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Ares(2017)3758179 - 26/07/2017
Co-funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework

Programme of the European Union
PEGASUS
Renewable Power Generation by Solar Particle Receiver Driven Sulphur Storage Cycle
Grant Agreement: 727540

Call identifier: H2020-LCE-07-2016-2017
Project start date: 01.11.2016
Project duration: 48 months
D5.1 – Selection of burner concept and specification

Abstract: Selection of a burner concept for elemental sulphur combustion with high power density,
suitable for integration in a power generation process.
Deliverable lead beneficiary: KIT (partners participating DLR, PI)

Lead authors: S. Harth, M. Fedoryk
Due date according to DoA: 30.06.2017

Actual submission date: 26.07.2017
Publication date:
To
From Modification
Issue Date Internal Approval
Author request
reviewer
V1 30.06.2017 S. Harth, M. all partners F. Harris
Fedoryk (KIT) (EC)
V2 26.07.2017 S. Harth, M. all partners
Fedoryk (KIT)
Dissemination Level
PU Public
This document reflects the authors’ view only and the INEA must not be taken as responsible for any use that may be made of
the information it contains.
D5.1 - Selection of burner concept and specification H2020-727540
Deliverable actual submission date (26.07.2017)
Executive Summary
This deliverable D5.1 ‘Selection of burner concept and specification’ is a part of the
PEGASUS project, which is devoted to the development and investigation of a novel power
cycle for renewable electricity production applying a solar particle receiver with a sulphur
storage system for baseload operation. The process combines solid particles as heat
transfer fluid that can also be used for direct thermal energy storage with indirect
thermochemical storage of solar energy in solid sulphur.
The main objective of this report is to elaborate a suitable burner concept for combustion of
sulphur at high power density, which is suitable for integration in a gas turbine for a
combined-cycle power generation.
As a first step, the process parameters and boundary conditions for the burner are defined.
For the design of a high power density burner, operated with elemental sulphur, the main
limiting processes are the atomization of liquid sulphur as well as the evaporation and
mixing process. In order to choose a suitable burner type and its regime of operation,
properties of liquid sulphur as well as their influence on the atomization process for different
types of atomizers are analyzed. Prefilming airblast atomizers have been identified as
advantageous for the specified operating conditions for application in a gas turbine
compared to e.g. pressure atomizers, rotary atomizers or plain jet airblast atomizers.
According to empirical equations the Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD) of the prefilming
airblast atomizers is the smallest compared to the other atomizer types. However, at
ambient pressure conditions, the spray quality may not be sufficient for combustion
operation. Besides a prefilming airblast atomizer, a pressure-swirl atomizer leading to
a similar spatial spray pattern at the burner exit but lower SMD at ambient pressure
conditions is selected for experimental validation. The final choice of the atomizer type for
the burner will be done based on the results of the atomization tests with molten sulphur.
The two most promising types of air flow fields and related flame stabilization were
evaluated. The first one is characterized by a high degree of swirl and a strong inner
recirculation zone for flame stabilization. This type of flame is in most applications compact,
but the potential risk of sulphur droplets impact onto the combustor wall has been identified.
The evaporation time for sulphur droplets is much higher compared to e.g. kerosene Jet-
A1. Therefore, the second flow field configuration with lower swirl number and more axial
spray dispersion has been chosen. This type of flow field leads to lifted flames, which are
stabilized at the outer recirculation zone, thereby providing more time for evaporation and
mixing.
Finally, the laboratory set-up for the investigations on the atomization of liquid sulphur and
its combustion within the PEGASUS project are described and a safety analysis is
performed.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 5
2. Definition of process parameters .............................................................................. 6
3. Burner concept design............................................................................................... 9
3.1. Properties of sulphur ........................................................................................ 9
3.2. Atomization .................................................................................................... 10
3.2.1. Atomizer types ......................................................................................... 10
3.2.2. Atomizer performance ............................................................................. 12
3.3. Evaporation times for sulphur ......................................................................... 15
3.4. Flame stabilization ......................................................................................... 15
3.5. Concept design specification .......................................................................... 18
4. Test rig for laboratory scale experiments - atomization and combustion of
sulphur ............................................................................................................................. 20
4.1. Safety analysis of the test rig and its components .......................................... 21
5. Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 22
6. Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 23
7. Annexes .................................................................................................................... 24
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Glossary
Abbreviation / Description
Acronym
HAZID Hazard identification
HAZOP Hazard and operability study
IDLH Concentration Immediately Dangerous for Life and Health
L/G Liquid to gas mass stream ratio
LHV Lower Heating Value
NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
TÜV Technischer Überwachungsverein (Technical Inspection
Association)
PEGASUS Renewable Power Generation by Solar Particle Receiver
Driven Sulphur Storage Cycle
H2SO4 Sulphuric acid

SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SO3 Sulphur trioxide
NaOH Sodium hydroxide
Na2SO3 Sodium sulphite
NaHSO3 Sodium bisulphite
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐿𝐿 [Pa] pressure drop on the liquid line

