAT IS FULL SCALE RESOLUTION, CALIBRATION

HOW WE JUDGE THE

In electrical we work at high

3. Resolution It is fineness to which an

4. Precision It is finest to which an

4. Calibration It is comparison between

judge an It depends upon how faithfully

Instrument is the device that

It's operational power consumption should be minimal.

The instrument should not change the ambient

For specific measuring jobs, selection of

z All the static performance

Any measurement is affected by many variables

The degree to which a measurement nears the

z Measurement always introduce an error. Error may

E = Absolute error / Static error

▪ The absolute error does not indicate precisely the

▪ As an example, an error of 2mm is negligible when

mm. Thus quality of measurement is provided by

Given expected voltage value across a

▪ The absolute error

▪ The relative accuracy

measurement value = 79V

▪ Absolue Error – E = Yn-Xn Therefore E = 80-79 = 1 V

▪ % error = (80 – 79 / 80) x 100 = 1.25%

▪ % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

A thermometer reads 95.45

correction curve is - 0.08

A voltage has true value of 1.50 V. An

V. What would be the value of absolute

It is quantitative or numerical indication of the

every set of measurement.

Accuracy and precision

Please refer example depends not only on

▪ These errors are mainly due to human

▪ Also due to incorrect adjustment of

▪ These can be minimized but cannot be

These errors occurs due to shortcoming of the

The constant uniform deviation of the

Instrumental Environmental Observational

Instrumental Occurs due to mechanical structure (inherent).

Due to loading effect.

Improper use of instrument for measurement. For example

Can be avoided by air conditioning

Most common Example is

Static errors are caused by

its behavior, while dynamic

z Due to accumulation of large number of

Random Errors These are generally unknown causes

Example: even For the same

Errors caused by person operating

Change in process parameters, irregularities

Insufficient knowledge of the

Certain design limitations

Dynamic The dynamic behavior of an

2. Fidelity- degree to which an instrument indicates the

3. Lag - retardation or delay in response.

4. Dynamic error - Difference between True value of

▪ Example : 600V voltmeter is specified to be accurate within ± 2% at full