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Module No. 2

Management

1st Semester AY 2023-2024

AIMEE J. GOH
DIANA RUTH C. COCHING
CHRISTY S. ORDAS

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INTRODUCTION

Leaders are people who do the right thing;

managers are people who do things right.
– Professor Warren G. Bennis

What is Management?

Management is a vital aspect of the economic life of man, which is an

organized group activity. It is considered the indispensable institution in
the modern social organization marked by scientific thought and
technological innovations. One of the other forms of management is
essential wherever human efforts are to be undertaken collectively to satisfy
wants through some productive activity, occupation, or profession.

It is management that regulates man's productive activities through

the coordinated use of material resources. Without the leadership provided
by management, the resources of production remain resources and never
become production.

Management is the integrating force in all organized activity.

Whenever two or more people work together to attain a common objective,
they must coordinate their activities. They also have to organize and utilize
their resources in such a way as to optimize the results. Not only in
organization enterprises where costs and revenues can be ascertained
accurately and objectively but also in in-service organizations such as
government, hospitals, schools, clubs, etc., scarce resources including men,
machines, materials, and money must be integrated into a productive
relationship and utilized efficiently towards the achievement of their goals.
Thus, management is not unique to an organization but common to all
kinds of social organizations.

Management has achieved desirable importance in recent times. We

are all intimately associated with many kinds of organizations, the most
omnipresent being the government, the school, and the hospital. More and
more of the major social tasks are being organized on an institutional basis.
Medical care, education, recreation, irrigation, lighting, sanitation, etc.,
which typically used to be the concern of the individual or the family, are
now the domain of large organizations. Although organizations other than
organizations do not speak of management, they all need management. It

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is the specific organ of all kinds of organizations since they all need to utilize
their limited resources most efficiently and effectively for the achievement
of their goals. It is the most vital force in the successful performance of all
kinds of organized activities.

Management's primary focus is on the conceptual side of the

organization, such as planning, organizing, and budgeting. It does the leg
work to make visions a reality. Management is more about ensuring that
the organization's resources are allocated wisely, rather than trying to
control people. Good managers know that trying to control others is
extremely difficult if not impossible.

Management helps to acquire, integrate, and allocate resources to

accomplish goals and tasks. In contrast, Leadership deals with
interpersonal relations such as being a teacher and coach, instilling
organizational spirit to win, and serving the organization and workers.

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Chapter 1. Management

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students can:

a. explain the evolution of management;
b. discuss management and its characteristics;
c. classify the function of management;
d. identify the managerial skills needed for effective managing;
e. differentiate between the functions of top managers, middle managers,
first-line managers, and team leaders;

B. TIME ALLOTMENT

Six (6) hours (4 meetings)

C. DISCUSSION

M
To
anaging is one of the most important activities of human life.

accomplish aims that could not be achieved individually, people started

forming groups. Managing has become essential to ensure the
coordination of individual efforts. Management applies to all kinds of
organizations and managers at all organizational levels. Principles of
management are now used not only for managing an organization but in
all walks of life viz., government, military, social and educational
institutions. Essentially, management is the same process in all forms of
organization. But it may vary widely in its complexity with size and level of
organization. Management is the life-giving element of any organization.

DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

Management thought has a long history. It is as old as human civilization itself.

Management in one form or the other has been a significant feature of the economic
life of mankind throughout the ages. Management thought is an evolutionary concept
It has developed along with and in line with the growth of social, political, economic,

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and scientific institutions. Management thought has its origin in ancient times. It
developed gradually along with other socio-economic developments. The contributors
to management though are many. They include Management philosophers,
management practitioners, and scholars. Modem management is based on the solid
foundations laid down by management thinkers from the early historical period.
The evolution of management can be divided into two parts – The early
management approach and the modern management approach.

EARLY MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

The history of management is as old as a man. Evidence of a well-

organized principle of management can be seen in ancient Greece and India.
Those Kings used the concepts of management like planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling the various activities.

The process of early management approaches are:

1. Psychological development
2. Scientific management
3. Administrative management and
4. Human relations movement

1. Psychological Development: (Before the 17th century)

In the olden days when there was no experience and knowledge of the
organization, they had to depend upon their inborn abilities. This gave rise to
management that was based on the Psychological process. As a result, people
were having a universal belief that managers are born and cannot be made
such as artists, directors, poets, kings, etc.

2. Scientific management: (18th – 19th century)

During this time the development was brought about by the following two important
factors.

1. The effort of scientists to demonstrate the application of science and scientific

methods.
2. The effort of establishing standard practices.

Thus, during this development, management adopted a scientific

approach. The work made use of scientific methods for achieving standard
practice and higher efficiency. Thus, scientific management came into
existence. Many pioneers have contributed to this development.

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Frederik Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1915) has been considered to be the father
of scientific management. He conducted a series of experiments and
promoted the development of management thought through his
experiments and writings.

Principle of Scientific Management

According to Taylor, scientific management in its essence consists of a philosophy

that results in a combination of four important underlying principles of management.
First, the development of true science, second, the scientific selection of the
workers, third, their scientific education and development, fourth, intimate co-
operation between management and their men. The basic principles of Taylor's
philosophy of scientific management areas are noted below. These principles of
scientific management are the most crucial aspects of scientific management.

✓ The development of 'One best way" of doing a job. This suggests the task of
finding out the best method for achieving the objectives of a given job. The
standards are decided scientifically for Jobs and incentive wages were paid for
all production above this standard. Here, job analysis and standardization of
tools, equipment, machinery, etc. are required.
✓ Scientific selection of workers and their development through proper training.
✓ The scientific approach by management. The management has to develop a true
science in all fields of work activity through scientific investigation and
experiments.
✓ Close co-operation of managers and workers (labor-management relations) for
better results and understanding.
✓ Elimination of conflict between methods and men. The workers are likely to
resist new methods. This can be avoided by providing them an opportunity to
earn more wages.
The time and motion study of scientific management had created awareness of
using the right tools and minimizing waste movements while performing work.
Further, scientific management also insisted on the scientific selection of workers and
made the management realize the training needs to do a job. The scientific
management suggested the work design, that is, one best way of doing a job. Scientific
management had developed a rational approach to solving the problems of an
organization and contributed to the professionalization of management.

But Taylor’s concept of monitory benefits to motivate workers did not fetch the
expected results. Taylor’s time and motion study was not accepted as entirely scientific
because there is no “one best way” of doing a job. Separation of ‘planning’ and ‘doing’
functions coupled with greater specialization led to greater monotony of work.

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3. Administrative Management

Henri Fayol (1841-1925) is considered the father of administrative

management. His theory was focused on the development of administrative principles
applicable to middle and top-level managers. He used the word ‘administration’ which
is otherwise known as management nowadays. He wrote a book titled “General and
Industrial Administration”, in which he explained the process of administration. His
thinking is beyond the worker and shop level production but of a wider perspective.
His main focus was on managerial or administrative activity. He divided the
management function into five functions: - Planning, organizing, commanding,
coordinating, and controlling. These functions are very similar to what is being
practiced in today’s management. He also told that these activities are the same at all
levels of any organization and are the same for all organizations. Fayol suggested 14
principles of management as a guideline to the process of management practice.

According to Henry Fayol, managers should be flexible in the application

of these principles. They are given below:

Principles of Management:

i Division of work
ii Authority and responsibility
iii Discipline
iv Unity of command
v Unity of direction
vi Subordination of individual interest to general interest
vii Union is strength
viii Initiative
ix Equity
x Scalar chain
xi Order
xii Stability of tenure of personnel
xiii Remuneration and
xiv Centralization

Henry Fayol’s contribution to management theory is certainly remarkable. He gave

overall concepts of general management and suggested the basic functions of
management. He recommended the selection and training of workers and managers.
He also advocated the use of organization charts. He suggested certain qualities of a
manager’s winch include physical, mental, moral, educational technical, and
experience. Fayol’s theory of management was the first complete theory of
management as we understand it today. It incorporated proven principles, elements,
procedures, and techniques based on his practical experience.

4. Human Relations Movement

Taylor and Fayol’s management techniques did not completely achieve
efficient production and harmony in the workplace. The unpredicted and irrational
patterns of behavior of workers made the task of managers more difficult. These two

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theories did not consider or focus on the human side of the organization. Hence there
was a need to focus on the human side.

Elton Mayo (1880-1949) is recommended as the Father of Human Relations School.

He introduced the human relations approach to management thought. His
contribution to the development of management thought is unique and is also treated
as a human relations approach to management. It was Mayo who led the team in
conducting the study at Western Electric's Hawthorne Plant (1927-1932) to evaluate
the attributes and psychological reactions of workers in on-the-job situations. His
associates included John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and others. Mayo and his associates
came to the following conclusions from their famous Hawthorne experiments:

✓ The amount of work to be done by a worker is not determined by his physical

capacity but by social norms.
✓ Non-economic rewards play a significant role in influencing the behavior of
workers.
✓ Generally, the workers do not react as individuals, but as members of a group.
✓ Informal leaders play an important part in setting and enforcing group norms.

