NOUNS
 “work of art” is a compound noun, it formed by
- Name of a person, a thing, an animal, an event,
and a place.
Example:
The sun shone brightly in the clear blue sky
 Sun, in the represents a thing, which is a celestial
body that emits heat and light.
(TYPE OF NOUN)
1. CONCRETE NOUN
- Refer to a thing that can perceived through any
of the 5 senses
Example:
The dog eagerly chased it tail in the backyard
 dog, represent a thing, that can be perceived
through any of the 5 sense.
2. ABSTRACT NOUN
- Refers to a thing that cannot be perceived
through any of the 5 senses.
Example
The team celebrated their victory with great joy
 Joy, is abstract noun, representing a feeling of
happiness
Example
The team of talented artists gathered at renowned
Smith Gallery to unveil their latest masterpiece, a
stunning work of art that left the audience in awe.
3. COLLECTIVE NOUN
- A group or collection of people and thing,
considered singular if it acts as the group or
single unit, but plural if it pertains to the
individual member
 In the sentence, “team” is a collective noun
because it represents the group of individual
working together.
4. COMMON NOUN
- Any one of the class of people or things
 “artist” is a common noun as it refers to a general
group of people with a common trait
5. PROPER NOUN
- Refer to specific people or thing, which the first
letter should be capitalized.
 “Smith Gallery” is a proper noun, as it specifically
names of particular gallery.
6. COMPOUND NOUN
- Made up of two or more words, acting as single
units
combining work and art, to represent a specific
type of creation
7. SINGULAR NOUN
- Refers to single person, single thing, or single
unit.
 “masterpiece” is a singular noun, because it refers
to a single outstanding work.
8. COUNT NOUN
- Refers o the things that we can count, which
can be singular or plural.
 “team and artists” are count noun, as they can be
counted as discrete unit
9. MASS NOUN
- Refers to the things that cannot be counted, but
can be measured
 “art” is a mass noun, as it represents a substance
or concept that is not typically counted
PRONOUNS
- Are noun in disguise, have the use as noun, and
take the place of noun
Example
She walked to the store to buy groceries
 “she” is a pronoun, that replace a specific name
(possibly a person’s name) to avoid repetition and
make the sentence less cumbersome.
(TYPES OF PRONOUN)
EXAMPLE:
Sarah, treated herself to a spa day, and she thoroughly
enjoyed the relaxation. This is the same spa where she
first experiences such tranquility. Who wouldn’t
appreciate a day of pampering? Everyone deserves a
break.
1. PERSONAL PRONOUN
- Refers to a particular people, thing, or places
 “Sarah”, is a personal pronoun, represent the
specific person.
2. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
- Add information to the sentence by pointing
back to a noun or pronoun, near the beginning
of the sentence
 “herself” is a reflexive pronoun, representing the
action back to the subject. (Sarah)
 3. INTENSIVE PRONOUN - Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
- Add emphasis to a noun or pronoun in the same ourselves, yourselves, and themselves
sentence
Example:
 “she” is an intensive pronoun, emphasizing the  I cut myself while cooking
subject Sarah.
5. RELATIVE PRONOUN
4. DEMONSTRATIVE PROBNOUN - Use to refer to the possession form and used in
- Direct attention to a specific person, place or relative clauses
thing. - “whose”

 “this” is a demonstrative pronoun, indicating a Example:

specific spa.  The man whose car was stolen reported to the
incidents
5. RELATIVE PRONOUN
- Begin a subordinate clause, and connect it to
another idea 3 CASES OF PRONOUN

 “who” represent relative pronoun, because it 1. NOMINATIVE CASES OF PRONOUN

introduces relative clause about the spa. - Used for pronoun functioning as they subject
of a sentence or clause
6. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN - I, you, he, she, it, we, and they
- Used to begin question
Example:

 “who” is an interrogative pronoun, used to ask  He is coming to the party

question.
2. OBJECTIVE CASES OF NOUN
7. INDEFINITE PRONOUN - Used for pronoun functioning as the object of a
- Refers to people, things, and place, often verb, object of preposition, or the direct or
without specifying which one indirect object in a sentence.
- No specification - Me, you him, her, it, and them

