GEN CHEM

THE ATOM
The atom is a small, indivisible particle considered to be the basic unit of matter.
Three subatomic particles are:
Protons - the positively charged particle of the atom
Neutrons - the uncharged particle of the atom.
Electrons - the negatively charged particle of the atom
 An atom contains a nucleus which is located at its center.
 The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
 The electrons are located outside the nucleus.
 Electrons are much smaller than neutrons and protons.

 have negatively-charged particles that spin around the nucleus, staying

in their orbits (also called shells or energy levels)

 The shells are numbered, depending on how close they are to the
nucleus.
 Electrons in the lowest energy level are the ones
(most tight to bound therefore hard to expel)

NEUTRON—James Chadwick PROTON------Eugene Goldstein

THE ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
Is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus.
It is also equal to the number of electrons outside the nucleus.

MASS NUMBER (A)

is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus.

FORMULAS:
Mass Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Number of Protons
Atomic Number = Number of Electrons
Number of Electrons = Number of Protons

EXAMPLES: 2. Gold (Au)

Atomic Number (Z) =
1. Bromine (Br)
Mass Number (A) =
Atomic Number (Z) =
Proton p^+ =
Mass Number (A) =
Neutron n^0 =
Proton p^+ =
Electron e^− =
Nutron n^0 =
Electron e^− =
ISOTOPES
 The word isotope was derived from Greek words isos and topos which means “the same place”.
 Isotopes variants of an element are still found in the same location n the periodic table of
elements.
 This term was introduced by a British Chemist Frederick Soddy.
EXAMPLES:
ISOTOPES
Different mass number
Atoms of the same element
Same number of proton
NOT ISOTOPES
Different mass number
Atoms of not the same element
Same number of proton

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number - Number of Protons

Number of Neutrons = 12 – 6
Number of Neutrons = 6

Number of Neutrons = Mass Number – Number of Protons

Number of Neutrons = 14 – 7
Number of Neutrons = 7
Neutrons have no effects on element’s chemical behavior

ISOTOPES
 Unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes or radionuclides.
 Specific isotope is called a nuclide.
 They emit radiation, causing the nucleus to change into the nucleus of a different element which is
more stable.
 Such atoms are described as radioactive and the process of emission of radiation called radioactive
decay.

 Radioactive substances are widely used in biochemistry and medicine.

 In biochemistry, they are used as radiotracers.
 These are radionuclides that can be introduced into organism through food or drugs, and whose
pathways can be monitored.
 They provide sensitive and noninvasive methods for elucidation of pathways and structure,
detection of diseases, and monitoring the action and effectiveness of drugs.
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN

PROTIUM ( H)
 an isotopes of hydrogen.
 has 1 proton but NO neutron.
 Most common isotope of hydrogen and also the most abundant in nature.
 It is usually involved in the hydrogenation of materials.
 Hydrogenation is the process where molecular hydrogen is added to react with another compound
(usually organic compound) to treat substances.

DEUTERIUM ( H)
 has 1 proton and 1 neutron.
 sometimes called heavy hydrogen because it is more massive than protium.
 It can be used to form “heavy water”, which is denser than ordinary water.
 It is also involved in some nuclear reactions.

TRITIUM ( H)

 has 1 proton and 2 neutrons.

 can be present in nuclear reactions as a waste product.
 It is a radioactive Isotopes, meaning, it is unstable.
 It can be used as fuel in some nuclear fusion reactions.

ISOTOPES OF CARBON

Carbon-12 ( C)
 most common isotope of carbon.
 It is considered as the reference isotope for measuring the atomic weights of all the other
elements’ masses.
Carbon-13 ( C)
 Is commonly used in studying the structure of organic compounds using nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy.
Carbon-14 ( C)
 Is a radioactive isotope used in carbon dating to determine the age of materials like historical
artifacts.