Mayo discussed the factors that cause a change in human behavior. He concluded
that the cause of an increase in the productivity of the workers is not a single factor
like rest pauses or changing working hours but a combination of these and several
other factors such as less restrictive supervision, giving autonomy to workers, allowing
the formation of small cohesive groups of workers and so on. Today, as a result of the
efforts of Mayo and his associates, the managers in different organizations recognize
that workers' performance is related to psychological, sociological, and physical
factors. Thus, the Hawthorne Study was an important landmark to study the behavior
of workers and their relationship to the job, their fellow workers, and the organization.
It proved that informal workgroups and the opportunity to be heard and participate in
decision-making have an important impact on the productivity of the workers.

Some of the major findings of Hawthorne Studies we as noted below:

o Personnel behavior is influenced by mental attitudes and emotions

including prejudices.
o The workers in a group develop a common psychological bond uniting
them as a group in the form of an informal organization.
o In managing and motivating personnel groups, human and social
motivation plays a greater role than financial incentives.
o Management must understand that typical group behavior can dominate
or even supersede individual propensities and preferences.
o When workers are given special attention by management, productivity is
likely to increase irrespective of actual changes in the working conditions.

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Hawthorne Studies are primarily responsible for the consideration of non-

financial incentives in improving productivity. Mayo pointed out that the organization
is a social system and informal organization is a reality. The knowledge of human
nature can solve many problems with management. He emphasized that a successful
human relations approach can easily create harmony in an organization, higher
personnel satisfaction, and great operational efficiency. Central to this approach was
an increased understanding of the individual worker with emphasis on motivation,
needs, interpersonal relationships, and group dynamics.

Both the approaches (of Taylor and Mayo) are supplementary in the present
management thought. At present, stress is on scientific management principles as well
as on the human approach to management. Efforts are being made to create a
favorable organizational climate for achieving organizational goals. Taylor's approach
is comparatively old and was popular in the early decades of the 19th century the
human relations approach (suggested by Elton Mayo) is comparatively new and got
popularity by the 1930s.

MODERN MANAGEMENT APPROACHES

Systems Approach

A system is defined as a set of independent parts together to form a unitary

whole that performs a defined task.

The organization is a system that consists of people, tasks, structure, and

technology. Each part of the system has an independent relationship with the other
part.

The systems approach tries to emphasize the organizations as a whole,

rather than dealing with the parts separately. A system can be either an open system
or a closed system.

A system that interacts with the outside environment is called an open system
and a system that works within a closed boundary is called a closed system.

The systems approach to management is comparatively new to management

thought. This approach represents refreshingly new thinking on organization and
management. It stresses that managers should avoid analyzing problems in isolation
but should develop the skills for integrated thinking on management problems. The
systems approach provides a unified focus on organizational efforts. It provides a
strong conceptual framework for meaningful analysis and understanding of
organizations. The systems approach provides clues to the complex behavior of an
organization.

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The systems theory suggests to practicing managers study/analyze a particular

element by taking into consideration its interacting consequences with other
elements. A variety of systems concepts and perspectives have been developed for
managers.

The systems approach rightly points out the role of 'synergy' in management.
Each subsystem derives strength by its association and interaction with other
subsystems. As a result, the overall outcome is more than the total of individual
contributions. The other contribution of systems theory is its treatment of the
organization as an open system. The Organization exhibits a 'holistic' character.

CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT

Some of the common definitions of management given by famous writers and

thinkers are:

• According to Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Management is the

process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals,
working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims.

• According to Robert L. Trewelly and M. Gene Newport, Management is

defined as the process of planning, organizing, actuating, and controlling an
organization’s operations to achieve coordination of the human and material
resources essential in the effective and efficient attainment of objectives.

• According to Kreitner, “Management is the process of working with and through

others to effectively achieve organizational objectives by efficiently using limited
resources in the changing environment.

• According to George R. Terry, Management consists of planning, organizing,

actuating, and controlling, performed to determine and accomplish the objectives
by the use of people and resources.

• According to Mary Parker Follett: Management is the art of getting things

done through people.
• According to Lawrence A. Appley: “Management is guiding human and
physical resources into a dynamic. Hard-hitting organization until that attains its
objectives to the satisfaction of those served and with a high degree of morale and
sense of attainment on the part of those rendering the service”. It is deciding in
advance what to do, how to do it, who has to do it, when to do and where to do it,
and planning bridges the gap from where we are now to where we want to be in
the future.

• According to Wikipedia, management (or managing) is the administration of

an organization, whether it is an organization, a not-for-profit organization, or a

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government body. Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an

organization and coordinating the efforts of its personnel (or of volunteers) to
accomplish its objectives through the application of available resources, such as
financial, natural, technological, and human resources. The term "management"
may also refer to those people who manage an organization - managers.

So, Management can be defined as a process of getting things done to achieve goals
effectively and efficiently. Some important terms in this definition are:

1. Process: Process means the primary

functions or activities that management
performs to get things done. These functions
are planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
and controlling.
2. Effectiveness: Effectiveness is concerned
with the end result. It basically means
finishing the given task. Thus, effectiveness in
management is concerned with doing the right
task, completing activities, and achieving
goals.
3. Efficient: Efficiency means doing the task
correctly and with minimum cost.
Management is concerned with the efficient use of input resources as
means to the end.
It is important for management to achieve goals (effectiveness) with minimum
resources i.e., as efficiently as possible while maintaining a balance between
effectiveness and efficiency.

Management, as well as leadership skills, is commonly seen as an important

variable affecting organizational performance. While the concept has been extensively
studied, there is still much to be discovered regarding how management skills affect
organizational performance in police organizations.

In addition, management is defined as the process of coordinating work activities

so that they are completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people.
Likewise, it is the process that represents the ongoing functions or primary activities
engaged in by managers. These functions are typically labeled as planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling. In addition, management involves the efficient and effective
completion of organizational work activities, or at least that's what managers aspire to
do. Efficiency refers to getting the most output from the least amount of inputs.
Because managers deal with scarce inputs including resources such as people, money,
and equipment they are concerned with the efficient use of those resources.

However, it's not enough just to be efficient. Management is also concerned with
being effective, completing activities so that organizational goals are attained.

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Effectiveness is often described as doing the right things that are, those work
activities that will help the organization reach its goals. However, efficiency is
concerned with the means of getting things done; effectiveness is concerned with the
ends, or attainment of organizational goals. Nevertheless, management is concerned,
then, not only with getting activities completed and meeting organizational goals but
also with doing so as efficiently as possible. In successful organizations, high efficiency
and high effectiveness typically go hand in hand. Poor management is most often due
to both inefficiency and ineffectiveness or effectiveness achieved through inefficiency
(Robins, De Cenzo & Coulter, 2013)

Fundamental Functions of Management

Management in some form or another is an integral part of living and is

essential wherever human efforts are to be undertaken to achieve desired objectives.
The basic ingredients of management are
always at play, whether we manage our lives
or organizations.
Management is essential for an organized
life and necessary to run all types of
organizations. Managing life means getting
things done to achieve life’s objectives and
managing an organization means getting
things done with and through other people to
achieve its objectives.
“Management is a set of principles
relating to the functions of planning,
organizing, directing, and controlling,
and the applications of these
principles in harnessing physical,
financial, human, and informational
resources efficiently and effectively
achieve organizational goals”.

There are basically five primary functions of management. These are:

1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Controlling

The controlling function comprises coordination, reporting, and budgeting,

and hence the controlling function can be broken into these three separate functions.
Based upon these seven functions, Luther Gulick coined the word POSDCORB, which
generally represents the initials of these seven functions i.e. P stands for Planning, O
for Organizing, S for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting &
B for Budgeting (this will be discussed next to this topic).

But, Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, and Controlling are widely recognized
functions of management.

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FIVE FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT

1. Planning
Planning is future-oriented and determines an organization’s direction. It is a
rational and systematic way of making decisions today that will affect the future
of the organization. It is a kind of organized foresight as well as corrective
hindsight. It involves predicting the future as well as attempting to control the
events. It involves the ability to foresee the effects of current actions in the long
run in the future.

2. Organizing
Organizing requires a formal structure of authority and the direction and flow
of such authority through which work subdivisions are defined, arranged, and
coordinated so that each part relates to the other part in a united and coherent.
manner so as to attain the prescribed objectives.