µ𝐿𝐿 [Pa∙s] liquid viscosity
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 [kg/m3] air density
𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 [kg/m ] 3
liquid density
𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 [N/m] surface tension liquid/air
𝜔𝜔 [1/s] rotational speed
𝐷𝐷 [m] disc diameter
𝐷𝐷ℎ [m] hydraulic mean diameter of air duct in exit plane
𝑑𝑑0 [m] orifice diameter
𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 [m] prefilmer diameter
𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 [kg/s] air mass flow rate
𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿 [kg/s] liquid mass flow rate
𝑅𝑅 [m] downstream tangential distance
𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡ℎ [-] swirl number
SMD [m] Sauter mean diameter (d32)
𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴 [m/s] air velocity
𝑉𝑉̇𝐿𝐿
3
[m /s] liquid volumetric flow rate
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1. Introduction
Within the PEGASUS (Renewable Power Generation by Solar Particle Receiver Driven
Sulphur Storage Cycle) – project a novel power cycle for renewable electricity production
applying a solar particle receiver with a sulphur storage system for baseload operation is
investigated. The process combines solid particles as heat transfer fluid that can also be
used for direct thermal energy storage with indirect thermochemical storage of solar energy
in solid sulphur, rendering thus a solar power plant capable of round-the-clock renewable
electricity production. The simplified schematic diagram of the process is provided by
Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Simplified process scheme.
The aim of this document is to elaborate a suitable burner concept for high power density
sulphur combustion capable of integration within an over-all power generation and storage
concept scheme.
Sulphur burners at small scales and with a broad load modulation range and high power
density are currently not available. A suitable burner concept is being developed based on
knowledge of different combustor applications and technologies (e.g. designs for aero
engines, stationary gas turbines, industrial burners). As first step the global process
parameters as pressure and temperature range of educts were defined. Based on the
boundary conditions different burner concepts were evaluated and the most promising
concepts for experimental investigation at laboratory scale were selected.
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2. Definition of process parameters

A number of process scheme variations are evaluated in the PEGASUS project at this
stage. The preliminary concept scheme showing the most promising cycle is presented in
Fig. 2. It can be divided into two parts connected with each other thanks to sulphuric acid
storage and elemental sulphur storage. In the solar thermal plant sulphuric acid is
evaporated and subsequently decomposed to sulphur dioxide, which is fed to the
disproportionation reactor. The disproportionation reactor produces elemental sulphur,
which can be easily stored as solid sulphur and continuously fed to the power generation
process presented on the bottom of the Fig. 2. The sulphur burner is directly integrated in
a gas turbine and the heat of the exhaust gases is utilized by a steam turbine. The
application of a gas turbine operated with sulphur is favorable in terms of efficiency, but
challenging in terms of suitable construction materials and burner technology. The exhaust
gases of the gas turbine are utilized to generate sulphuric acid, which is supplied again to
the solar thermal plant.
Figure 2: Preliminary concept scheme.
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The advantage of the described cycle is that the processes are decoupled by the solid
sulphur and the sulphuric acid storage, as shown in Fig. 2. The operation of the storage
cycle at elevated pressure is advantageous since the disproportionation reactor shall be
operated at elevated pressure (Wong et. al., 2015). However, the pressure level of the
storage cycle has no influence on the boundary conditions for the power generation
process.
The overall process principally allows the usage of oxygen produced at the SO3
decomposition for the later sulphur combustion. However, considering the intermittent
operation of the solar plant, an additional oxygen storage with similar storage capacity as
the one for solid sulphur and liquid sulphuric acid seems not feasible. Furthermore, since
the separation of nitrogen at the sulphuric acid production with the contact process is not
problematic and the combustion temperature with pure oxygen would be too high leading to
additional measures and moderating media streams, it was decided to focus on the
development of a burner concept with air as oxidizer. The burner will be designed to
produce low NOx emissions.
The thermal power of the gas turbine, operated with sulphur, in a full-scale plant is targeted
to be 5 MW th and a pressure ratio of the gas turbine in the range of 15 to 20 bar is selected.
The air inlet temperature of the combustor at its nominal condition is approximately 720 to
790 K respectively, considering an isentropic efficiency of 85% of the compressor. The
dependency of air combustor inlet temperature and pressure is shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 3: Combustor air inlet temperature in dependence on combustion chamber

pressure and compressor efficiency (T0=298 K, p0=1 bar).
The laboratory burner to be realized within the PEGASUS project will have a power of up to
50 kW th at ambient pressure conditions. Its characterization and performance will be the
basis for up-scaling studies, similarly to gas turbine burner development practice. The
laboratory burner with a power of up to 50 kW th has geometrical dimensions in a realistic
range since the power is scaled proportionally with the operating pressure and multiple
burners are utilized in an annular combustion chamber of a gas turbine. It is important to
investigate burners at a realistic range of geometric dimensions, because for reactive multi-
phase flows not all dimensionless key values can be kept constant by geometric scaling.
The relative pressure drop over the burner is chosen to be around 3%, which is a typical
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value for gas turbines. The resulting air flow field and related residence times will be the
same as at elevated pressure (for the same inlet air temperature), considering that the flow
is highly turbulent and in this regime essentially independent of Reynolds number. The
influence of operating pressure on the atomization process will be analysed based on
dimensionless key values (e.g. Weber and Ohnesorge numbers). The main key values for
the laboratory-scale sulphur burner are summarized in Tab. 1.
Table 1: Key values for laboratory-scale burner

Parameter Value
Thermal power 10 - 50 kW th
(at ambient combustor pressure)
Relative pressure drop around 3%
Air inlet temperature at 720 (790 K)
nominal operating point
Combustion efficiency >99%
Power density >1.5 MW/m³
Flame temperature >1400 °C
Oxidizer Air
The direct integration of a sulphur burner in a gas turbine is challenging with respect to the
materials used in the gas turbine. Therefore, the test matrix for the laboratory tests for the
high power density burner will include a wide range of conditions to check the application in
furnaces at ambient pressure for indirect firing as a back-up option.
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3. Burner concept design

