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Antigens 14
Definition Factors that Determine Species specificity
Antigenicity Isospecificity '"-
Types of Antigens Size Autospecificity
Complete antigen Chemical nature Organ specificity ,
Incomplete antigen (hapten) Foreignness Heterogenetic or heterophile
Epitope Susceptibility to tissue enzymes specificity

Antigenic Specificity Biological Classes of Antigens

Definition Comple te Antigen

Any substance which, when introduced parenterally into
the living body, evokes a specific immune response, either
by producing a specific antibody or by sensitising T-cells or
both, is called an antigen.
• The capacity of an antigen to induce an immune
response is known as antigenicity.
• The two important functions of antigenicity are: the
induction of an immune response, known as immu-
nogenicity and a specific reaction with antibod-
ies or sensitised cells, known as immunological
reactivity.
Types of Antig ens
On the basis of their immunogenicity and immunological
reactivity, antigens are classified into two types: complete
antigen and incomplete antigen (Fig. 14.1) .
Antigen
An antigen which is capable of inducing antibody for-
mation and reacting with it specifically in an observable
manner is known as a complete antigen.
Incomplete A ntigen (Hapten)
An antigen which is not capable of inducing antibody for-
mation by itself, but can react specifically with antibodies
is known as an incomplete antigen or hapten. When
a hapten is combined with a larger molecule carrier, it
becomes a complete antigen.
• Haptens are of two types: simple and complex.
• Simple haptens are univalent and hence non-precipi-
tating.
• Complex haptens are polyvalent and can precipitate
with specific antibodies.
Epitope
The smallest unit of antigenicity is known as the anti-
genic determinant or epitope (Fig. 14.2) .

Complete Incomplete
antigen antigen (hapten)

Simple Complex
hapten hapten a b

Figure 14.1 Classification of antigens. Figure 14.2 a. Epitope. b. Paratope.

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86 Textbook of Microbiology / // /
• An _epitope is small area on the antigen mjlcule with
which the antibody reacts specifically. /
• Possesses a specific chemical struzture,Iectrical charge,
and steric configuration. . ,
• The size of an epitope is around . -34 A and its molec-
ular weight is400-lOOr.
• Is usually four or five a · • o acids in size or a mono-
saccharide.
• An antigen molecul possesses several epitopes with
different specificif and potencies, presenting an anti•
genie mosaic.
• The number epitopes on an antigen molecule usually
depends 9fl its chemical complexity.
• The combining portion of the antibody corresponding
to thl epitope is known as the paratope.
• Jife nature of the epitope and the paratope determines
/ the specificity of an immunological reactiorO
/ 1 Factors that Determine Antigenicity
The exact basis of antigenicity is not clear. However, some
I/ of the factors that have been identified as responsible for
making a substance antigenic are discussed below.
I
! genie determinants. The hidden antigeni
Siz~
• Antigenicity is related to the molecular size. Very large
molecules (e.g., hemocyanin-molecular weight 6.75
million) are highly antigenic. Substances of low molec-
ular weight (e.g., glucagon-molecular weight 3800)
are less antigenic or non-antigenic.
• Substances of low molecular weight may be rendered
antigenic by being adsorbed on large inert particles,
such as bentonite or kaolin.
• In general, for a substance to be an effective antigen, it
should have a molecular weight greater than 10,000.
Chemical Nature /
• Most of the naturally occurring antigens are proteins
and polysaccharides.
• Lipids and nucleic acids are less antigenic. Their antige-
nicity is enhanced when they are combined with pro-
teins.
• Protein antigens are more effective than polysaccharide
antigens.
• All proteins are not antigenic. Gelatin is non-antigenic
because of its structural instability.
• Chemically complex substances are more antigenic.
Proteins which are composed of about 20 different
Antigenic
specificity
Autospecificity
amino acids are more antigenic than
-----'~~-i.:..:ve only four or five monosac
• Only substa es which are foreign to
(non-se nduce an immune response.
• mdividual does not develop an ·
against his own antigens (self).
• Antigens from other individuals of the
less antigenic than those from other
antigens from related species are l
those from other species. Thus, the
substance is related to the degree of its fo
more foreign a substance, the greater its
Susceptibility to Tissue Enzymes
• Substances which are metabolised and
the action of tissue enzymes are antigeni
• These substances, when introduced into
broken down by phagocytosis and intra
into fragments of appropriate size con ·
are revealed only by this breaking down
• Substances such as polystyrene latex,
susceptible to tissue enzymes, are not an
• Similarly, synthetic polypeptides compo
acids which are not metabolised in the
antigenic. __: : ] ' ,) -
------
,,,--- . '
Antigenic Specificity' . ,
• Antigenic specificity ~ryerids on the \~
antigenic ~ in anf group on the an •
t a 1s, wnether it is attached at the ortho
position.
• Antigenic specificity is not absolute and
can occur between antigens with stereo
larities.
• Antigenic specificity is of many types (Fi
Species Specificity
• The tissues of all individuals in a sped
des-specific antigens.
• Some degree of cross-reaction is seen be
gens of related species.
• Species specificity has a phylogenetic relau
used in tracing evolutionary relationships.
Organ
spec;lfM:ity