OTHER COMMON ISOTOPES & THEIR USES

P-32 which incorporated into nutrients giving information on metabolic pathways and used for detecting
of skin cancer.
I-131 which is used in medical diagnostic tests
Cu-64 which is used in studying brain tumors
Fe-55 which is used as an X-ray source for different methods of scientific analysis
Na-24 which is used for detecting blood clots and tumors
Co-60 and Cs-137 which is used for the radiation therapy of cancer.
RELIGION AND STATE
Both religion and state are considered as the ultimate sources of authority, making the church and
government important agents of socialization.
Religion exerts a great influence on the views of a person, legitimizes accepted social practices,
provides stability to society, and can even be sources of social changes.

In democratic states, the separation of church and state is guaranteed, though in reality, the state
defines and limits the influence of religion on society through laws, regulations, and other means.
STATE
The state, meanwhile, participates in socialization through laws and other regulations that reinforce
appropriate behavior, and help form values and attitudes of the citizens.
Through the laws, the state upholds important concepts such as rights and responsibilities, and
regulates the behavior of its citizen through the use of rewards and sanctions.
Major Social and Historical Events
Major social and political events can also be significant socializing forces for an entire generation. The
changes and developments brought about by historical events often cause transformations in values,
attitudes, and views that define societies leading to further changes in the behavior and traditions of the
societies.
Historical events, however, tend to affect individuals and societies differently.

CONFORMITY, DEVIANCE, AND SOCIAL CONTROL

Conformity
Refers to the process of altering one’s thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted behavior within his
or her group or society.
Compliance
Refers to the outward conformity to social pressure but privately disagreeing with it.
Identification
Refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because it enables him or her to have
significant relationship with the members of his or her group.
Internalization or Acceptance
Involves both public compliance and internal acceptance of the norms and standards imposed by
group. This is the most permanent and deeply-rooted response to social influence.
Deviance
Is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members and involves
actions that violate commonly held social norms.
Structural-functionalist framework
Consider crime and deviance as the result of structural tensions and lack of moral regulation within
society.
Structural Strain Theory
Argues that the tensions and strains between socially-approved goals and individual’s ability to
meet them will lead to deviance.

Subcultural View
Points to the emergence of deviance behavior within certain groups in the society or subcultures
Symbolic-interactionist view
Considers deviance as a socially constructed phenomenon influenced largely by interpersonal
relationships between members of society.
Labeling Theory
Which believes that there is no actually deviance in society; deviance only emerges when society
begins labeling certain actions as “deviant” or “undesirable”.
Conflict Perspective
Meanwhile, analyzes deviance in the framework of competing interests, between social groups
and maintenance of power among the elites.
Control Theories
Consider deviance as emerging because of inadequate social controls.

Broken Windows Theory

Suggests a direct relationship between social disorder and deviance, and that maintaining even
an appearance of order is sufficient to discourage deviance.

HUMAN DIGNITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Human Rights
Are legal, social, and ethnical principles that consider the human person as deserving of liberties and
protections by virtue of his or her human dignity.

Human rights are considered to have the following characteristics:

They are universal because they belong to all human beings regardless of race, religion, gender, and
other characteristics.

They are fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human being.
They are indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.
They are absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for living a
genuine life.
UCSP