No detailed and validated reaction mechanisms for combustion of elemental sulphur are
currently available. Within the PEGASUS project, detailed mechanism will be developed.
Preliminary kinetic calculations indicate that the flame speed of sulphur vapor is relatively
fast compared to common gaseous fuels e.g. methane. For the design of a high power
density burner, operated with elemental sulphur, the main limiting processes are the
atomization of liquid sulphur, the evaporation, and mixing process. In order to choose
a suitable burner type and its regime of operation, properties of liquid sulphur as well as
their influence on an atomization process in different types of atomizers were analyzed at
first. Then, the type of flame stabilization and related air flow fields were selected in the
next step.
3.1. Properties of sulphur
Melting point of sulphur depends on the content of its different allotropes in the mixture. It
can be assumed, that it is located around 390 K. At this temperature molten sulphur is
a pale yellow well flowing liquid. Because of the polymerization occurring at approx. 432 K,
viscosity rapidly increases by several orders of magnitude (Fig. 4) and the color changes
into dark brown. For this reason, sulphur should not be heated to a temperature in the
polymerization range before the primary atomization process, where lower viscosity is
desirable to obtain a fine spray.
Figure 4: Viscosity of sulphur from melting point (390 K) up to boiling point (717 K).
In the following chapters technologies from burners, operated with kerosene Jet-A1, are
adapted for combustion of sulphur. The most important properties of molten sulphur below
polymerization point in comparison to kerosene Jet-A1 are listed in Tab. 2. Liquid sulphur is
more than two times denser than Jet-A1 and it is characterized by more than two times
higher surface tension. A viscosity of molten sulphur is nearly 5 times higher. As result, an
atomization of sulphur is impeded in comparison to spraying kerosene. Because of
a significantly higher boiling point for sulphur (717 K), in comparison to Jet-A1 (approx.
475 K), its vapor pressure is notably lower. The required evaporation times for sulphur are
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analyzed after the estimation of droplet diameters. Measurements of laminar flame speed
of sulphur are not available for the specified operating conditions. A flame speed of 0.4 m/s
for sulphur dust (SMD=30.4 µm, 300-500 g/m³, T0=298) has been measured by Kalman et
al. (2015). Due to experimental constraints this flame speed is influenced by turbulence as
well as the evaporation & mixing process and is not comparable to the laminar flame speed
of kerosene Jet-A1 of e.g. 0.6 m/s at φ=1, T0=400 K (Kumar et al., 2009).
Table 2: Properties of sulphur and kerosene Jet-A1

Parameter Unit Liquid sulphur Kerosene,
@ 423 K Jet-A1
@ 298 K
Density kg/m³ 1780 810
Surface tension mN/m 61 26
Viscosity mPa∙s 7.0 1.5
Specific heat kJ/(kg∙K) 1.1 2.0
Heat of kJ/kg 290 363
vaporization
Heat of kJ/kg -9 300 -43 000
combustion (for solid)
(LHV for kerosene)
Vapor pressure Pa 26 185
3.2. Atomization
Atomization is a process of a transformation of a bulk liquid into numerous individual

droplets. Thanks to the atomization, the interfacial area between the liquid and gaseous
phase is increased by many orders of magnitude, which is essential for evaporation of
liquid fuel and subsequent combustion.
3.2.1. Atomizer types
Atomization of the sulphur into furnaces in sulphuric acid industry is executed mostly using
two types of equipment: rotary cup atomizers and pressure atomizers (so-called sulphur
guns). Thanks to significant residence time in furnaces (resulting from their huge
dimensions) the high conversion of sulphur into sulphur dioxide is obtained without high
power density. In order to choose a proper solution that can be applied in a gas turbine or
in another burner of a high power density, suitable atomizers have to be chosen. Different
types of atomizers, which are described in the following, are shown in Fig. 5.
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atomizers
pressure rotary airblast

atomizers atomizers atomizers
pressure-
prefilming
swirl
plain-orifice plain-jet
Figure 5: Classification of common atomizers.
Pressure atomizers
By discharging liquid through an orifice, the kinetic energy of the liquid is utilized for
atomization. A certain minimum pressure drop and related velocity of the liquid is required
for proper atomization, which is limiting the operating range. So-called pressure-swirl
atomizers impose an angular momentum flux to the liquid flow by tangential inlet ports
before the orifice. This type of atomizers usually produces a conical (hollow) spray with
superior atomization performance. Sulphur guns are constructions consisting of a pipe filled
with molten sulphur, located inside a steam jacket used to maintain the sulphur in a liquid
form, with a pressure atomizer on the end. The steam jacket is usually as long as possible
to ensure that the spray nozzle located on the end, which is exposed to the high
temperature inside the furnace, is adequately cooled.
Figure 6: Example of a sulphur gun with a magnified tip, Louie, 2005.
Rotary atomizers
Rotary atomizers are a group of the atomizers, where a liquid is fed onto a rotating surface
in a shape of flat or vaned discs, cups, or slotted wheels. Afterwards, the liquid spreads
uniformly due to the centrifugal force. For sulphur burners the most common shape of the
rotating tip is a cup. The advantages of these atomizers are relatively low sulphur feed
pressure and high performance in the partial-load operational range. On the other hand, the
shaft is a mechanically working part that must be lubricated and is being worn out.
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Figure 7: Rotary cup atomizer, Lefebvre, 1989 (left) and rotary cup sulphur burner,
Louie, 2005 (right).
Airblast atomizers
Lefebvre (1989) denotes two main types of airblast atomizers: (1) prefilming and (2) plain-
jet (Fig. 8). A thin layer of the liquid is created in prefilming type atomizers thanks to the
circular gap. The liquid film is atomized by the inner and outer air stream at the end of the
prefilmer (typical air velocities are around 100 m/s). In plain-jet airblast atomizers, the liquid
is fed by an orifice instead of a circular gap. Airblast atomizers are often applied in gas
turbines.
Figure 8: Airblast atomizers: prefilming (left) Lefebvre, 1989, and plain-jet (right),
Lorenzetto and Lefebvre, 1977.
3.2.2. Atomizer performance
The atomization of molten sulphur is impeded in comparison to e.g. kerosene Jet-A1 due to
the mentioned properties above (Tab. 2). A number of correlations proposed by different
authors have been applied to predict Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD or d32) for atomization of
molten sulphur. For each type of atomizer one correlation is exemplarily listed in the
following (Equation 3-1 to 3-4). It should be kept in mind that all applied correlations have
been obtained empirically using different model liquids, which do not cover the properties of
molten sulphur in all cases. Nevertheless, the results provide a useful indication of atomizer
performance since the correlations are based on dimensionless key values for atomization,
as e.g. Weber and Ohnesorge numbers.
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Prefilming airblast atomizers (El-Shanawany and Lefebvre, 1980):