Thus, the function of organizing involves the determination of activities that

need to be done in order to reach the organization goals, assigning these activities
to the proper personnel, and delegating the necessary authority to carry out these
activities in a coordinated and cohesive manner.

It follows, therefore, that the function of organizing is concerned with:

1 Identifying the tasks that must be performed and grouping them whenever
necessary.
2 Assigning these tasks to the personnel while defining their authority and
responsibility.
3 Delegating this authority to these personnel.
4 Establishing a relationship between authority and responsibility.
5 Coordinating these activities.

3. Staffing
Staffing function involves selecting, placing, training, developing,
compensating, and evaluating (the performance appraisal) personnel. Since the
human element is the most vital factor in the process of management, it is
important to recruit the right personnel.
This function is even more critically important since people differ in their
intelligence, knowledge, skills, experience, physical condition, age, and attitudes,
and this complicates the function. Hence, management must understand, in
addition to the technical and operational competence, the sociological and
psychological structure of the workforce. Staffing is considered an important
function that makes provision for manpower to fill different positions. It involves
building the human organization by filling and keep filling the staff. This is done
by identifying workforce requirements, taking inventory of people available,
recruiting new staff, selecting, placing, promoting, appraising, planning their

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careers, and training the staff to accomplish their tasks effectively and efficiently.
This involves:
o Finding the right person for the right job.
o Selecting the personnel.
o Placement, training, and developing new skills required for present and future
jobs.
o Creating new positions.
o Apprising the staff and planning their growth and promotions etc.

4. Directing
Directing is the managerial function that initiates action: issuing directives,
assignments, and instructions; building an effective group of subordinates who are
motivated to do what must be done; explaining procedures; issuing orders, and
making sure that mistakes are corrected. The directing function is concerned with
leadership, communication, motivation, and supervision so that the personnel
performs their activities in the most efficient manner possible, to achieve the desired
goals.
Leading and motivating work together in the directing function. Leading “is the
process of influencing people to work toward a common goal [and] motivating is the
process of providing reasons for people to work in the best interests of an
organization.
The leadership element involves issuing instructions and guiding the
subordinates about procedures and methods. The communication must be open
both ways so that the information can be passed on to the subordinates and the
feedback received from them. Motivation is very important since highly motivated
people show excellent performance with less direction from superiors. Supervising
subordinates would lead to continuous progress reports as well as assure the
superiors that the directions are being properly carried out.

5. Controlling
The function of control consists of those activities that are undertaken
to ensure that the events do not deviate from the pre-arranged plans. The activities
consist of establishing standards for work performance, measuring performance
and comparing it to these set standards, and taking corrective actions as and when
needed, to correct any deviations.

It is about keeping an eye on things. It is the process of evaluating and

regulating ongoing activities to ensure that goals are achieved. Controlling provides
feedback for future planning activities and aims to modify behavior and
performance when deviations from plans are discovered. There are four commonly
identified steps in the controlling process.

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The controlling function involves:

a. Establishment of standard performance.

b. Measurement of actual performance.
c. Measuring actual performance with the pre-determined standard and
finding out the deviations.
d. Taking corrective action.

Setting performance standards is the first step. Standards let personnels

know what to expect in terms of time, quality, quantity, and so forth. The second step
is measuring performance, where the actual performance or results are
determined. Comparing performance is step three. This is when the actual
performance is compared to the standard. The fourth and last step, taking
corrective action, involves making whatever actions are necessary to get things
back on track. The controlling functions should be circular in motion, so all the steps
will be repeated periodically until the goal is achieved.

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© Ashford University online

All these five functions of management are closely interrelated. However, these
functions are highly indistinguishable and virtually unrecognizable on the job. It is
necessary, though, to put each function separately into focus and deal with it.
With the accomplishment of this function, the “Management Cycle” is said to be
complete.

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Management Cycle

An additional component in the managerial process in

police organizations is the Chain of Command indicates that the
higher the position one holds, the greater the power, authority, and
influence he/she possesses.

There are four levels in the chain of command: top managers, middle
managers, lower managers, and the rank and file.

WHO ARE MANAGE RS?

A Manager is responsible for planning and directing the work of a group of

individuals, monitoring their performance, and taking corrective action when
necessary for the accomplishment of organizational goals and objectives.
Managers function in several roles including leading, sharing information, and making
decisions. How often they play a particular role depends on the level they occupy and
the type of organization. We’ll talk about the differences between top managers,
middle managers, first-line managers, and team leaders.
-----------------------------------------------

The following are the type of managers:

1. Top managers- Are responsible for making organization-wide decisions

and establishing plans and goals that affect the entire organization.
2. Middle managers- formulate objectives and plans for implementing
decisions from above and coordinate activities from below.
3. Lower (first-line) managers- implement decisions made at higher
levels and coordinate and direct the work of personnel at the lowest level of
the organization. First-line managers are focused almost exclusively on the
internal issues of the organization and are the first to see problems with the
operation.

Team Leaders- oftentimes team leaders are selected in larger units. A team leader
is a special kind of manager who may be appointed to manage a particular task or
activity. The team leader reports to a first-line or middle manager. Responsibilities of

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the team leader include developing timelines, making specific work assignments,
providing needed training to team members, communicating clear instructions, and
generally ensuring that the team is operating at peak efficiency. Once the task is
complete, the team leader position may be eliminated, and a new team may be formed
to complete a different task.

-----------------------------------------------

Roles of Managers

The types (levels) of managers and some of their responsibilities

were discussed, but not their specific activities. All managers must be
comfortable with three main types of activities or roles. To do their jobs,
managers assume these different roles. No manager stays in any one role all
of the time but shifts back and forth. These roles are leadership (or
interpersonal), informational, and decision making. They were written
about in detail in the 1970s by Henry Mintzberg, a professor at McGill
University in Canada. His classifications are still one of the most studied
descriptors of management roles today.

1. Interpersonal roles: These includes figurehead, leader, and liaison roles:

a. Figurehead Role - Social, ceremonial and legal responsibilities. A
manager is expected to be a source of inspiration. People look up to him/her
as a person with authority, and as a figurehead.
b. Leader - This is where the manager provide leadership for his/her team,
department or the entire
c. Liaison Role – He / She also reconciles the needs with the goals of the
organization.

The various levels and skills required at different management levels

(in terms of Interpersonal roles) are shown below.

Interpersonal Roles

Top managers Middle managers First-line managers

They are the public Motivates personnel’s, Lead both by example when
face of the negotiating salaries, and they actively participate in the
management team encourages innovation and tasks assigned to their workers
and represent the creativity. and by modeling the policies
organization. and work ethics of the
organization.

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2. Informational Roles
These include Monitor, Disseminator, and Spokesperson role.

a) Monitor - In this role, information related to the organization and

industry are regularly seek out, looking for relevant changes in the
environment. The team is also monitored, in terms of both their
productivity, and their well-being.
b) Disseminator - This is where potential useful
information is communicated to colleagues and members of team.
c) Spokesperson - Managers represent and speak for their organization.
In this role, he/she is responsible for transmitting information about the
organization and its goals to the people outside it.

The various levels and skills required at different management levels

(in terms of Informational roles) are shown below.

Informational Roles

Top managers Middle managers First-line managers

The voice of the Middle managers must skillfully determine
organization has to be what information from top management
aware that even should be shared with others, how it should be
personal opinions will interpreted, and how it should be presented.
reflect (for Similarly, they must weigh the value of the
better or worse) on the information they receive from first-line
organization. managers and personnel to decide what to
forward to top management. If transmitted
information tends to be untrue or trivial, then
the manager will be viewed as a nonreliable
source and his or her opinions discounted.
The informational role of first-
line managers is primarily one
of disseminating what they have
been given and helping the
personnel to see how their
contributions further
organizational goals. They have
a responsibility to see that the
personnel understand what they
need to be successful in their
jobs.

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3. Decision Making Roles

These include Entrepreneur, Disturbance Handler, and Resource Allocator and
Negotiator roles:
a) Entrepreneur - As a manager, he/she create and control change within
the organization. This mean solving problems, generating new ideas, and
implementing them.
b) Disturbance Handler- When an organization or team hits an
unexpected roadblock, it's the manager wh0 must take charge. They also
need to help mediate disputes within it.
c) Resource Allocator - A manager also need to determine where
organizational resources are best applied. This involves allocating funding,
as well as assigning staff and other organizational resources.
d) Negotiator - He / She may be needed to take part in, and direct, important
negotiations within the team, department, or organization.