CHAPTER III: Becoming a Member of Society

John Locke
A British Enlightenment philosopher, said that the human mind at birth is nothing but a blank slate
or tabula rasa
Socialization
Refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which acquire their identities and
necessary survival skills in society
Political Socialization
A process which enables the development of citizens to function effectively within particular
political system.
Internationalization
Refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, roles, and values transmitted by
people and social groups within society as one’s own.
Functionalist Point of View
Society, for its part, is seen as the primary factor responsible for how individuals learn to think and
behave.
Interpretevist Sociologist
Sees socialization as an interactive process between individuals and other members of society.
For more comprehensive view on the process of socialization, sociologist suggest combining
perspectives of functionalism and interpretivism and incorporating them in the analysis of other aspects
of social life.
Synthesized view of socialization
proposed by the sociologist William Wentworth, which considers how the factors such as free will,
human autonomy, and social structures and processes influence socialization.
Social Context
Refers to the particular circumstances of a society and consists of its culture, language, and
social structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender.
Content
Refers to the ideas, beliefs, behavior, and other information that are passed by members of
society to the individual.
Process
Refers to the methods of interaction that enable the content to be given to the person undergoing
socialization.
Result
Refers to the outcomes of socialization and are evident when individuals begin to practice the
behaviors, attitudes, and values hat society considers necessary for them to function effectively as its
members.
Self-identity
Which refers to the establishment of unique sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates
to their society and the world.
Enculturation
Through enculturation, individuals learn cultural symbols, norms, values, and language by
observing and interacting with family, friends, teachers, and the rest of society.
Agent of Socialization and Enculturation
An important part of the socialization and enculturation processes are the social groups that
people come in contact and interact with throughout their lives. These groups are called participants or
agents of socialization and enculturation, and consist of persons, groups, and institutions that teach
people essential knowledge to participate successfully in society.
The Family
The family is the primary agent of socialization of an individual upon birth throughout infancy, and
up to childhood.
Schools
Have a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic and social activities mold
student’s beliefs, values, and attitudes.
Peer Groups
Are formed by informal, spontaneous, and voluntary means. There are certain organized groups,
however, that can be considered peer groups since they allow individuals who share similar
backgrounds and interests to come together.
Mass Media
Includes forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspapers, other print materials,
radio, television, and movies.
Pluralist Model
Portrays media as an ideological marketplace that enhances debate and electoral choice.
Market Model
Suggests that media reflects the views of the general public, and that media presents what they
think the people they want.
Dominant-ideology model
Traces this bias to links between media and political and social elite.
Elite-values Model Recognizes media bias as a product of the personal views of media professionals
such as journalist, broadcasters, and editors.
PHILOSOPHY CHAPTER 2

The Mind’s First Step

It was Aristotle (384-322 BCE) who once said that man is a rational animal. Though many present-day
philosophers refute this claim, there is a little grain of truth in such an assertion.

In essence, the philosopher uses Logic as his toolbox. He deals with arguments and all sorts of
statements and uses careful rational thought to arrive at the truth. Note that when we talk about
arguments, we don’t necessarily refer to a battle of wits. Rather, we’re talking about statements in a
discourse or discussion.
Logic is a set of rules and techniques for distinguishing good reasoning from bad

In its simplest form, Logic is the use of arguments—also called premises—correctly. The goal of
philosophical discourse, therefore, is to provide arguments logically and avoid thinking fallaciously.

Deductive arguments are often said to start from the general and end with the specific. In philosophy, to
argue deductively is to provide successive premises which lead to certain conclusion. That is, if all of
your premises are true, your conclusion will be true as well.

Example: 1

Premise 1: All dogs are mammals.

Premise 2: Lassie is a dog.
Conclusion: Therefore, Lassie is a mammal.
In the example above, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if all of the premises are true. In this
case, we call such a deductive argument as valid

Example: 2

Premise 1: All dogs are mammals.

Premise 2: Dumbo is a mammal.
Conclusion: Dumbo is a dog.
If the conclusion doesn’t make sense it can be classified as INVALID.

Example: 3

Premise 1: All birds can fly.

