EV10003: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

Lecture #2

Matter, Energy and Ecosystems

Dr. Shamik Chowdhury

School of Environmental Science and Engineering
E-mail: shamikc@iitkgp.ac.in

28 August 2023

© Copyright National University of Singapore. All Rights Reserved.

What is matter?

“Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.”

STATES OF MATTER
All forms of matter can exist in

PHYSICAL STATE CHEMICAL STATE

Three physical states – Two chemical states –

solid, liquid, and gas elements and compounds
Some forms of matter are more useful than others

 High-quality matter is fairly easy to extract and is highly concentrated; low-quality

matter is not highly concentrated and is more difficult to extract than high-quality
matter.
Law of conservation of matter
“Matter cannot be created nor destroyed but merely changed
from one form to another.”
 An individual atom of a biologically important element, such as carbon, may have spent 65 million
years buried as coal before being burned in a power plant, followed by two decades in Earth's
atmosphere before being dissolved in the ocean, or taken up by plants that are consumed by cattle
before being respired and again entering Earth's atmosphere. The atom itself is neither created nor
destroyed but cycles among chemical compounds.

CO2
Law of conservation of matter
Implications in environmental science

 There is no ‘away’ as in ‘to throw away’. Everything, we think, we have thrown

away is still here with us in one form or another.

 Example: We can remove substances from polluted water at a sewage treatment

plant, but then we must burn them (causing some air pollution), bury them (possibly
contaminating underground water supplies), or clean them up and apply the sludge
as fertilizer (dangerous if the sludge contains toxic matter).

 We will always produce some pollutants, but we can produce much less and clean up
some of what we do produce.
What is energy?
“Energy is the capacity of a physical system to do work.”

FORMS OF ENERGY
All forms of energy fall under two categories

POTENTIAL KINETIC
Energy due to position, Energy possessed by an
composition, or arrangement. object in motion.
Forms of energy
ENERGY
POTENTIAL KINETIC
stored energy energy of movement

Chemical Thermal
energy stored in food energy of moving particles
and fuels (heat)

Elastic Mechanical
energy stored in objects energy of objects in motion
that are stretched

Nuclear Electrical
energy stored in center energy of particles moving
of particles through a wire

Gravitational Radiant
energy stored in an object electromagnetic energy that
when it is above the travels in transverse waves
Earth’s surface e.g., solar energy, X-rays
Problem 2.1
Two cars are raised to the same elevation. If one car is twice as massive as the
other, compare their gains of potential energy.

Solution:

Potential energy (K.E.) =  mass  acceleration due to gravity  change in elevation 

 m
P.E.Car1 =  M kg  9.81 2 
X m
 s 

where M is the mass of the car (in kg) and X is the elevation (in m).

 m
P.E.Car2 =  2M kg  9.81 2   X m  (2 times greater!)
 s 
Problem 2.2
A car with a mass of 1000 kg is moving at a speed of 30 m/s. When the speed of the
car is doubled, how much more kinetic energy does it have?

Solution:
1
  
2
Kinetic energy (K.E.) = mass speed
2

When the car is moving at a speed of 30 m/s:

2
1  m
K.E.car = 1000 kg   30  = 450,000 J
2  s

When the speed of the car is doubled:

2
1  m
K.E.car = 1000 kg  60  = 1,800,000 J (4 times greater!)
2  s
Some types of energy are more useful than others

 High-quality energy is concentrated and has great ability to perform useful work;
low-quality energy is dispersed and has little ability to do useful work.
Law of conservation of energy
First law of thermodynamics
“The total amount of energy in the universe is constant. It cannot be created or
destroyed. It can only change form.”

Example: In a car, the potential energy of gasoline is converted into other forms of
energy. Some of that energy leaves the system, but all of it is conserved.
 Mathematically,

ΔU = Q – W
Change in Heat added Work done
internal energy to the system by the system

−Qout ‒ +Qin = Q
System
ΔU = Q ‒ W
Q W
+Wout ‒ −Wout = W
Problem 2.3
What is the change in internal energy of a system when a total of 150 J of heat
transfer occurs out of (from) the system and 159 J of work is done on the system?

Solution:
W = −159 J
System

159 J
in

150 J
out
Qout = −150 J

U = Q − W = −150 J − (−159 J) = +9 J
Problem 2.4
Suppose there is heat transfer of 40 J to a system, while the system does 10 J of
work. Later, there is a heat transfer of 25 J out of the system while 4 J of work is
done on the system. What is the net change in internal energy of the system?