0.6 0.5
𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 0.1 𝐷𝐷ℎ 𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿 µ𝐿𝐿 2 𝐷𝐷ℎ 𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 0.33 � 2� � � � 0.6 � �1 + � + 0.068 � � � 0.5 � �1 + � (3-1)
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 𝑈𝑈𝐴𝐴 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴
Plain-jet airblast atomizers (Rizk and Lefebvre, 1984):

0.4 0.5
𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿 0.4 µ𝐿𝐿 2 𝐷𝐷ℎ 𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 0.48 � 2 � �1 + � + 0.15 � � � 0.5 � �1 + � (3-2)
𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑0 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑0 𝐷𝐷𝑝𝑝 𝑚𝑚̇𝐴𝐴
Pressure swirl atomizers (Jasuja, 1972):

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 4.4 ∙ 𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿 0.6 ∙ µ𝐿𝐿 0.16 ∙ 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 −0.16 ∙ 𝑚𝑚̇𝐿𝐿 0.22 ∙ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐿𝐿 −0.43 (3-3)
Rotary atomizers (Ahmed and Youssef, 2012):

0.051 −0.651 −0.0218
𝑉𝑉̇𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅 0.581 𝐷𝐷 2 𝜔𝜔𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿 𝐷𝐷3 𝜔𝜔2 𝜌𝜌𝐿𝐿
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 27.81 ∙ 𝐷𝐷 ∙ � 2 � � � � � � � (3-4)
𝜔𝜔𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷 µ𝐿𝐿 𝜎𝜎𝐿𝐿
Taking into account process parameters provided in chapter 2, the performed SMD
calculations were based on the following conditions: molten sulphur of temperature equal to
423 K, air at a temperature of 720 K and pressure of 15 bar (1 bar for laboratory scale).
Mass flow rates correspond to a burner of power P = 300 kW th (P = 20 kWth for laboratory
scale) with air-fuel equivalence ratio λ=1.5 in primary combustion zone. The relative
pressure drop over the combustor is 3%. For the different kind of atomizers the following
dimensions and key values were considered, which are in a realistic range for such an
application:
• For prefilming airblast atomizers: prefilmer has diameter of 15 mm and hydraulic
diameter of the air duct in exit plane is equal 8 mm;
• For plain-jet airblast atomizers, the orifice diameter is equal 0.5 mm;
• For pressure swirl nozzles, pressure drop of molten sulphur equals 40 bar;
• For rotary disc atomizers, the disc has a diameter of 30 mm and rotates with the
speed of 500 rps (30 000 rpm) and the downstream tangential distance is equal to
30 mm.
The SMD prediction of the correlations for the different atomizer types are shown in Fig. 9
for operation in a gas turbine (at 15 bar pressure). Prefilming air blast atomizers seem to
provide the smallest droplet size for atomization of sulphur in gas turbines at the specified
conditions. However, airblast atomizer produces larger droplets than other types at ambient
pressure conditions in laboratory scale (Fig. 10). The spray quality of the airblast atomizer
at ambient conditions does not seem suitable for combustion. It is possible to decrease
decrease
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Figure 9: SMD predicted according different correlations and their averaged value for
specific types of atomizers for operation in a gas turbine at 15 bar pressure and air
temperatures of 720 K.
Figure 10: SMD predicted according different correlations and their averaged value
for specific types of atomizers at laboratory scale condition (ambient pressure
conditions, air temperature 720K).
the SMD to some extend by utilizing increased air velocities at ambient pressure
conditions. However, this would lead to e.g. reduced residence times in the combustor.
Considering these limitations, a prefilming airblast atomizer as well as a pressure-swirl