Premise 2: An ostrich is a bird.
Conclusion: An ostrich can fly.
The argument in itself is valid but that doesn’t make it true. There is no known record of an ostrich ever
taking flight. The error in reasoning stems from the false premise—specifically, that all birds can fly
VALID Example 3
Premise 1: If it's nighttime, the stars are visible. Premise 1: Most of the employees in your office
Premise 2: The stars are not visible. take public transportation to work.
Conclusion: Therefore, it's not nighttime. Premise 2: You are an employee at the same
office.
Conclusion: It's likely that you also take public
Premise 1: John is either in the kitchen or the
transportation to commute to work.
living room.
Premise 2: John is not in the kitchen. Our Minds at Work
Conclusion: Therefore, John is in the living
Apart from learning how to think critically, one of
room.
the biggest benefits of philosophizing is the
apparent wisdom that comes with understanding
INVALID the world in which one lives. Far from simply
coasting from one day to the next, the
Premise 1: All dogs have teeth.
philosopher is concerned with the very nature of
Premise 2: All cats have teeth.
reality and what that means for his earthly life.
Conclusion: Therefore, all animals with teeth are
dogs or cats.
World of Pure Forms
In what is widely known as the Allegory of the
Premise 1: Each brick in the wall weighs 5
Cave, Plato paints a picture of man as a prisoner
pounds.
inside a cave. He is chained and unable to
Premise 2: The wall is made up of bricks.
move, trapped as it were with other prisoners.
Conclusion:
Behind them is large fire and in front of this fire
Therefore, the wall weighs 5 pounds. is a parade of objects. The shadows of these
objects are projected onto the wall in front of the
prisoners. One very important detail: these
Inductive arguments, meanwhile, are
prisoners have been chained inside the cave
characterized more by their predictive power.
their entire lives. They have never seen the
That is, they don’t deal with certainties but with
world outside the cave, and so all they know to
probabilities and likelihood.
be true and real are the shadows displayed on
the cave walls.
Example 1
Premise 1: Most Filipinos have black hair.
Beliefs that once thought to be true, proven
Premise 2: Pedro is Filipino.
false
Conclusion: Pedro has black hair.
Example 2
The belief that the Earth was at the center of the
Premise 1: A majority of the smartphones owned Solar System
by people in my circle of friends are made by
The belief that the Earth was flat
Apple.
Premise 2: My colleague Mabel is a part of this Shaving Makes Hair Grow Back Thicker
circle of friends.
Conclusion: It's likely that Sarah's smartphone is
made by Apple.
FILIPINO
ANG AKADEMIKONG PAGSULAT: Pagsulat
ng Talumpati
Ang Pagtatalumpati ay isang proseso o
paraan ng pagpapahayag ng ideya o
kaisipan sa paraang pasalitang tumatalakay sa
isang partikular na paksa. Ang isang
talumpating isinulat ay hindi magiging ganap na
talumpati kung ito ay hindi mabibigkas sa harap
ng madla.
MGA URI NG TALUMPATI
1. Biglaang Talumpati -Ito ay ibinibigay
nang biglaan o walang paghahanda,
kaagad na ibinibigay ang paksa sa oras
ng pagsasalita.
2. Maluwag na talumpati –Isinasagawa
nang biglaan o walang paghahanda.
Nagbibigay ng ilang minuto para sa
pagbuo ng ipahahayag na kaisipan.
3. Manuskrito-Ang talumpating ito ay
ginagamit sa mga kumbesyon seminar o
programa sa pagsasaliksik kaya pinag-
aaralan itong mabuti at dapat na
nakasulat.
4. Isinaulong Talumpati-Ito ay kagaya rin
ng manuskrito sapagkat ito ay
mahusay ding pinag-aralan at hinabi nang
maayos bago bigkasin sa harap ng mga
tagapakinig.
HUWARAN SA PAGBUO NG TALUMPATI
1. Kronolohikal na Huwaran - ang mga
detalye o nilalaman ng talumpati ay
nakasalalay sa pagkakasunod-sunod ng
pangyayari o panahon.
2. Topikal na Huwaran - ang paghahanay ng
mga materyales ng talumpati ay
nakabatay sa panguanhing paksa.
3. Huwarang Problema-Solusyon - kalimitang
nahahati sa dalawang bahagi ang pagkakahabi