Solution:
Win = −4 J
System
Qin = 40 J

15 J 6J
in out

Wout = 10 J
Qout = −25 J

U = Q − W = 15 J − 6 J = +9 J
First law of thermodynamics in living systems

Food Sun

Q Qin
W

Qout

 Heat transferred out of the body (Q)  Plants convert part of the radiant heat
and work done by the body (W) transfer in sunlight to stored chemical
remove internal energy, while food energy (photosynthesis).
intake replaces it.
Law of conservation of energy
Second law of thermodynamics

“The spontaneous direction of energy flow is from high- to low-quality forms. Each
conversion results in production of energy (usually heat) that is unavailable for
work. As systems lose energy, they become more disorganized.”

Example: Converting coal into the light of an incandescent bulb is only 1.6% efficient
because energy is lost to heat in the transformation.
Second law of thermodynamics in living systems

 Each time energy changes from one form to another, some of the initial input of
high-quality energy is degraded, usually to low-quality heat that is dispersed into
the environment.
System dynamics
 Earth is an open system with respect to energy. Solar radiation enters the Earth
system, and energy leaves it in the form of heat and reflected light.

 Earth is essentially a closed system with respect to matter because very little
matter enters or leaves Earth’s system.
Three big ideas
 There is no away
• According to the law of conservation of matter, we cannot do away with chemicals.
• We can only change them from one physical state or chemical form to another.

 You cannot get something for nothing

• According to the first law of thermodynamics, no energy is created or destroyed.
• We cannot get more energy out than we put in.

 You cannot break even

• According to the second law of thermodynamics, whenever energy is converted

from one form to another in a physical or chemical change, we always end up with
lower quality or less usable energy than we started with.

How hard we try, we cannot violate these

three basic scientific laws, or rules of nature!
Matter and energy use patterns
High-throughput economy
 Unsustainable high-waste economies.
 Converts resources to goods in a manner that promotes waste and pollution.
 Most advanced industrialized countries feature high-throughput economies.
Matter and energy use patterns
Low-throughput economy
 Matter-recycling-and-reuse economies.
 Mimics nature by recycling and reusing, thus reducing pollutants and waste.
 It is not sustainable for growing populations.
Transitions to sustainable energy and material systems
Circular economy
 Regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are
minimised by slowing, closing, and narrowing energy and material loops.

 Replaces the end-of-life concept through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse,
remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling.
Earth’s life support system
 Comprise of four main spherical systems that interact with one another ─ the
atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the geosphere (rock, soil, sediment), and
the biosphere (living things).
Three factors sustain life on Earth
 The one-way flow of high-quality energy from the sun, through living things in their
feeding interactions, into the environment as low-quality energy, and eventually back
into the space.
Three factors sustain life on Earth
 The cycling of nutrients (atoms, ions, or molecules) needed for survival by living
organisms.
Three factors sustain life on Earth
 Gravity, which allows the planet to hold onto its atmosphere and helps to enable the
movement and cycling of chemicals through the air, water, soil, and organisms.
What is an ecosystem?
 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in
conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (air, water and
mineral soil) interacting as a system.
What is an ecosystem?
 Major components of a freshwater ecosystem.
Ecosystems do not have sharp boundaries
Components of an ecosystem
 Biotic
• Living organisms in the ecosystem
• Obtained from the biosphere and are capable of reproduction
• Aid in the transfer and cycle of energy
• Example: animals, birds, plants, fungi, and other similar organisms

 Abiotic
• Non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem
• Usually obtained from the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere
• Determine what life forms can thrive in the ecosystem
• Example: water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals
 Biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem interact
with and affect one another.
Laws of tolerance
 The existence, abundance, and distribution of a species in an ecosystem are determined by whether the
levels of one or more physical or chemical factors fall within the range tolerated by that species.

 Highly tolerant species can live in a variety of habitats with widely different conditions.

 Too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or prevent growth of a population, even if all other
factors are at or near the optimum range of tolerance.
Trophic levels
Top
carnivores

Carnivores,
Some omnivores

Heterotrophs
(other feeders)
Carnivores,
Omnivores

Herbivores,
Omnivores

Photosynthetic
organisms Autotrophs
(self-feeders)

Bacteria, Decomposers Heterotrophs

Fungi
Producers, consumers & decomposers
 Producers (Autotrophs)
• Organisms that make their own organic material from simple inorganic substances.
• Photosynthetic organisms like plants, algae, protists, cyanobacteria, etc.

 Consumers (Heterotrophs)
• Organisms that obtain organic molecules by eating or digesting other organisms.
• Gain both energy as well as nutrient molecules from within the biomass ingested.
• Either herbivores, carnivores or omnivores depending on the trophic level.