atomizer are selected as initial configurations for the atomization tests with molten sulphur.
The pressure-swirl atomizer is designed to provide a similar spatial spray pattern as the
pre-filming airblast atomizer at the combustor inlet, but lower SMD at ambient pressure
conditions. In order to reach similar droplet trajectories at ambient air pressure as at 15 bar,
the SMD would have to be considerably smaller. Therefore, the pressure-swirl atomizers
are dimensioned to operate at a pressure drop up to the maximum available supply
pressure of molten sulphur (e.g. 150 bar). The final choice of the atomizer type for the
burner will be done based on the results of the initial atomization tests.
The heat exchange between air and liquid has to be taken into account. Molten sulphur has
to be supplied to the atomizer by supply lines at minimum 390 K (melting point). As it was
mentioned earlier, heating sulphur over 432 K within the atomizer would lead to rapid
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viscosity increase, what would impede the atomization process enormously. Thus, this
situation should be strictly avoided. Molten sulphur flowing at the prefilmer in an airblast
atomizer is exposed to the air up to 790 K. Especially for experiments at ambient pressure,
which have a low sulphur mass flux, the risk of polymerization of sulphur (rapid increase of
viscosity) at the prefilmer is high. Therefore, the prefilmer is designed as short as possible
and an optional cooling circuit is integrated. In addition, all supply lines for molten sulphur
and the housing of the pressure-swirl atomizer are kept at a defined temperature by an oil
circuit.
3.3. Evaporation times for sulphur
The estimation of evaporation time of sulphur droplets is required for dimensioning of the
combustor and the choice of type of air flow field. According to works of Weber (2016) and
Krüger (2001), containing detailed description of the method, a d²-model of evaporation has
been applied. It was assumed, that the temperature profile inside the droplet is uniform and
the content of the kerosene or sulphur in the air is negligible.
The evaporation times for droplets of initial diameter equal 50 µm and different initial
temperatures are shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen, that the evaporation time for sulphur
decreases significantly with the temperature of the surrounding gas, but observed
differences are smaller with the increase of the air temperature. The evaporation times of
sulphur are compared to kerosene Jet-A1, which is useful for the adaptation of burner
technologies from aero engines. For kerosene, the evaporation time changes only a bit with
the change of initial temperature of the droplet in a range from 298 K to 373 K. Shapes of
the curves are similar; the line for sulphur seems to be shifted by approx. 200-250 K in the
direction of higher temperatures, but in highest shown temperature range, the evaporation
time seems to be still 2 times longer for molten sulphur.
Therefore, it would be advisable to provide a strong recirculation in the flame in order to
increase the temperature of the gas phase and thereby speed up the evaporation process,
which is noticeably slower than for kerosene. In addition, the endothermic processes of
sulphur transformation have an impact on the flame stabilization zone.
Figure 11: A comparison of evaporation times for kerosene and sulphur.
3.4. Flame stabilization
A compact flame shape can be realized by a swirled air flow field with an inner recirculation
as shown in Fig. 12 (Merkle, 2006). The nozzle consists of a primary and a secondary swirl
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generator. The stream function in Fig. 12 indicates that 56% of the overall mass flux is
recirculated within the inner recirculation zone.
An application of such a flow field seems feasible, assuming that the flame speed of
sulphur is at a similar order as Jet-A1. However, for such type of flames operated with
kerosene Jet-A1 at lower air inlet temperatures fuel droplets near to the combustor wall are
observed (see Fig. 12). Considering the higher required evaporation time for sulphur, the
risk of droplet impact onto the wall of the combustor exists. Besides the adaptation of the
combustion chamber diameter, the risk can be reduced by variation of swirl number, which
affects the air flow field and related spray dispersion.
Secondary swirl generator

Primary swirl generator
Figure 12: Vector plot of axial and radial air velocity (left) and stream function
(middle) in non-reactive conditions of a nozzle with 2 swirl generators (right),
(Merkle, 2006).
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spray contour (Mie scattering intensity)
Figure 13: Velocity field: non-reactive (left), reactive (middle), flame position
indicated by CO and spray contour (right); fuel: Jet-A1, Air inlet temperature 540 K,
d/dp=3.5% (Marinov et. al., 2012).
A decreased radial spray dispersion is generated by the air flow field of the configuration
shown in Fig. 14 (Kasabov, 2013), which has a reduced amount of swirl. The resulting
flame is lifted and is mainly stabilized by a relatively big outer recirculation zone. Compared
to the configurations presented above, more time for evaporation and mixing is provided.
The application of such flow field type minimizes the risk of droplet impact onto the
combustor wall, but an increased combustor length is required. Moreover, due to the lifted
flame, the risk of an undesired rise in temperature of molten sulphur before primary
atomization is decreased. In addition, low NOx emissions are achievable with such kind of
flames.
Figure 14: Lifted flame concept (Kasabov et al., 2013) and flow field measurement
(Kasabov, 2014).
Public 17
spray
contour
Figure 15: Reaction zone, visualized by OH* chemiluminescence (right side of

pictures is Abel-transformed) and contours of Jet-A1 spray; air inlet temperatures of
473/573/673 K (from left to right), dp/p=3 %, p=5 bar (Kasabov, 2014).
3.5. Concept design specification
For further experimental testing two configurations with different type of flow field are
selected. The key parameters are listed in Tab. 3. The swirl generators are classified by the
swirl number, which is the relation between flux of angular and axial momentum,
normalized by the reference length. The geometry of configuration 1 is scaled based on the
nozzle investigated by Merkle (2006), shown in Fig. 12. It is supposed to generate
a compact flame. Configuration B has no swirl in secondary channels and shall generate
a lifted flame, similar to the version investigated by Kasabov (2014), shown in Fig. 15.
In both configurations an adapted prefilming airblast atomizer as well as pressure-swirl

atomizer are integrated. For the prefilming airblast atomizer, the liquid sulphur is directly fed
to an annular gap at a relatively short prefilmer in order to avoid an undesired increase of
temperature above the polymerization range of sulphur before primary atomization.
Table 3: Parameter of prototypes