--------------------------------------------

Managerial Skills

Managerial skills are the knowledge and ability of the individuals in a

managerial position to fulfill some specific management activities or tasks.
Management skills can be defined as certain attributes or abilities that an
executive should possess to fulfill specific tasks in an organization. They include the
capacity to perform executive duties in an organization while avoiding crises and
promptly solving problems when they occur. Management skills can be developed
through learning and practical experience as a manager. The skills help the manager
to relate with their co-workers and know how to deal well with their subordinates,
which allows for the easy flow of activities in the organization.
Good management skills are vital for any organization to succeed and achieve
its goals and objectives. A manager who fosters good management skills can propel
the company’s mission and vision or organization goals forward with fewer hurdles
and objections from internal and external sources.
Management and leadership skills are often used interchangeably as they both
involve planning, decision-making, problem-solving, communication, delegation,
and time management. Good managers are almost always good leaders as well.
In addition to leading, a critical role of a manager is to also ensure that all parts of
the organization are functioning cohesively. Without such integration, several issues
can arise and failure is bound to happen. Management skills are crucial for various
positions and at different levels of a company, from top leadership to intermediate
supervisors to first-level managers.
These skills will enable managers to become leaders and motivate personnel for
better accomplishments. Also, they will help them to make more effective use of
human potential in the company. Simply, they are essential skills for managers.

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THREE ESSENTIAL SKILLS OR COMPETENCIES OF THE MANAGER

According to American social and organizational psychologist Robert Katz,

the three basic types of management skills include:

1. Technical
2. Human
3. Conceptual

Technical

As the name of these skills tells

us, they give the manager
knowledge and the ability
to use different
techniques to achieve what they
want to achieve.

Human or Interpersonal Managerial Skills

Human or interpersonal management skills present a manager’s knowledge

and ability to work with people. One of the most critical management tasks is to work
with people. Without people, there will not be a need for the existence of
management managers.

Conceptual Skills

These involve the skills managers present in terms of the knowledge and ability
for abstract thinking and formulating ideas. The manager can see an entire concept,
analyze and diagnose a problem, and find creative solutions. This helps the manager
to effectively predict hurdles their department or the organization may face.

Examples of Management Skills

There is a wide range of skills that management should possess to

run an organization effectively and efficiently. The following are six
essential management skills that any manager ought to possess for them to
perform their duties:
1. Planning
Planning is a vital aspect of an organization. It refers to one’s ability to
organize activities in line with set guidelines while remaining within the limits
of the available resources such as time, money, and labor. It is also the process
of formulating a set of actions or one or more strategies to pursue and achieve
certain goals or objectives with the available resources.

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The planning process includes identifying and setting achievable goals,

developing necessary strategies, and outlining the tasks and schedules on how
to achieve the set goals. Without a good plan, little can be achieved.

2. Communication
Possessing great communication skills is crucial for a manager. It can determine
how well information is shared throughout a team, ensuring that the group acts as a
unified workforce. How well a manager communicates with the rest of his/her team
also determines how well outlined procedures can be followed, how well the tasks
and activities can be completed, and thus, how successful an organization will be.

Communication involves the flow of information within the organization,

whether formal or informal, verbal or written, vertical or horizontal, and it facilitates
the smooth functioning of the organization. Established communication channels in
an organization allow the manager to collaborate with the team, prevent conflicts,
and resolve issues as they arise. A manager with good communication skills can
relate well with the personnel and thus, be able to achieve the company’s set goals
and objectives easily.

3. Decision-making
Another vital management skill is decision-making. Managers make numerous
decisions, whether knowingly or not, and making decisions is a key component of a
manager’s success. Making proper and right decisions results in the success of the
organization, while poor or bad decisions may lead to failure or poor performance.

For the organization to run effectively and smoothly, clear and right decisions
should be made. Managers must be accountable for every decision that they make
and also be willing to take responsibility for the results of their decisions. A good
manager needs to possess great decision-making skills, as it often dictates his/her
success in achieving organizational objectives.

4. Delegation
Delegation is another key management skill. Delegation is the act of passing on
work-related tasks and/or authority to other personnels or subordinates. It involves
the process of allowing your tasks or those of your personnels to be reassigned or
reallocated to other personnels depending on current workloads. A manager with
good delegation skills can effectively and efficiently reassign tasks and give authority
to the right personnels. When delegation is carried out effectively, it helps facilitate
efficient task completion.

Delegation helps the manager to avoid wastage of time, optimizes

productivity, and ensures responsibility and accountability on the part of personnels.
Every manager must have good delegation abilities to achieve optimal results and
accomplish the required productivity results.

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5. Problem-solving
Problem-solving is another essential skill. A good manager must have the ability
to tackle and solve the frequent problems that can arise in a typical workday.
Problem solving in management involves identifying a certain problem or situation
and then finding the best way to handle the problem and get the best solution. It is
the ability to sort things out even when the prevailing conditions are not right. When
a manager has great problem-solving skills, it differentiates him/her from the rest of
the team and gives subordinates confidence in his/her managerial skills.

6. Motivating
The ability to motivate is another important skill in an organization. Motivation
helps bring forth a desired behavior or response from the personnel or certain
stakeholders. There are numerous motivation tactics that managers can use and
choosing the right ones can depend on characteristics such as company and team
culture, team personalities, and more. There are two primary types of motivation
that a manager can use. These are intrinsic and extrinsic motivations.

Bottom Line

Management skills are a collection of abilities that include things

such as planning, decision-making, problem-solving, communication,
delegation, and time management. While different roles and organizations
require the use of various skill sets, management skills help a professional
stand out and excel no matter what their level. In top management, these
skills are essential to run an organization well and achieving desired
organizational objectives.

MANAGEMENT: THE NEVER ENDING PROCESS

It simply means that management is a phase that will never stop because the
organization remains. Managers would always force themselves to tackle tasks,
goals, and problems at a certain point in time.

Management as a Science, Art, or Profession

Managing, like any other practice – whether medicine, music composition,

engineering, accounting, or even cricket – is an art. It is know-how. It is doing things
in light of the realities of a situation. Under ‘art’ one normally learns the “how” of a
phenomenon. It is the art of getting things done through others in dynamic and
mostly non-repetitive situations.

Science is organized knowledge. A discipline can be called scientific if its

methods of inquiry are systematic and empirical, information can be accumulated
and analyzed and results are commutative and communicable. The essential feature
of any science is the application of scientific methods to the development of

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knowledge. Being systematic means being orderly and unbiased. All the scientific
information collected first as raw data is finally arranged in order and analyzed with
the help of statistical tools. Science is also cumulative in that what is discovered is
added to that which has been found before. We learn from past mistakes and go in
the right direction in the future. Based on the above discussions of science, it can be
accepted that management is also a science.

One of the features which indicate that science and management are the same
is the universal acceptance of scientific principles. In other words, scientific laws are
the same in every case and in every part of the world. On the other hand,
management has its fundamental principles that are universally accepted and
implemented in every situation or enterprise. An example of that is the Unity of
Command Principle.

The relationship between cause and effect is a further trait that distinguishes
management and science as one. The relation between cause and effect is vitally
important in scientific principles. Heating the metal, for example, can cause it to
expand. The cause is the heat applied while the effect is the one felt by the expansion.
The same happens in administration. For example, it has been proven that there will
be ineffectiveness in organizations where there is no compromise between authority
and accountability.

Management as a Profession

It is seen that management is partly an art and partly a science. Management

does not possess the characteristics of a profession. A profession is expected to have
organized and systematic knowledge formalized methods of acquiring training and
experience, an ethical code to regulate the behavior of the members of the profession,
charging of fees based on service, etc. Unlike medicine and law, management does
not have any fixed norms of managerial behavior. There is no uniform code of
conduct or licensing of managers. Lawyers and doctors take up professions after
obtaining a valid academic qualification whereas a manager job is not restricted to
individuals with a special academic degree only. Based on this, it can be concluded
that management is not a profession. However, the present trend is towards the
professionalization of management.

Management is also an occupation as it has characteristics that allow it to be

so. A profession is called a career in which one acquires knowledge and undergoes
training series to fit perfectly into that role. A career has limited entry which is also
true in management. Although anyone can assume a managerial role in a
corporation and there is no law prohibiting that, many companies now prefer for
such positions individuals with Master’s degrees.

Nowadays, management has become a profession other than art or science.

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Management as a Group

In any way, the concept of management suggests that it is a group. In general,

administrative functions are not performed by one person alone. In most cases, as
companies expand, many specific managerial roles are generated so that the
organization can meet its desired objectives. Management is an operation carried
out by a group of people saddled with the responsibility of keeping the company
going and achieving a specific goal. In other words, a community composed of people
with specific knowledge of the organization or managerial roles will work together to
manage an organization. Today, when we suggest that a Company’s management is
doing well, we are implicitly referring to a specific group of people that makes up the
management team. They are the decision-makers and people’s first team to get the
boot when things go wrong. Let’s take the example of using the police force. The
Chief is the manager. However, do not forget that the community of managers is
comprised of other team leaders, not just one person.

MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

There is a lack of concurrence among management writers over the meaning

and use of the word’s management and administration.
One group of management writers feels that the administration involves
“thinking”. It is a top-level function that centers around the preparation of plans,
rules, policies, and objectives of an organization. Whereas management involves
“doing” and is a lower-level function, concerning with execution and direction of
policies and operations. Hence, the administration is more important at lower levels.
Another group of management writer feels management is a comprehensive generic
term that includes administration. Management is regarded as a comprehensive
generic function covering the entire process of planning, organizing, directing, and
controlling. The administration is regarded as a branch of management that
comprises two functions – planning and controlling. According to them, the function
of management is divided into two categories –upper-level management usually
called administrative management, and lower-level management which is termed
operative management.
According to Peter Drucker, the basic difference between management and
administration lies in the use of these terms in different fields. According to him,
managing organization enterprises is called management, and managing
nonorganizational organizations is called administration. Hence financial
performance plays a key role in management. But in managing non-organization
organizations like educational institutions, government offices, military, etc., the
administration is more priority than financial decisions.
The administration is the function in the industry concerned with the
determination of the corporate policy, the coordination of finance, production, and
distribution, the settlement of compass of the organization under the ultimate control
of the executives”.

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“Management is the function in the industry concerned with the execution of

polity within the limits set up by the administration and the employment of the
organization for the particular objects set before it” (Oliver Sheldon).
“Administration is primarily the process and the agency used to establish the
object or purpose which an undertaking and its staff are to achieve, secondarily, the
administration has to plan and stabilize the broad lines of principles which will govern
action. These broad lines are in turn called policies. Management is the process and
the agency through which the execution of policy is planned and supervised” (G.E.
Milward).
“Administration is that phase of organization enterprise that concerns with the
overall determination of institutional objectives and the policies necessary to be
followed in achieving those objectives. The administration predetermines the specific
goals and lays down the broad areas within which those goals are to be attained. The
administration is a determinative function, and management on the other hand is an
executive function – which is primarily concerned with carrying out the broad policies
laid down by the administration (William R. Spriegal).
Thus, administration is a “thinking” function and management is a “doing”
function.
Administration determines the policies upon which the enterprise is to be conducted
while the function of management is to carry out the policies that are laid down by
the administrative group.

The differences between administration and management are listed below:

Characteristic Administration Management

1 Main functions Planning, Organizing and Leading, motivating

Staffing and controlling.

2 Status Acts as an owner Acts as an agency

3 Skills Requires good
administrative skills
4 Level in the Top-level
organization
5 Position Managing Director,
Owner, CEO, etc.,
6 Objectives Makes the policies,
objectives and goals to be
achieve
7 Involvement No direct involvement in
production or services
Requires more
technical skills.
Lower level
Managers, Supervisors,
Foremen etc.,
Implements the plans
and policies
Directly involves the
execution of plans and
achieving goals.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT

1. Management is a managerial process: Management is a process and not

merely a body of individuals. Those who perform this process are called managers.
The managers exercise leadership by assuming authority and directing others to
act within the organization. The management process involves planning,
organizing, directing, and unifying human efforts for the accomplishment of given
tasks.
2. Management is a social process- Management takes place through people.
The importance of the human factor in management cannot be ignored. A
manager's job is to get things done with the support and cooperation of
subordinates. It is this human element that gives management its special
character.
3. Management is action-based: Management is always for achieving certain
objectives. It is a result-oriented concept and not merely an abstract philosophy. It
gives importance to concrete performance through suitable actions. It is an action-
based activity.
4. Management involves achieving results through the efforts of others:
Management is the art of getting things done through others. Managers are
expected to guide and motivate subordinates and get the expected performance
from them. Management acts as an activating factor.
5. Management is a group activity: Management is not an isolated individual
activity but a collective activity or an activity of a group. It aims at using group
efforts for achieving objectives. Managers manage the groups and coordinate the
activities of groups functioning in an organization.
6. Management is intangible: Management is not directly visible but its
presence is noticed in the form of concrete results. Management is intangible. It is
like an invisible spirit, which guides and motivates people working in a unit.
Management is like government, which functions but is not visible in physical
form.
7. Management is all-pervasive: Management is comprehensive and covers all
departments, activities, and personnel. Managers operate at different levels but
their functions are identical. This indicates that management is a universal and all-
pervasive process.
8. Management is an art, science as well as a profession: Management is
an art because certain skills, essential for good management, are unique to
individuals. Management is a science because it has an organized body of
knowledge. Management is also a profession because it is based on advanced and
cultivated knowledge.
9. Management aims at the coordination of activities: Coordination is the
essence of management. It gives one clear direction to the whole organization and
brings unity and harmony to the whole organization unit. For such coordination,
effective communication at all levels is essential.

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10. Management is innovative: Management techniques are dynamic and

innovative. They need to be adjusted as per the requirements of the situation.
Another manager need not repeat the decisions of one manager. Similarly, a
manager has to change his decisions in different situations.
11. Management has different operational levels: Every Organization needs
managers for managing activities. The manager's job is basically the same at all
levels. The managers at the higher levels have more important duties while
managers at the lower levels have to perform routine functions i.e. duties.
12. Management has a vast scope: The scope of management is quite
comprehensive. It covers all aspects. The principles of management guide
managers while managing various activities.
13. Management is Universal Application: Management is universal. The
principles and techniques of management are equally applicable in the fields of
organization, education, military, government, and hospital. Henri Fayol
suggested that principles of management would apply in every situation. The
principles are working guidelines that are flexible and capable of adaptation to
every organization where the efforts of human beings are to be coordinated.
14. Management aims at achieving predetermined objectives: Management
is a meaningful activity. All organizations are essentially groups of individuals
formed for achieving common objectives. An Organization exists for the
attainment of specific objectives.
-----------------------------------------------
To recapitulate…

The term management is explained in different ways. For example, it is said

that management is what management does. Here, management is explained
concerning its basic functions which include planning, organizing, coordinating, and
controlling. Similarly, management is described as a process that involves various
elements. The management process is a continuous one and is run by the managers
functioning at different levels. Management is now recognized as a distinct process
in which managers plan, organize, lead, motivate, and control human efforts to
achieve well-defined goals. In fact, process means a series of activities/operations
undertaken/conducted for achieving a specific objective. Similarly, in the
management process, resources and human efforts are used in an orderly manner
for achieving specific objectives. The management process suggests functions to be
performed by the managers.

The essential elements/components of the Management Process are:

1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Staffing
4. Directing
5. Controlling

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We may add some more elements to the management process. Such elements are:

1. Motivating
2. Co-coordinating
3. Staffing
4. Communicating

The elements in the management process are actually the basic functions of
management these functions constitute the management process in practice.
Management process is in fact, management in practice. This process suggests what
a manager is supposed to, do, or the basic functions that he has to perform while
managing the job assigned to him.

Luther Gullic gave a new formula to suggest the elements of the Management
Process i.e. basic functions of management. According to him, the management
process may be indicated by the word "PODSCORB”. Here, ‘P' states for 'planning'.
"O" for 'organising', "D" for 'directing', "S" for 'Staffing', "CO" for 'Coordinating, "R"
for 'Reporting' and "B" for 'Budgeting'. Gullic coined the word "PODSCORB" to
suggest seven functions of management.

The figure below shows the management process and the elements
involved:

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Chapter 2. Values in Management

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students can:

a. assess the importance of creating vision and mission statements;
b. appraise an organization's vision and mission;
c. explain behavioral management;
d. discuss values formation in management; and
e. list-down distinctive values needed in management.

B. TIME ALLOTMENT
Three (3) hours (2 meetings)

C. DISCUSSION

Roles Played by Mission and Vision

Mission and vision statements play three critical roles:

1. Communicate the organization’s intent to stakeholders.

2. Inform the development of Strategy, and
3. Establish the tangible priorities and goals by which to measure the success of
the strategy of the organization.

WHAT IS A VISION STATEMENT?

The vision is the dream of the organization. It’s what the organization considers
to be the ideal conditions for the community; that is, how things would look if the
organization absolutely, beautifully addressed the issue that is important to them. It
could be a world without war, a country with no crime, or a society where all men,
regardless of gender or racial background, are treated as equals. Whatever the dream
of the organization is, one or -more vision statements, which are short phrases or
sentences that express the aspirations of the organization for the future, may well
communicate it. In creating a statement of purpose, the organization clarifies the
values and guiding principles, first for the organization itself and then for the greater
community.

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Characteristics of vision statements should be:

a. Understood and shared by members of the organization.
b. Broad enough to include a diverse variety of local perspectives.
c. Inspiring and uplifting to everyone involved in the group’s effort.
d. Easy to communicate and they are generally short enough.

WHAT IS A MISSION STATEMENT?