ng talumpat gamit ang huwarang ito.
KASANAYAN SA PAGHABI NG MGA BAHAGI
NG TALUMPATI
 ang paghahabi o pagsulat ng nilalaman
ng talumpati mula sa umpisa hanggang
sa matapos ito ay napakahalaga ring
isaalang-alang upang higit na mahusay,
komprehensibo at organisado ang
bibigkasing talumpati.
KASANAYAN SA PAGHABI NG MGA BAHAGI
NG TALUMPATI
1. Introduksyon - ito ang pinakapanimula. Ito
ay naghahanda sa mga nakikinig para sa
nilalaman ng talumpati kaya naman dapat
angkop ang pambungad sa katawan ng
talumpati.
Ang mga sumusunod na katangian sa isang
mahusay na panimula:
- mapukaw ang kaisipan at damdamin ng mga
makikinig.
- maihanda ang mga tagapakinig sa
gaganaping pagtalakay sa paksa.
- maipaliwanag ang paksa
2. Diskusyon o Katawan - dito makikita ang
pinakamahalagang bahagi ng talumpati
sapagkat dito tinatalakay ang
mahahalgang punto o kaisipang nais
ibahagi sa mga nakikinig. Ito ang
pinakakaluluwa ng talumpati.
MGA KATANGIANG TAGLAYIN NG KATAWAN
SA TALUMPATI
a. Kawastuhan - tiyaking wasto at maayos ang
nilalaman ng talumpati. Dapat na totoo
at maliwanag nang mabisa ang lahat ng detalye.
b. Kalinawan -kailangang maliwanag ang
pagkakasulat at pagkakabigkas ng talumpati
upang maunawaan ng mga nakikinig.
c. Kaakit-akit - gawing kawili-wili ang paglalahad
ng mga katwiran o paliwanag para
sa paksa.
3. Katapusan o Kongklusyon - dito nakasaad
ang pinaka kongklusyon mg talumpati.
Dito kalimitang nilalagom ang mga patunay at
argumentong inilahad sa katawan ng
talumpati.
4. Haba ng Talumpati - nakasalalay kung
ilang minuto o oras ang inilaan para sa
pagbigkas. Malaking tulong sa pagbuo ng
nilalaman nito ang pagtiyak sa nilaang oras
URI NG PAGLALAGOM: ABSTRAK
PAGSULAT NG ABSTRAK
Ang Abstrak ay isang uri ng lagom na
karaniwang ginagamit sa pagsulat ng mga
akademikong papel tulad ng tesis, papel
siyentipiko at teknikal, lektyur at mga report. Ito
ay kadalasang bahagi ng isang tesis o
disertasyon na makikita sa unahan ng
pananaliksik pagkatapos ng title page o pahina
ng pamagat. Ito ay naglalaman ng pinakabuod
ng akdang akademiko o ulat.
Ayon kay Philip Koopman sa kanyang aklat na
How to Write an Abstract(1997), bagama’t ang
abstrak ay maikli lamang, tinataglay nito ang
mahahalagang elemento o bahagi ng sulating
akademiko tulad ng Rasyunali / Introduksyon,
metodolohiya, saklaw at delimitasyon, resulta
at konklusyon. Naiiba nito ang kongklusyon
sapagkat ito ay naglalaman ng pinakabuod ng
bawat
bahagi ng sulatin o ulat.
1. Pamagat - Pinakapaksa o tema ng isang
akda/sulatin.
2. Introduksyon o Panimula - nagpapakita ng
malinaw na pakay o layunin,
mapanghikayat ang bahaging ito upang
makapukaw ng interes sa mambabasa at sa
manunulat.
3. Kaugnay na literatura - Batayan upang
makapagbibigay ng malinaw na
kasagutan o tugon sa para sa mga
mambabasa.
4. Metodolohiya - Isang plano o sistema para
matapos ang isang gawain.
5. Resulta - Sagot o tugon para mapunan ang
kabuuan ng nasabing sulatin.
6. Konklusyon.- Panapos na pahayag na
naglalaman ng ideya o opinyon na mag-iiwan ng
pala-isipan kaugnay sa paksa.
URI NG PAGLALAGOM: SINOPSIS
Ang sinopsis o buod ay isang uri ng lagom na
kalimitang ginagamit sa mga akdang nasa
tekstong naratibo tulad ng
kwento ,salaysay ,nobela , dula ,parabula,
pelikula, video,pangyayari ,at talumpati iba pang
anyo ng panitikan. Ito ay maaaring buoin ng
isang talata o higit pa o maging ng ilang
pangungusap lamang.
URI NG PAGLALAGOM: BIONOTE
Ang Bionote ay maituturing ding isang uri ng
lagom na ginagamit sa pagsulat ng personal
profile ng isang tao. Marahil ay nakasulat ka na
ng iyong talambuhay o tinatawag sa Ingles na
autobiography o kaya ng kathambuhay o katha
sa buhay ng isang tao o biography. Parang
ganito rin ang bionote ngunit ito ay higit na maikli
kompara sa mga ito. Ayon kay Duenas at Sanz
(2012) sa kanilang aklat na Academic Writing for
Health Sciences, ang bionote ay tala sa buhay
ng isang tao na naglalaman ng buod ng kanyang
academic career na madalas ay makikita o
mababasa sa mga journal, aklat, abstrak ng mga
sulating papel, websites, at iba pa.