Example:
 “everyone” is an indefinite pronoun, referring to
unspecified group of people.  I gave the book to her

3. POSSESIVE CASE
5 CASES OF NOUN - Used to indicate ownership or possession
- My/mine, your/your, his/her, its, our/ours,
1. NOMINATIVE CASE OF NOUN
their/theirs.
- Used for the subject of a sentence
- I, he, she, we, and they Example:

Example: This is my car

 She is going to the store

PREPOSITIONS
2. OBJECTIVE CASE OF NOUN
- Used for direct and indirect objects of a verb, - Mostly little words, they come before noun
and object of preposition phrases and pronouns, and tell you something
- Me, him, she, us, and them about the place
Example: EXAMPLE:
 The teacher gave the book to her The cut jumped over the fence to explore the garden

 “over” is a preposition indicating that spatial

3. POSSESIVE CASES OF NOUN
relationship between the cat’s jump and the
- Indicates ownership or possession
fences. It shows the direction of the cat’s
- My, your, his, her, its, our, and them
movement.
Example:

 This is my car

4. REFLEXIVE CASE OF NOUN

- When the subject and object of a sentence are
the same.
 TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
Example:
After breakfast, I walked to the park, where I found a
quiet spot under the three, and I enjoyed the beautiful
scenery without any distraction
1. PREPOSITION OF TIME
- Are words that shows the relationship between
noun or pronoun and a specific time (when an
action is taking place.
 “After” indicates preposition of time, when an
action “walking” occurred
2. PRESPOSITION OF LOCATION
- Provides direct information about something is
situated. (specify more detail preposition)
 “under” specifies the location (under the tree)
where I or the speaker found a quiet spot.
3. PREPOSITION OF PLACE
- Indicates the location or preposition of a
person, things, or event in relationship to
another.
- It answers the question “where”
 “to” indicates direction of movement towards the
park.
VERBS
- Are words do not only express action or what is
being done in a sentence, but also time or
when the action takes place.
- Action word
EXAMPLE
She runs every morning int the park
 “runs” is the verb sentence it describe the action of
the subject “she”
TYPES OF VERBS
EXAMPLE:
Yesterday, I completed a challenging project, feeling
both satisfied and accomplished, as it was the
culmination of weeks of hard works
1. ACTION VERBS
- Tell what action someone/something is doing
 “completed” is an action verb, indicating the
action of finishing a challenging project
2. ABSTRACT VERBS
- Suggest action but not necessarily a movement
 “feeling” is an abstract verb, that conveys an
emotional state (Satisfied and accomplished)
3. LINKING VERB
- Do not suggest action
 “was” is a linking verb, it connects to the subject
“it” with subject complement “the culmination of
weeks of hard works” describing the state of being
or existence
ADJECTIVES
- Are words that describes or modify a noun or a
pronoun
Example
The old man sat on the creaky chair
 “old” is an adjective that modifies the noun “man”.
“old” give us information about the age of the
man, suggesting that he is not young, but alive for
a significant amount of time
TYPE OF ADJECTIVES
1. ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER
- Specifies the quantity or order of a noun
Example:
I bought three new books yesterday
 “three” indicate adjectives of number, that modifies
the noun “books”. It specifies the exact number of
books purchase.
2. ADJECTIVES OF QUANLITY
- Describe the inherent characteristics or quality
of a noun
EXAMPLE:
The beautiful sunset painted in the sky with warm hues
 “beautiful” is an adjective of quality that modifies
the noun “sunset” adds a subjective and positive
quality to the sunset, suggesting that it posses
aesthetic appeal or pleasing to the observer.
COMPARING ADJECTIVES
- Is a way to describe and compare the qualities
or characteristics of different things or people.
2 TYPES OF COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
1. COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES
- This form is used to compare two things or
people. We add “-er” to short adjectives or use
“more” before long adjectives
EXAMPLE: CLAUSE

SHORT ADJECTIVE: (-er) - Is a group of related words that contains both a

subject and a predicate.
 She is taller than him
(tall + er = taller)

LONG ADJECTIVE: (more) 2 KINDS OF CLAUSES

 She is more intelligent than him 1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