Parameter Configuration 1 Configuration 2
𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 primary swirl generator 0.46 0.76
𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 secondary swirl generator 0.81 0
Relation of effective areas of primary
37 % 30 %
swirl generator and overall nozzle
Prefilming airblast & Prefilming airblast &
Atomizer types Pressure-swirl Pressure-swirl
atomizer atomizer
Public 18
The final choice of the atomizer type for the burner will be done based on the results of the
initial atomization tests. The results are also the basis for the dimensioning of the
combustion chamber. Finally, combustion experiments for refined configurations will be
performed. The further development will be supported by CFD simulations. The next public
deliverable 5.3 of the PEGASUS project related to the combustion of sulphur will be
released in June 2019. It will concern the development and validation of chemical kinetics
for combustion of sulphur. Results obtained during the investigation of the atomization and
combustion of the developed burners will be available in the public deliverable 7.4 in
October 2020, which will summarize the publications of the PEGASUS project. The test
set-ups for atomization and combustion of sulphur are described in the next chapter.
Public 19
4. Test rig for laboratory scale experiments -

atomization and combustion of sulphur
The laboratory test rig for the atomization and combustion tests within the PEGASUS
project is designed for burners with a power of up to 50 kW th at ambient pressure
conditions. The results will be the basis for up-scaling studies, as described in chapter 2. A
scheme of the laboratory set up is presented in Fig 15. Sulphur is stored in a form of
powder in a tank with a tight lid. For each experiment, a proper amount of the fuel is placed
inside the melter that is closed afterwards. A thermostated jacket covers the melter. There
is no agitator inside the melter. It allows impurities to sediment on the bottom. Thanks to
that, the filter on the molten sulphur line is fouled more slowly and the volumetric stream of
the liquid is more stable. A removable stainless steel filter is mounted on the beginning of
the molten sulphur line. It is possible to dismount the filter just after the experiment before
the solidification of the remaining sulphur. Thanks to the overpressure supplied by the gas
bottle, the stable mass flow of molten sulphur is obtained. Mass flow rate and pressure are
measured before the inlet into the atomizer. Proposed concept of fuel supply allows the
avoidance of the dedicated pump usage. It reduces investment costs for experimental set
up and still provides a stable fuel flow rate without oscillations. A safety valve is mounted
on the melter to prevent over-pressure (e.g. due to improper work of the regulating valve
bottle).
Air for atomization and combustion is supplied by an air compressor and regulated by mass
flow controllers. The inlet to the absorber is designed in the way that allows the separation
of sulphur droplets on the beginning due to their inertia. They will be collected in the liquid
on the bottom of the column – that prevents the column packing for clogging. Short
connection between the atomizer and the absorber minimizes the volume of the air-sulphur
mixture that is flammable. Nevertheless, in case of an unexpected ignition, the gas can be
realized through the absorber column and thanks to that there is no risk of sudden pressure
increase in the set up.
The column is supplied with water (if only atomization is performed) or with an aqueous
solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH in order to decrease sulphur dioxide SO2 content in
exhaust gases after combustion. This allows the dissolution of the products of the
neutralization reaction and prevents column from the fouling. Hot gases and released heat
of the reaction cause increase of the liquid temperature. The power generated by the
reaction of neutralization is equal approx. half of the power of the burner, i.e. power of the
combustion. Therefore, a proper cooler for the circulating liquid is necessary.
According to the NIOSH database, the immediately dangerous for life and health (IDLH)
concentration of SO2 is equal to 260 mg/m³. Short-term exposure limit is equal 13 mg/m³
and time-weighted average exposure limit is equal to 5 mg/m³. The odor limit lies
somewhere from about 8 to 13 mg/m³ and could be different for different persons. For
safety reasons, SO2 detectors will be located in the experimental room: one device will be
located high, as hot gases float to the top, and another one will be near to the floor, as SO2
in the room temperature is 2.2 times denser than air.
As was mentioned, a wet scrubber with an aqueous solution of NaOH will be used to
neutralize created SO2 to ensure only trace amounts of sulphur dioxide in outlet gases. The
usage of pure water to remove the sulphur dioxide from the outlet gases, what would be
significantly cheaper in operation, is technically possible. However, the risk of the release of
SO2 in the wastewater network would be given. Hence, it is safer to discharge aqueous
solution of sodium sulphite Na2SO3 and bisulphite NaHSO3 than sodium dioxide SO2.
Public 20
Figure 15: Laboratory set-up scheme
4.1. Safety analysis of the test rig and its components
An analysis of possible hazards for the preliminary test rig and their mitigation has been
executed according to a standard method based on HAZOP and HAZID approaches. Risks
for life and health as well as for the operation of the system and its parts have been
identified separately for each component. To minimize the probability of occurring of any of
the mentioned accidents, proper protections will be applied.
The test rig will be mounted in the laboratory in area separated with the curtains for laser
safety. Efficient ventilation will be applied to provide fresh air as well as to discharge
created exhaust gases that, after scrubbing, will be directly driven into the suction duct. To
prevent operators from a possibility of toxic gases inhalation in case of unexpected