Kadalasan, ito ay ginagamit sa paggawa ng bio-
data, resume, o anumang kagaya ng mga ito
upang ipakilala ang sarili para sa isang
propesyonal na layunin. Ito rin ang madalas na
mababasa sa bahaging “Tungkol sa Iyong Sarili”
na makikita sa mga social network o digital
communication sites. Layunin din ng bionote na
maipakilala ang sarili sa madla sa pamamagitan
ng pagbanggit ng mga personal na
impormasyon tungkol sa sariliat maging ng mga
nagawa o ginagawa sa buhay.
KATANGIAN NG BIONOTE
1.Maikli ang nilalaman -Sikaping paikliin ang
iyong bionote at isulat lamang ang
mahahalagang impormasyon,
2.Gumagamit ng ikatlong panauhang pananaw
– Tandaan ,laging gumagamit ng pangatlong
panauhang pananaw kahit na ito pa ay tungkol
sa sarili. Halimbawa: Si Juan dela Cruz ay
nagtapos ng BA at MA Economics sa UP-
Diliman. Siya ay kasalukuyang nagtuturo ng
Macroeconomic Theory sa parehong
Pamantasan.
5.Nakatuon lamang sa mga angkop na
kasanayan o katangian - mamili lamang ng mga
kasanayan o katangian na angkop sa layunin ng
bionote. Halimbawa: “Si Pedro ay guro,
manunulat, negosyante, environmentalist at
chef“. Kung ibig pumasok bilang guro sa
panitikan, halimbawa hindi na kailangan
banggitin sa bionote ang pagiging negosyante at
chef.
6.Binabanggit ang degree o tinapos kung
kinakailangan - Kung may PhD halimbawa at
nagsusulat ng artikulo tungkol sa kultura ng
Ibanag sa Cagayan,mahalagang isulat sa
bionote ang kredensyal na ito.
7. Maging matapat sa pagbabahagi ng
impormasyon – Walang masama kung
paminsan-minsa ay magbubuhat ka ng sariling
bangko kung ito naman ay kailangan upang
matanggap sa inaplayan o upang ipakita sa iba
ang kakayahan. Siguruhin lamang na tama o
totoo ang impormasyon.

3.Kinikilala ang mga mambabasa o ang target

market - kailangang isaalang-alang ang
mambabasa
sa pagsulat ng bionote. Kung ang target na
mambabasa ay mgaadministrador ng paaralan
kailangang hulmahin ang bionote ayon sa kung
anong hinahanap nila.

4.Gumagamit ito ng baligtad na tatsulok - tulad

sa pagsulat ng balita at iba pang obhetibong
sulatin, talagang inuuna ang pinakamahalagang
impormasyon sa bionote.