• Has forensic applications and is used in the identifica-
tion of species of blood and of seminal stains.
• Is used to study the extent of cross-reaction between
antigens from different species that cause hypersensi-
tivity.
tsospecificity
• Isoantigens are antigens found in some but not all
members of a species.
• On the basis of the presence of different isoantigens, a
species may be divided into different groups.
• The best examples of isoantigens are human erythro-
cyte antigens. On the basis of these, individuals are clas-
sified into different blood groups.
• Isoantigens are genetically determined.
• Blood groups are clinically important in blood transfu-
sion, isoimmunisation during pregnancy, and disputed
paternity.
• Histocompatibility antigens are also isoantigens and
are associated with plasma membranes of tissue cells.
During the transfer or transplant of cellular material
from one individual to another, histocompatibility
genes are recognised by genetically different individuals
of the same species.
Autospecificity
• Autologous or self-antigens are generally non-anti-
genic. There are some exceptions.
• Some self-antigens that are not exposed to the immune
system because of their hidden nature are antigens (e.g.,
eye lens protein, which is confined within its capsule).
• Antigens that are absent in embryonic life and appear
later in life are also recognised as antigenic. An example
is sperm.
Organ Specificity
• Organs such as the brain, kidneys, and lens proteins of
different species share the same antigen.
• Antigens that are characteristic of a particular organ
or tissue and found in different species are known as
organ-specific antigens. For example, the brain tissue
antigen of man is shared by the brain tissue antigen of
sheep. This sharing is responsible for the neuroparalytic
complications following anti-rabic vaccination using
sheep brain vaccines.
13ti4·Mlf
• Any substance which, when introduced into a living
body, evokes an immune response to produce a specific
antibody with which it reacts in an observable manner
is called an antigen.
• Antigens are of two types: complete antigens and hap-
tens or incomplete antigens.
Antigens 87
Heterogenetic or Heterophile Specificity
• The same or closely related antigens that exist on the
surface of the tissue cells of different biological species,
classes, and kingdoms are known as heterogenetic or
heterophile antigens. An example is the Forssman
antigen. It is a lipid-carbohydrate complex widely dis-
tributed in animals, birds, plants, and bacteria.
• Antibodies produced by heterogenetic antigens of one
species will cross-react with antigens of other species.
This property is used in certain ~erodiagnostic reactions.
For example, antigens of rickettsiae causing typhus
fever are shared by certain strains of Proteus (Weil-
Felix reaction). The Epstein-Barr virus causing infec-
tious mononucleosis shares an antigen with sheep REC
(Paul-Bunnel test).
Biological Classes of Antigens
Depending upon their ability to induce antibody forma-
tion, antigens are classified as T-cell dependent (TD) and
T-cell independent (TI) antigens. Though antibody pro-
duction is the property of B-lymphocytes, some antigens
require the participation of T-lymphocytes to induce an
immune response. So antigens that can directly stimulate
antibody production by B-cells without the cooperation of
T-cells are known as TI. Antigens that require the participa-
tion of T-cells for the production of antibodies are known
as TD. TD antigens and TI antigens differ in many ways
(Table 14.1).
Table 14.1 Differences between TD antigens and Tl antigens
TD antigens Tl antigens
• Structurally more complex Structurally simple
• Immune response is not dose- Immune response is dose-
dependent dependent
Too small is non-immunogenic
and too much is
immunologically tolerant
• Induce lgM, lgG, lgA, and lgE Induce only lgM and lgG
antibodies antibodies
• Show immunological memory Do not show immunological
memory
• Require preliminary processing by Do not require preliminary
macrophages processing
• Rapidly metabolised in the body Slowly metabolised and remain in
the body for long periods
• Heterophile or heterogenetic antigens are closely related
antigens that are present on the surface of different
tissues of more than one species. Antibodies to these
antigens cross-react with antigens of other species, for
example, antigens of rickettsiae causing typhus fever are
shared by certain strains of Proteus (Weil-Felix reaction).