The mission statement of an organization explains what the organization will

do, and why it will do that. Mission statements are similar to claims about vision, in
that they also look at the big picture. They are more practical, however, and they are
certainly more “action-oriented” than statements of a dream. The statement of the
vision of an organization will inspire people to dream; your statement of purpose
should motivate them to take action.

General Guidelines in Creating Mission Statements

a. Concise. While not as brief as statements of vision, mission statements in one

sentence also usually get their point across.

b. Outcome-oriented. Statements on task describe the basic results to which

the organization is operating.

c. Inclusive. Although declarations of mission make statements about the key

goals of your community, they must do so very broadly. Good mission
statements are not restrictive in the community’s policies or industries that may
get involved in the project. Example: “Promoting the care and caring at the end
of life through coalitions and advocacy.”

ROLE OF THE VISION STATEMENT

Leaders should emphasize the current statement of the mission to employees which
clarifies the organization’s active and key, measurable goals.

A mission statement is meant for the organization’s staff and members.

Strategic plans can involve changing, the organization’s mission statement to
represent a new direction. It will help workers and the public opt for the change by
emphasizing the advantages of the transition and reducing the gaps.

Just like the statement of mission, a statement of vision helps to define the
intent of the organization. Statements of vision guide organizational action and help
inspire. Strategic plans may include a promotional campaign that may include a
statement of vision to encourage stakeholders to partner with the organization as well.
A vision statement is a vision of the future with hope and a positive outlook. It
describes the organization’s inspirational, long-term plan for what it will be able to do,

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who it will help, and how the organization will then be perceived. For now, it’s often
out of reach, but not so far out of reach as to be unattainable. The vision statement
gives everyone a description of what they’re working on.

Purposes of Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is likely to have successes and failures. Leaders should

celebrate the little successes in achieving objectives that are part of the statement of
mission and vision. The mission statement will help to measure whether the strategic
plan is aligned with the agency’s overall objectives. The vision statement helps inspire
workers. Workers who feel invested, in organizational change are more likely to stay
motivated and have higher levels of productivity.

IMPORTANCE OF CREATING VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

1. These statements can help your organization focus on what’s important. Although
your organization knows what you’re trying to do to improve your community, it’s
easy to lose sight of this when dealing with day-to-day organizational difficulties.
Your vision and mission statement remind the members of what is important.

2. Vision and mission statements offer a snapshot of what the group is and what it
aims to do for other people and organizations. If the statement of vision and
purpose is readily accessible, people know about the organization without having
to dig hard for the details. Instead, those with common interests should take the
time to learn more. This flexibility is very useful when hiring other individuals and
organizations to support the initiative.

3. Statements of vision and mission concentrate the members on their shared goals.
Not only can the statements themselves act as a daily reminder of the
organization’s value, but the method of creating them also encourages people to
see the organization as “theirs.” Creating these statements builds trust as
participants can more fully believe in something if they have a hand in creating it.

ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A CLEAR VISION STATEMENT

o Bringing people to work together.

o To offer hope for a better future.
o Empowering members of the group to achieve their goals through
constructive and successful action;
o Turn your broad sight visions into more practical, action-oriented language.
o Describe your priorities clearly and concisely to the stakeholders.
o Improving the image of your organization as being skilled and
knowledgeable.

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DEVELOP VISION AND MISSION STATEMENTS

Developing a clear vision and mission statements are two of the most critical
activities that the organization can tackle, as such statements influence almost
everything else, they do. When the personnel understand more clearly what the
community is trying to do and why they are in a prime position to create proposals that
will catch the ideas. When they look at possible claims, try to keep them broad and
enduring.

Wide-ranging vision and mission statements allow for a sense of continuity with
the past, values, and specific aims of a community. Also, statements of vision and
mission built up to last should drive efforts today and tomorrow.

WRITING MISSION STATEMENTS

The method of writing the statement of purpose for your organization is close
to creating your statement of vision. The same method of brainstorming will help you
to build the possibilities for your mission statement. you’ll want to establish a common
mission statement for your work as opposed to a vision statement.

GUIDE QUESTIONS IN CREATING A MISSION STATEMENT

1. Could this explain what your organization is going to do, and why is it going to?
2. Is it concise (one sentence)?
3. Was it outcome-oriented?
4. Is it reflective of the organization’s priorities and people who might get
involved?
After the organization’s leaders have formed a vision and mission statement,
the next step will be to know what other group members think of them before they use
the statements.

BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT

Behavioral management is a behavioral intervention approach that is oriented

towards keeping order. This is a class of therapeutic strategies for altering behavior by
modifying one or more aspects of the environment of any person. Behavioral
management is derived from Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning, which affirms
that observable behavior emerges from an interaction between the person and the
environment.
The factors that are modified are those that are thought to contribute most
significantly to the development or continuation of habits that are troublesome in the
atmosphere for the person him/herself or other people. Environmental improvements
are also being made to improve healthy habits deemed beneficial or adaptive.

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Past experiences precede behavior in time and can result in actions or decrease
the likelihood of a behavior occurring. Behavioral events that organize behavior in time
(i.e. consequent events) also increase or decrease the probability that the behavior will
continue once it occurs, or that it will occur again in the future.

BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

1. Antecedent strategies- are used in an attempt to discourage or provoke a

behavior before a behavior occurs.
2. Consequent strategies- are used when the behavior happens in an attempt
to discourage a behavior from continuing and repeating, or to reinforce a
behavior.

UNDERSTANDING EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR MOTIVATION

Behavioral Management Theory

The theory of behavioral management was developed in response to the need

to account for the actions and motivation of the employees. The change moved
management from an emphasis on production (classical leadership theory) to a style
of leadership based on the human need of the workers for work-related fulfillment and
good working conditions. It is based on the premise that managers can better consider
the human dimension of workers and view workers as valuable tools for achieving
objectives. Management who takes a special interest in workers makes them feel part
of a specific group.

A Shift in Theories

Long before theorists started writing about employee happiness and good
working conditions, management found classical leadership to be the most important
to the success of an organization, with its primary interest in high productivity and
performance. Later, concern for job satisfaction and fair working conditions
established the basis for the theory of behavioral management.

To establish a relationship, theorists such as Elton Mayo and others analyzed

the efficiency of workers under various conditions. Mayo’s work with Hawthorne
offers a clear example of this. A group of telephone line workers were divided into the
Hawthorne experiment and observed working in a private room. Different privileges
were granted to the community members during their working days, such as the right
to leave their workstations, improvements in pay levels, and even
organizationsponsored lunches. What they found was that the management group had
generated more than the other workers. The reason for this increased output was that
the community believed that their well-being was of concern to management.

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 35

It launched a campaign for the management of human relations. When all

management was to invest time, show concern for the personal well-being of
employees, and reward them for a job well done, staff would be inspired to work
harder. This would potentially be a constructive action toward jobs.

MANAGEMENT BY EXAMPLE

The concept of leading others by dictation or order may seem like a fairly
daunting task to many managers. Most managers don’t want to feel like they’re
babysitting or bossing their staff members around, but they also find it best to show
their workers how they want to behave and how they’d prefer their daily tasks to be
done. That all comes down to the often-challenging task of leading by example.

Leading by example not only holds managers to strict expectations but also
requires many interpersonal communication skills. Those who lead by example must
be capable of establishing good human relationships with those they need. This can be
a challenge for any leaders, particularly those who are not exactly born leaders of
natural origin.

EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES OF MANAGING BY EXAMPLE

Avoid Criticizing

Complaining or judging others can not only discourage team members from
receiving the inspiration they need, but it can also show these team members that
criticism and complaining are appropriate on the job. Those who lead by example must
do their utmost to eliminate negativity from their lives and their approach to
leadership altogether. Negativity can only generate more negativity, so it must be
eliminated early. The more optimistic a person will be, the more optimistic their work
environment can be every day.

Give Honest Praise

It is necessary to truly improve positive behavior so that others can continue to

behave positively. Criticism avoidance is just half the fight when it comes to promoting
positivity when leading by example. Dedicated managers who want to lead by example
know when to laud and how necessary it is to offer truthful praise. Giving false or
coerced compliments to workers only for the sake of spreading attention does not cut
it off. People can sense and hear honesty so if leaders want it to work, praise needs to
be sincere and truthful. Individuals usually want to do the right thing, and positive
motivation keeps them on track to do good things rather than threats or punishments.

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 36

Develop Real Relationships

It’s so important for managers to take the time to develop genuine relationships
with their workers so they can gain that respect. It involves getting to know them and
becoming interested in other people and what they have to say and focusing on
maintaining and developing the relationship, so the two parties have a sense of
confidence.

When managers do not take the time to build meaningful relationships with
their workers then the idea of example management will never work. So, to get workers
to imitate their bosses, they need to admire them and take care of them.