- can stand by itself as a sentence. The
2. SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES following sentence contains two
- is used to compare three or more things or independent clause.
people.
EXAMPLE:
- Add “-est” to short adjectives
- Add “most” before long adjectives We were going to a movie last night, but the car
wouldn’t start.
EXAMPLE:

SHORT ADJECTIVE: (-est)

BOTH CLAUSES CAN STAND ALONE AS SEPARATE
 She is the tallest person in the room
SENTENCES
LONG ADJECTIVE: (most)
 We were going to a movie last night
 She is the most intelligent person in the class  The car wouldn’t start

2. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
PHRASE - Is a group of words that has a subject and a
predicate but cannot stand by itself as a
- is a group of related words used as a single part complete sentence.
of speech, it lacks a subject, a predicate, or
both.
- Cannot be a sentence EXAMPLE:

TYPES OF PHRASES While I was studying for the exam (subordinate

clause), my phone kept buzzing with a notification
1. NOUN PHRASES (main clause)
- It acts as a noun in a sentence

EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE SENTENCE INCLUDING INDEPENDENT AND
the cargo on the ship was unloaded SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:
 (Which cargo? The cargo on the ship)
“The mail carrier emptied the mailbox before I could get
2. VERB PHRASE there.”
- it includes the main verb and any accompanying
1. INDEPENDENT CLAUSE:
words
- The mail carrier emptied the mail box
EXAMPLE:
(think: the clause can stand alone. It is an independent
The scouts marched over the hill. clause)
 (over the hill tells where the scouts marched)
2. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
- Before I could get there
3. ADJECTIVES PHRASE
- it describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun (think: the clause cannot stand by itself. It is a
subordinate clause)
EXAMPLE:

The child is skillful with a paint brush

 (with a paint brush tells how the child is skillful) (PRESCRIPTIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE)

1. PRESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE
4. ADVERB PHRASE
- Focuses on providing rules and guidelines for
- it describes or modifies a verb, adjective, or
how a language “should be” used
adverb
- Sets rules and norms
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE:
We should meet late in the day.
It is considered grammatically incorrect to split
 (in the day modifies late. Late is an adverb
infinitives, so one should not boldly go where no one
modifying should meet)
has gone before.
 - In the sentence, the prescriptive rule is against
splitting infinitives, and it prescribes that the
adverb “boldly” should not come between the
infinitive’s verb “to go.” This is a prescriptive
guideline often found in traditional grammar
rules.
2. DESCRIPTIVE LANGUAGE
- aims to describe how a language is actually
used by its speakers.
- Observes and describes how language is
actually used.
EXAMPLE:
People often end sentences with prepositions in casual
conversation, which is perfectly acceptable in
descriptive linguistics.
- In this sentence, the descriptive approach
acknowledges that in everyday spoken
language, people frequently end sentences with
prepositions. Descriptive linguistics describes
language as it is used by speakers, without
necessarily labeling such usage as right or
wrong.
3 TYPES OF VERBAL
1. GERUND
- A gerund is a verb form ending in "-ing"
that functions as a noun in a sentence.
EXAMPLE:
swimming is my favorite hobby
- In this example, "swimming" is a gerund that
functions as the subject of the sentence.
2. INFINITIVE
- An infinitive is the base form of a verb
preceded by "to." It can function as a noun,
adjective, or adverb in a sentence.
EXAMPLE
To read is to live a thousand lives
 In this example, "to read" is an infinitive that
functions as the subject of the sentence.
3. PARTICIPLE
- A participle is a verb form that can function as
an adjective. There are two types: present
participles (ending in "-ing") and past
participles (often ending in "-ed" or irregular
forms).
EXAMPLE
The broken window needs to be repaired
 In this example, "broken" is a participle that
modifies the noun "window." Participles often
end in "-ed" or "-ing" and function as
adjectives.
SENTENCE PATTERN
- refer to the structure or arrangement of the
different components within a sentence.
1. SIMPLE SENTENCE
- Is a group of word which expresses a single
thought.
- It contains one independent clause and no
dependent clause
PATTERN:
Subject + Verb (+ Object/Complement)
EXAMPLE:
“The cat sleeps “
 The subject in the sentence is ("The cat") and a
verb ("sleeps") indicating what the subject is
doing.
2. COMPOUND SENTENCE
- Is a group of words which can express
two or more connected and coordinate
thoughts
- Consists of two or more independent
clauses, but no dependent clauses.
PATTERN:
Independent Clause + Conjunction + Independent
Clause
EXAMPLE:
“I enjoy reading, but my brother prefers watching
movie”
 Independent Clause 1: "I enjoy reading" - This
is a complete thought with a subject ("I") and a
verb ("enjoy reading").
 Conjunction: "but" - This connects the two
independent clauses.
 Independent Clause 2: "my brother prefers
watching movies" - This is another complete
thought with its own subject ("my brother")
and verb ("prefers watching movies").
3. COMPLEX SENTENCE
- Is a group of words having one independent
clause and at least one or more dependent
clauses.
PATTERN:
Independent Clause + Subordinate Clause
EXAMPLE:
“Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk.”
 This sentence consists of an independent
clause, "they decided to go for a walk," and a
subordinate clause, "Although it was raining."
4. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE
SENTENCE ACCORDING TO FUNCTION AND
- Contains two or more independent clauses,
STRUCTURE
and at least one dependent clause