leakage, the set up will contain sulphur dioxide detectors that shut off the process in case
of SO2 detection. The accessible area during operation for the personnel will be separated
from the burner to ensure that malfunctions in the burning and measuring zone have not
impact on the operator. The spread of harmful dusts and gaseous species is avoided by
a ventilation system in the test rig area. External certification for safety related parts, e.g.
the ventilation or the thermostated melter, will be applied.
Pressurized air for atomization and combustion will be supplied from the compressor and
the air tank that are part of laboratory facilities. A sulphur melter with elevated pressure will
be in use. The remaining set up will operate at near to ambient condition. The complete
experimental set-up will be checked by a certificate institution to comply with all technical
rules and safety requirements. More details on the preliminary safety analysis are listed in
Annex in Tab. A-1.
Public 21
5. Conclusions
Burner concepts for combustion of sulphur at high power density for integration into a gas
turbine have been elaborated.
For operation at elevated pressure, prefilming airblast atomizers seem advantageous
compared to pressure-swirl, rotary and plain jet airblast atomizers according to the applied
correlations taking into account the properties of molten sulphur. For further development,
experimental investigation of the spray characteristics is required. Prefilming airblast as
well as pressure-swirl atomizers will be tested at laboratory scale to mitigate the potential
risk that the atomizer performance of the airblast atomizer is not suitable for experimental
validation of the high power density burner at ambient pressure. The pressure-swirl
atomizer is designed to lead to a similar spatial spray pattern at the burner exit compared to
the prefilming airblast atomizer, but lower SMD at ambient pressure conditions. The
atomizers are designed to prevent a rise of the temperature of sulphur above the
polymerization point before primary atomization to avoid an undesired increase of viscosity
by several magnitudes (e.g. by shortened prefilmer length, optional cooling circuit). The
final choice of the atomizer type for the burner will be done based on the results of the
atomization tests with molten sulphur.
Related to the flame stabilization and spray dispersion, two different kind of air flow fields
have been identified as most promising and will be tested experimentally. The first one is
characterized by a high degree of swirl and a strong inner recirculation zone for flame
stabilization. This type of flame is in most applications compact, but the potential risk of
sulphur droplets impact onto the combustor wall has been identified. Therefore, the second
flow field configuration with lower swirl number and more axial spray dispersion has been
chosen. This type of flow field leads to lifted flames, which are stabilized at the outer
recirculation zone, thereby providing more time for evaporation and mixing.
The laboratory set-up scheme considering safety aspects for the investigations on the
atomization of liquid sulphur and its combustion within the PEGASUS project were defined.
Public 22
6. Bibliography
Ahmed M., Youssef M. S., Characteristics of Mean Droplet Size Produced By Spinning
Disk Atomizers, Journal of Fluids Engineering, 2012, 134, ID 071103
El-Shanawany, M.S., Lefebvre, A.H., Airblast Atomization: Effect of Linear Scale on Mean
Drop Size, Journal of Energy, 1980, 4(4), pp. 184-189.
Jasuja, A. K., Atomization of Crude and Residual Fuel Oils, ASME J. Eng. Power, 1979,
101(2), pp. 250-258
Kalman, J., Glumac, N. G., Krier, H., Experimental Study of Constant Volume Sulfur Dust
Explosions, Journal of Combustion, 2015, ID 817259.
Kasabov, P., Experimentelle Untersuchungen an abgehobenen Flammen unter Druck,
PhD thesis, KIT, 2014
Kasabov, P., Zarzalis, N., Habisreuther, P., Experimental Study on Lifted Flames
Operated with Liquid Kerosene at Elevated Pressure and Stabilized by Outer
Recirculation, Flow Turbulence Combust, 2013, 90, pp. 605-619.
Krüger, Ch., Validierung eines 1D-Spraymodels zur Simulation der Gemischbildung in
direkteinspritzenden Dieselmotoren, PhD thesis, RWTH Aachen, 2001.
Kumar, K., Sung, Ch.-J., Hui, X., Laminar Flame Speeds and Extinction Limits of
conventional and Alternative Jet Fuels, 47th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting Including
The New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition 5 - 8 January 2009, Orlando, FL,
USA.
Lefebvre, A. H., Atomization and sprays, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, New York,
1989.
Lorenzetto, G. E., Lefebvre, A., H., Measurements of Drop Size on a Plain-Jet Airblast
Atomizer, AIAA Journal, 1977, 1006-1010.
Louie, D. K., Handbook of Sulphuric Acid Manufacturing, DKL Engineering Inc., Thornhill,
2005.
Marinov, S., Kern, M., Zarzalis, N., Habisreuther, P., Peschiulli, A., Turrini, F., Sara, O.,
N., Similarity Issues of Kerosene and Methane Confined Flames Stabilized by Swirl in
Regard to the Weak Extinction Limit, Flow Turbulence Combust, 2012, 89, pp. 73-95.
Merkle, K., Einfluss gleich- und gegensinniger Drehrichtung der Verbrennungsluftströme
auf die Stabilisierung turbulenter Doppeldrall-Diffusionflammern, PhD Thesis,
TH Karlsruhe, 2006.
NIOSH database: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, access under
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0575.html
Rizk, N. K., Lefebvre, A., H, Spray Characteristics of Plain-Jet Airblast Atomizers, J. Eng.
Gas Turbines Power, 1984 106(3), 634-638
Weber, D., Flash Boiling bei Ottomotoren mit Benzindirekteinspritzung, PhD thesis,
TU Darmstadt, 2016.
Wong, B., Brown, L, Buckingham, R., Sweet, W., Russ, B., Gorensek, M., Sulfur dioxide
disproportionation for sulfur based thermochemical energy storage, Solar Energy, 2015,
118, pp. 134-144.
Public 23
Deliverable actual submission date (26.07.2017) PEGASUS
7. Annexes
Table A-1: Preliminary safety analysis
Destruction
Probability
Operation
Problems
Threat
Possible
Event Effects Applied protections
reason(s)
Lid not located