Good listening skills and good communication skills are important in

establishing basic trust between all parties. When a core partnership exists, workers
are much more likely to look at their boss as someone to respect and would be much
more inclined to imitate the actions of their boss.

Not only does this involve listening to the words that workers need to use, but
it also means picking up on their thoughts and paying attention to what they are trying
to communicate.

Get in on the Action

It’s much easier for an employee to follow the lead of a superior who sits in
their office all day and doesn’t know how everyday operations work. Getting involved
and being very interested in how the organization works will only benefit managers
who are trying to appeal to their workers and who are trying to set a precedent on how
their workers want to work. To any manager, so to speak, getting their hands dirty is
one of the best ways to start cultivating a better relationship with their employees and
start managing by example. Once team members see their supervisors do the job and
get into the action, they are much more likely to look for direction from these
supervisors and emulate their behavior.

Humility is Key

Taking a leadership approach needs a great sense of modesty. Not only does
this mean trying to relate to workers and fostering a sense of harmony between team
members, but it also means treating all team members with a positive attitude.
Managers ought to treat others the way they would like to be treated, never take
anything for granted, and give the benefit of the doubt to individuals. Even if a member
of a team does not perform to the expectations of the manager, this does not mean they
have not tried. Most people don’t go into preparing for their workday to do a terrible
job. Having insight and modesty will also help managers see the broader picture and
see where their workers come from as they lead others by their example.

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 37

ENGAGEMENT AND EMPOWERMENT

If you want engagement and empowerment, consider the following behaviors:

o Act like an owner-make choice that is based on the highest organization

and priorities.
o Be constructive in asking what you can do to improve or make a situation
easier.
o Be responsible by recognizing that there is still an aspect of the project
or a consequence that will have a positive effect.
o Seek items that match the ultimate purpose. So, if you make a mistake,
then you will own it and learn from it.
People are influenced by our actions. Our life as a leader would be easier if we
could say all the right things and know that those words would significantly influence
our team. While that would be easier, it is also unrealistic. Although our words matter,
what we do matters far more. If we want our influence to be positive and productive,
we must be clear on what we want from others, and then make sure our actions (as
well as our words) support that. When we do this, we are leading by example
intentionally and productively.

VALUES FORMATION IN MANAGEMENT

The formation of values is the union of our personal experiences and the
particular society in which we are entwined. In childhood, values are placed by our
families and reinforced by community and life experiences. For example, our parents
placed on us the importance of kindness and reinforced it during early childhood.

The value system is first considered for understanding every society. The value
system implies the culture’s purposes and goals, which their wisest people have
identified and treated as absolute and primary. In the context of its value system,
therefore, the values and knowledge of every society happen to be preserved.

A value system is a collection of coherent ethical principles and procedures used

for ethical or moral honesty purposes. A well-defined set of values is a code of morale.

POINTS THAT HIGHLIGHT THE ROLE OF VALUES IN MANAGEMENT

1. Development of Employees
Managers should use the value system to grow their workers in an all-
around way. Values help with vision. Those help in the creation of employee or
worker awareness and moral growth.

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 38

2. Motivation
Values will work inside you to awaken your secret talents. With bravery
and confidence, you have it in you to go ahead and realize your full potential.
Inspiring one’s self and inspiring others in organizations to campaign for ethical
and right values. Values offer the best encouragement to remain motivated all
the time, irrespective of how de-motivating and overwhelming things are.
3. Underlie Managerial Behavior
The study of values is central to the interpretation of management and
organizational behavior, which underlies managerial behavior’s value
orientations.
4. Determine behavior values are fundamental and define actions
within the organization to a large extent. Therefore, through employee
behavior, the manager will introduce an improvement in the way desired.

5. Helps in bringing change

Organizations bind through principles. Values are enabled cultural
improvement when re-evaluated and matched with the goals of the
organizational structure. This practice has already transformed several
individuals and organizations.
6. Determine attitudes
Values form the foundation for understanding behaviors, motivations,
and beliefs.

7. Promote leadership
Managers are people who exercise their ‘leadership by values. They can
be effective leaders by practicing the spiritual values in their managing Jobs.
8. Bring creativity
Managers will remain innovative by examination of many ethical
principles in unpredictable and ever-changing times. Some traditional ideals
tend to improve cognitive capacity resulting in a different way of
understanding those challenges and circumstances.
9. Managing in Borderless
Management is no longer limited to a national entity but is complete
without boundaries. Administrators have a greater responsibility than ever
before. Consequently, value-based management has become a key
requirement. Owing to the need for social and ethical standards,
administrators must follow not just rules.
10. Guide to life, profession, and character
Moral, ethical, and professional values determine the character of
employees and managers. They guide their profession and life. Value can
become the basis for the behavior of its members.

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 39

11. Personality development

Managers tend to be involved in cultivating their staff and fellow
leaders’ personalities. Personality is the total amount of several factors.
However, the selection of moral and fundamental values is an essential
consideration as values include the right way of thinking, the right motivation,
and the passion for improvement.
12. Work ethic
Knowledge, effort, behaviors, attitude, manners of work, interpersonal
vision, a commitment to change and the standard of work generated are,
important elements of every worker’s mentality today. Ethical and eternal
importance places a major role in doing good work. Values may establish a
perception that work has its intrinsic worth.

The Importance of Workplace Values

The ideals in the workplace are the guiding principles that are most important
to you about the way you work. You use these deeply held values to distinguish between
right and wrong ways of working and they help you make crucial career choices and
decisions. Some examples of workplace values include:

o Being accountable
o Making a difference
o Focusing on detail
o Delivering quality
o Being completely honest
o Keeping promises
o Being reliable
o Being positive
o Meeting deadlines
o Helping others
o Being a great team member

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o Respecting organization policy and rules, and respecting others
o Showing tolerance

The ideals of the workplace set the tone for the atmosphere of the organization and it
defines what the organization cares about as a whole. The beliefs of the people must match
those. When this happens, people understand each other, for the right reasons, everybody does
the right things, and this shared intention and understanding allows people to develop a better
working relationship.

The alignment of principles supports the organization’s main mission as a whole. If

beliefs are out of alignment, individuals are working for different ends, with different motives
and different results. It can hurt relationships with jobs, productivity, job satisfaction, and
creative ability.

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Leadership Vs.
Management

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 INTRODUCTION

T oday, there’s less of a divide between “leader” and “manager.” So much

so, that we contemplate and argue the differences between the two functions.

To begin by clarifying the distinction between managers and leaders, the readers
frequently confuse the two, although they are not necessarily the same. Managers are
appointed. They have legitimate power that allows them to reward and punish. Their
ability to influence is founded upon the formal authority inherent in their positions. In
contrast, leaders as distinguished from a manager, may either be appointed or emerge
from within a group.

Leaders can influence others to perform beyond the actions dictated by formal authority.
Should managers be leaders? Conversely, should all leaders be managers? Since no one
yet has been able to demonstrate through research or logical argument that leadership
ability is a handicap to a manager, we can state that all managers should ideally be leaders.
Not all leaders necessarily have the capabilities in managerial functions; hence, not all
should hold managerial positions.

The fact that individual leaders can influence others, and more to tell whether he
or she can also plan, organize, control, direct, and organize. Given that all managers
should be leaders; then there is a need to pursue the subject from a managerial
perspective. Therefore, leaders mean those who can influence others, and who possess
managerial authority.

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 Chapter 3. Leadership Vs.
Management

A. LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students can:

a. differentiate leadership vs. management;
b. analyze the difference between leaders and managers;
c. identify the hybrid role of leader-managers in contemporary organizations; and
d. discuss modern challenges for managers.

B. TIME ALLOTMENT
Three (3) hours (2 meetings)

C. DISCUSSION

What is the difference between management and leadership? It is a

question that has been asked more than once and answered in different ways. The biggest
difference between managers and leaders is the way they motivate the people who work
or follow them, and this sets the tone for most other aspects of what they do.

Many people, by the way, are both. They have management jobs, but they realize
that you cannot buy hearts, especially to follow them down a difficult path, and so act as
leaders too.

Managers have subordinates

By definition, managers have subordinates - unless their title is honorary and given
as a mark of seniority, in which case the title is a contradiction and their power over others
is other than formal authority.

Authoritarian, transactional style

Managers have a position of authority vested in them by the organization, and their
subordinates work for them and largely do as they are told. Management style is
transactional, in that the manager tells the subordinate what to do, and the subordinate
does this not because they are required to do and as expected from them.

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 Work focus

Managers are asked to get things done (they are subordinates too), and they naturally
pass on this work focus to their subordinates.

Seek comfort

This leads them to be relatively risk-averse and they will seek to avoid conflict where
possible. In terms of people, they generally like to run a 'happy ship'.