 Decomposers (Heterotrophs)
• Waste managers of the ecosystem.

• Break down dead organic matter (DOM) from producers and consumers, ultimately
returning energy and inorganic molecules back to the environment.
Detritivores & decomposers
 Detritivores and decomposers can convert complex organic chemicals into simpler
inorganic nutrients that can be taken up by producers.
Biodiversity in ecosystems
 Biodiversity (short for biological diversity) is the variety of life found on Earth, the genes
they contain, the ecosystems in which they live, and the ecosystem processes of energy
flow and nutrient cycling that sustain all life.

 Plants and animals evolving over millions of years have made the planet fit for the various
forms of life we have today. They help maintain the balance of nature and stabilize the
climate. They protect watersheds and renew soil. They also enable life on Earth to adapt to
and survive dramatic environmental changes.
Importance of biodiversity in ecosystems
Flow of matter in ecosystems
 Within all kinds of ecosystem, matter (atoms, ions, molecules) cycle through the living and
non-living components of the ecosystem. These cycles are called biogeochemical cycles.
Flow of matter in ecosystems
 Humans have a large impact on the distribution of matter in biogeochemical cycles.
Flow of matter in ecosystems
 The carbon cycle is one of several biogeochemical cycles. Human activities affect the
carbon cycle through emissions of CO2 (sources) and removal of CO2 (sinks).
Flow of energy in ecosystems
 The main structural components (energy, chemicals, and organisms) of an ecosystem
are linked by matter recycling and the flow of energy from the sun, through
organisms, and then into the environment.
Flow of energy in ecosystems
 A food chain outlines who eats whom while a food web is all of the food chains in
an ecosystem.

Each organism in an ecosystem occupies a specific trophic level or position in the food chain or web.
Producers, who make their own food using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, make up the bottom of the
trophic pyramid. Primary consumers, mostly herbivores, exist at the next level, and secondary and tertiary
consumers, omnivores and carnivores, follow. At the top of the system are the apex predators: animals
who have no predators other than humans.
Flow of energy in ecosystems
 Chemical energy in nutrients flows through various trophic levels; most of the energy
is degraded to heat in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics.
Flow of energy in ecosystems
 The more trophic levels or steps in a food chain or web, the greater the
cumulative loss of usable energy as energy flows through the various trophic
levels.

 When energy is passed on from one trophic level to another, only 10 percent
of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level (10 percent law of energy
flow).
Flow of energy in ecosystems
 The large loss in energy between successive
trophic levels also explains why food chains and
webs rarely have more than four or five trophic
levels.

 In most cases, too little energy is left after four or

five transfers to support organisms feeding at
these high trophic levels.
Productivity of ecosystems
 Gross primary productivity (GPP)

• Rate at which an ecosystem’s producers (usually plants) convert solar energy into
chemical energy in the form of biomass over a given time span.

• Affected by how efficient photosynthesis is in a given system. Tropical rainforests,

for example, have a very high GPP as rainforests have everything plants need to
photosynthesize.

• Usually measured in terms of energy production per unit area over a given time
span, such as kilocalories per square meter per year (kcal m‒2 yr‒1).

 Net primary productivity (NPP)

• Rate at which producers use photosynthesis to produce and store chemical energy
minus the rate at which they use some of this stored chemical energy through
aerobic respiration.
Productivity of ecosystems

NPP = GPP – R
Glucose produced during photosynthesis
(i.e., gross primary production)

Some glucose used to Remaining glucose

supply energy to drive available to be laid down as
cellular processes new material, i.e., energy
(e.g., respiration) available to consumers
(net primary production)
Productivity of ecosystems
 Various ecosystems and life zones differ in their NPP.
Ecosystem
Ecosystem services
Services
 Ecosystem provides us a number of services for free, some of which are more
easily visible than others.
Studying ecosystems
 Field research: Involves going into natural settings and observing and measuring the
structure of ecosystems and what happens within them.
Studying ecosystems
 Geographic information system (GIS): Involves organizing, storing, and analyzing
complex data collected over broad geographic areas using aircrafts and satellites equipped
with sophisticated cameras and other remote sensing devices.
Studying ecosystems
 Laboratory research: Set-up, observe, and make measurements of model ecosystems
and populations under laboratory conditions. Laboratory experiments are often easier,
quicker and less costly than similar experiments in the field.
Studying ecosystems
 System analysis: Involves developing mathematical models and other models to simulate
the behavior of ecosystems. Computer simulations help understand large and very complex
systems that cannot be adequately studied and modeled in field and laboratory research.