Release of Tight lid on the container
precisely
sulphur dust from Sulphur dust in the air *** * * *
Fast moves of Working instruction to minimize dust formation by handling sulphur.
the container
operator Appropriate personal safety equipment
Decrease of the Stopping of molten sulphur
pressure in the Empty gas bottle flow and, as a result, * * * *** Non necessary
melter atomization and combustion
Blockade of
Safety valve on the melter
Loss of molten sulphur
containment of pipe and Destruction of sulphur melter * ** *** ***
Additional measure for potential risk of combustion of molten sulphur
the sulphur melter regulating valve
spray: Ventilation of the test rig area
opened too much
Connection according piping standards,
Molten sulphur
Connection not Hot molten sulphur released
leakage from the * ** * *
tight from the set-up Additional measure for potential risk of combustion of molten sulphur
pipe
spray: Ventilation of the test rig area
Decrease of air Air compressor Automatic shut off of fuel supply once a minimum temperature in exhaust
Blowing out the flame * * * ***
pressure failure gases (indicating blow off) is reached
Brakeage of the
High temperature Small pieces of glass of high
glass in the flame * ** ** ** Second through-visible barrier
gradient velocity
observation set up
Exhaust gases Connection not SO2 in the atmosphere of test SO2 detectors at least above and under the test rig
* *** * ***
leakage tight rig area Continuous ventilation of the test rig area
Absorber’s pump Liquid too hot,
Stopping the SO2 absorption Online control of the composition of outlet gases and the temperature in
improper work corrosion, * ** *** ***
process the absorber. Automatic shut off in case of undesired values.
and failure mechanical wear
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Deliverable actual submission date (26.07.2017) PEGASUS
Impeded absorption – SO2 in

Washing liquid Connection not exhaust gases, Connection according piping standards,
* ** * */***
leakage tight contamination of test rig area pipes and connections easy visible
with caustic liquid
Low concentration
Decrease of pH in Dosage of NaOH according to sulphur usage
of NaOH
the circulation
Higher than Worse SO2 absorption process * * * *
liquid in the
expected power of Coriolis mass flow meter on the liquid sulphur feed line
absorber
the burner
Not sufficient Appreciable heat exchange area,
Increase of the
cooling Worse SO2 absorption rate, Working instruction for dedicated heat exchanger operation
liquid temperature ** * * *
too small amount risk of leakages of the liquid Liquid level indicator (communicating vessels),
in the absorber
of circulating liquid Addition of fresh solution to the tank
Increase of the exhaust gases
Unexpected
Flooding of the pressure, blockade of the flow, Proper design of operation range: L/G set far from L/Gcritical, diameter
increase of gas * ** * ***
absorption column possibility of exhaust gases larger than minimal diameter, manometer before the column
flow
leakage
Combination of a
The set-up is always monitored by an operator and can be stopped by
Fire in the part of number of other
Fire in some places * ** *** *** emergency switch. Accessible fire extinguishers and appropriate
the set up accidents,
personal safety equipment are available.
Electric short-cut
Probability and threat levels:

a) Probability
* Low
** Moderate
*** High
b) Threat
* Non no threat to any person
** Moderate no threat of life, possibility of wounds
*** High threat of life
c) Destruction
* Non no destructions of any elements
** Moderate easy removable destructions of the equipment
*** High some significant repairs needed
d) Operation problems
* Low return to the steady state unobstructed
** Moderate difficult return to steady state or problems with comfortable work
*** High unavoidable process stop
Public 25

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Co-funded by the Horizon 2020 Framework

Grant Agreement: 727540

D5.1 – Selection of burner concept and specification

Deliverable lead beneficiary: KIT (partners participating DLR, PI)

Due date according to DoA: 30.06.2017

H2SO4 Sulphuric acid

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐿𝐿 [Pa] pressure drop on the liquid line

Figure 1: Simplified process scheme.

2. Definition of process parameters

Figure 2: Preliminary concept scheme.

Figure 3: Combustor air inlet temperature in dependence on combustion chamber

Table 1: Key values for laboratory-scale burner

3. Burner concept design

3.1. Properties of sulphur

Table 2: Properties of sulphur and kerosene Jet-A1

Atomization is a process of a transformation of a bulk liquid into numerous individual

3.2.1. Atomizer types

pressure rotary airblast

Figure 5: Classification of common atomizers.

Figure 6: Example of a sulphur gun with a magnified tip, Louie, 2005.

3.2.2. Atomizer performance

Prefilming airblast atomizers (El-Shanawany and Lefebvre, 1980):

Plain-jet airblast atomizers (Rizk and Lefebvre, 1984):

Pressure swirl atomizers (Jasuja, 1972):

Rotary atomizers (Ahmed and Youssef, 2012):

Considering these limitations, a prefilming airblast atomizer as well as a pressure-swirl

3.3. Evaporation times for sulphur

Figure 11: A comparison of evaporation times for kerosene and sulphur.

3.4. Flame stabilization

Secondary swirl generator

spray contour (Mie scattering intensity)

Figure 15: Reaction zone, visualized by OH* chemiluminescence (right side of

3.5. Concept design specification

In both configurations an adapted prefilming airblast atomizer as well as pressure-swirl

Table 3: Parameter of prototypes

4. Test rig for laboratory scale experiments -

Figure 15: Laboratory set-up scheme

4.1. Safety analysis of the test rig and its components

Lid not located

Impeded absorption – SO2 in

Probability and threat levels:

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