Leaders have followers

Leaders do not have subordinates - at least not when they are leading. Many
organizational leaders do have subordinates, but only because they are also managers.
But when they want to lead, they have to give up formal authoritarian control, because to
lead is to have followers, and the following is always a voluntary activity.

Charismatic, transformational style

Telling people what to do does not inspire them to follow a manager. They have to
appeal to them, showing how following them will lead to their hearts' desire. They just
want to follow the leader enough to stop what they are doing and perhaps walk into danger
and situations that they would not normally consider risking.

Leaders with stronger charisma find it easier to attract people to their cause. As a
part of their persuasion, they typically promise transformational benefits, such that their
followers will not just receive extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people.

People focus

Although many leaders have a charismatic style to some extent, this does not
require a loud personality. They are always good with people, and quiet styles that give
credit to others (and take the blame on themselves) are very effective at creating the
loyalty that great leaders engender.

Although leaders are good with people, this does not mean they are friendly with
them. To keep the mystique of leadership, they often retain a degree of separation and
aloofness.

This does not mean that leaders do not pay attention to tasks they are often very
achievement-focused. What they do realize, however, is the importance of enthusing
others to work towards their vision.

Seek risk

In the same study that showed managers as risk-averse, leaders appeared as risk-
seeking, although they are not blind thrill-seekers. When pursuing their vision, they
consider it natural to encounter problems and hurdles that must be overcome along the way.
They are thus comfortable with risk and will see routes that others avoid as potential
opportunities for advantage and will happily break rules to get things done.

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In summary

This table summarizes the above (and more) and gives a sense of the differences
between being a leader and being a manager. This is, of course, an illustrative
characterization, and there is a whole spectrum between either end of these scales along
which each role can range. And many people lead and manage at the same time, and so
may display a combination of behaviors.
Subject Leader Manager
Essence Change Stability
Focus Leading people Managing work
Have Followers Subordinates
Horizon Long-term Short-term
Seeks Vision Objectives
Approach Sets direction Plans detail
Decision Facilitates Makes
Power Personal charisma Formal authority
Appeal to Heart Head
Energy Passion Control
Culture Shapes Enacts
Dynamic Proactive Reactive
Persuasion Sell Tell
Style Transformational Transactional
Exchange Excitement for work Money for work
Likes Striving Action
Wants Achievement Results
Risk Takes Minimizes
Rules Breaks Makes
Conflict Uses Avoids
Direction New roads Existing roads
Truth Seeks Establishes
Concern What is right Being right
Credit Gives Takes
Blame Takes Blames

Though managers and leaders are often grouped into the same category, there are
fundamental differences in how they achieve, motivate people, and contribute to the bigger
vision of an organization. Be cognizant that just because someone is a manager, it doesn't

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mean that they are not a leader. If tactful, one can embody the best qualities of both. Based
on
industrial-organizational
psychology, this infographic outlines what defines a manager and what defines a leader.

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 LEADERSHIP VS. MANAGEMENT

We’ve used the word “leader” and we’ve used the word “manager.” As stated, you may
think they’re interchangeable, but they aren’t. They are different.

Abraham Zaleznik, Harvard Business School Professor Emeritus, was the first to
write about the differences between leaders and managers. His article, “Managers and
Leaders: Are They Different?” challenged the traditional view of management, which
centered on organizational structure and processes.[1] Organizations, at the time, developed
managers with a focus on process and control. Zaleznik argued that these same organizations
were missing the opportunity to develop leaders by concentrating on this because they were
really two different types of people.

Zaleznik charged that the approach of the typical organization was omitting essential
leadership elements of inspiration, vision, and human passion from their concept and
development of people. He went on to define a manager as someone who seeks order,
control, and rapid resolution of problems. A leader, he went on to say, is more like an artist,
and “tolerates chaos and lack of structure.” Organizations were too often not creating an
environment where leaders could flourish.

In Zaleznik’s view, both leaders and managers contribute to the organization. Leaders
contribute by advocating change and new approaches and do so by gaining the commitment
of employees. Managers contribute by advocating stability and the status quo, exercising
authority, carrying out responsibility, and determining how work will get accomplished.

John Kotter, current Harvard Business School Professor

Emeritus, had some additional opinions on the differences
between leadership and management. In 1990, Kotter proposed
that leadership and management were two distinct, yet
complementary systems of action in organizations. Specifically,
leadership is about coping with change, and management is
about coping with complexity.

Kotter’s view of the leadership process involves:

• Developing a vision for the organization

• Aligning people with that vision through communication
• Motivating people to action through empowerment and basic needs fulfillment

Conversely, Kotter’s view of the management process involves:

• Planning and budgeting

• Organizing and staffing
• Controlling and problem solving

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 Time has gone by, and perhaps we’re now putting too much emphasis on the talents
of the leader and not the manager. Organizations need managers to lead and leaders to
manage—certainly in hiring a manager they are given the authority to lead. Managers today
need to ask themselves what kind of guidance their teams need to turn vision into reality,
and that is needed at every level in the organization.

• Zaleznik proposed that managers were results-driven, and leaders were creative artists.
• Kotter proposed that leaders navigated change and managers navigated complexity.
• Researcher Warren Bennis said, “Managers are people who do things right, and leaders
are people who do right things.” And the organizations need both.

Leader-Managers

To read articles that highlight the

differences between leadership and management is
to think that leadership is great and
management is evil. After all, leaders inspire, and
managers control. Leaders evoke passion while
managers evoke obedience. Who would want to be a
manager after reading things like that?
We understand now that there’s
a difference between the role of a leader and the role of
a manager in an organization, and that organizations
need both to function well. Leaders do provide the vision
and get buy-in from employees to believe in it and
execute it.
Managers provide instruction and create conformity. Having this
understanding allows us to identify organizational needs around both functions, so
we can shift gears to provide them.
Furthermore, we understand that people can be leaders and managers all at once.
Let’s take a look at this hybrid leader-manager role.

The late business management guru Peter Drucker said, “The task is to lead
people and the goal is to make productive the specific strengths and knowledge of
every individual.” Such is the leader managers in charge at every level in the
organization

HYBRID LEADER-MANAGER ROLE

• Have a Vision
Create momentum around your vision and the company’s vision—and encourage
your department leaders to do the same. Your job as a leader is to tie that vision to the
goals and beliefs of your employees. And, because leaders create other leaders, you
encourage your managers to do the same with their smaller teams.

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 • Explain Your Reasoning

Set examples and explain your reasoning to earn employee respect

• Employees often follow the examples of leaders who display integrity and strength in
their interactions. The leader-manager often has to make unpopular decisions, and
when he or she does, an explanation of the reasoning behind that decision can help the
leader earn the respect of employees.
• Accomplish Goals Accomplishing goals is the central concern of the work they’re doing.
Without accomplishing tasks, there is no productivity. If employees are motivated and
excited about the work they’re doing, the leader manager should be well on his or her
way to guiding the team’s accomplishments. This is where a hybrid of managerial skill
and leadership traits moves into action.
• Innovate New Solutions
Obstacles and roadblocks are commonplace in all organizations. Leaders
embrace risks and understand that they must be taken to grow. Leaders embrace
change.

Managers, on the other hand, like routine and the status quo. As a leader-manager,
you will need to assess the roadblocks you see and innovate new solutions to overcome
them. Some may work and some may not.

MODERN CHALLENGES FOR MANAGERS

In an era of globalization accompanied by complexity, ambiguity, rapid change,

and diversity, managing any organization or agency is a difficult task. Yet, good
management is critical to the survival of an organization or agency. Managers are
constantly challenged with making decisions, formulating goals, creating a mission,
enacting policies and procedures, and uniting individuals in the organization so that
completion of all of these and other related tasks can be accomplished. Even though
management permeates everything that an organization does, what the management
actually is, is not always clearly defined or identified.

At different times every organization has to cope with the external environment
that prevails. This world poses a series of external obstacles that are hard to control, these
factors will impact significantly how well a manager performs. Organizations need to
respond to environmental changes with speed and efficiency to ensure survival. Below
are some of the key challenges which have an impact on the job of managing:

1. Challenges to Information Technology (IT)

Information technology is undergoing a transition. Computers, the

internet, intranets, telecommunications, and an endless number of software
applications are available to get things done better.

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 Efficient managers ensure workers are aligned when the technology is
chosen and introduced. Information technology will only be applied effectively
if the workers are equipped to use it properly.

2. Challenges on Globalization

The digital revolution took the whole world back together. The use of
satellites to communicate information has rapidly improved things. The main
component of industry, culture and economic globalization is the opportunity
and freedom to communicate with practically anyone, anywhere, anywhere.
The same must be used productively by managers in achieving the mission,
vision, goals, and objectives of the organization.

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