PATTERN:
1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (STATEMENT):
Independent Clause + Conjunction + Independent
 "The sun sets in the west."
Clause + (Subordinate Clause)
FUNCTION: Provides information or makes a statement.
EXAMPLE:

“I like pizza, and my friends enjoy sushi when we go out,

although they also appreciate a good burger.” 2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE (QUESTION):
 "Did you finish your homework?"
 This sentence combines at least two
independent clauses ("I like pizza" and "my FUNCTION: Asks a question, seeking information.
friends enjoy sushi") with a subordinate clause
("although they also appreciate a good
burger"). 3. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE (COMMAND/REQUEST):
 "Please pass me the salt."
5. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE
- A sentence that is a question. Followed by a FUNCTION: Gives a command or makes a request.
question mark

PATTERN: 4. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE (EXCLAMATION):

Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb  "What a beautiful day!"

EXAMPLE: FUNCTION: Expresses strong emotion or surprise.

“What is your favorite color?” 5. SIMPLE SENTENCE:

 This sentence asks a question, seeking "She sings beautifully."

information. It ends with a question mark. FUNCTION: Expresses a single complete thought.

6. IMPERATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE: Contains a single independent clause.

- A sentence that is compound or request. It is
followed by a period. The subject always
understood as “you” 6. COMPOUND SENTENCE:
 "I enjoy reading, but my brother prefers
PATTERN:
watching movies."
(You) + Base Form of Verb (+ Object)
FUNCTION: Combines two related independent clauses.
EXAMPLE:
STRUCTURE: Consists of two independent clauses
“Close the door, please.” joined by a coordinating conjunction.

 This sentence gives a command or makes a

request. It ends with a period or exclamation
7. COMPLEX SENTENCE:
mark.
 "Although it was raining, they decided to go for
a walk."
7. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
- A sentence that express a feeling. It is FUNCTION: Combines an independent clause with a
followed by an exclamation mark or period. subordinate clause.

PATTERN: STRUCTURE: Comprises an independent clause and a

subordinate (dependent) clause.
What/How + Adjective/Adverb + Subject + Verb

Example:
8. COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
“What a beautiful sunset!”
 "I like pizza, and my friends enjoy sushi when
 This sentence expresses strong emotion or we go out, although they also appreciate a good
surprise. It ends with an exclamation mark. burger."

FUNCTION: Combines at least two independent clauses

and one or more subordinate clauses.

STRUCTURE: Combines at least two independent

clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
LAW OF PROXIMITY
- The Law of Proximity is a principle in
psychology that states that objects or
elements that are close to each other are
perceived as a group.
-
1. Either/Or:
Example: "You can either have tea or coffee."
Explanation: In this sentence, the options
"tea" and "coffee" are presented together,
and the Law of Proximity suggests that they
are perceived as a group of choices. The use
of "either" emphasizes the idea of choosing
one from the group.
2. Neither/Nor:
Example: "Neither the blue nor the red shirt
fits me."
Explanation: Here, the Law of Proximity is at
play as both "blue" and "red" shirts are
presented together, indicating that they are
part of the same category (shirts). The use of
"neither" emphasizes the negation of both
options.