Chapter II V English

COURSE METHODOLOGY FOR WRITING
CHAPTER II: INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, SYNTHESIS AND USE

A-FINDING INFORMATION IN THE LIBRARY
I. BASIC CONCEPTS 1
1. Document 1
2. Types of document 4
3. Types Different types of bibliography 4
II. REFERENCE TOOLS 4
i. Dictionaries 5
ii. Encyclopaedias 5
iii. Bibliographies or bibliographic databases 5
iv. Library catalogues 5
III. WHERE TO FIND OTHER REFERENCES? 6
IV. METHODOLOGY: STAGES IN THE INFORMATION RETRIEVAL PROCESS 6
V. WHERE TO FIND INFORMATION IN THE LIBRARY 6
VI. SEARCH LANGUAGES 6
1. Natural language or free language 6
2. Documentary languages 7
a. Classification languages 7
b. Indexing languages 8
c. Search languages 8
VII. QUALITY CRITERIA FOR BOOK INFORMATION 9
VIII. CITING REFERENCES 12
1. Why cite sources of information? 12
2. When should you cite your sources? 12
3. How to indicate sources 12
4. Bibliographical references: rules for presentation
Methodology for Writing Course has been translated with DeepL.com/Translator (free version) 1
INTRODUCTION
"Documentary research is based on a fundamental paradox: how can you look for something you don't know about,
when that's exactly what you are looking for? "
It is in response to this paradox that documentary methodology defines a set of methods for the retrieval of the
information we are in search of.
It is a question of proceeding in stages, knowing the documentary resources and knowing how to find information
among these resources. The aim is to be able to carry out documentary research effectively.
I. BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Document
A document is any medium that can contain information, in written or electronic form. It is an element of
knowledge. Paper documents are :
i. Monographs
A work forming a whole, in one or more volumes, written by one or more authors. They are published either in a
single issue or in several issues over a limited period of time planned in advance. They are identified by an ISBN
(International Standard Book Number), which can be found quickly in the catalogue by author, title or call number.
The different monographs you will encounter during your university studies are
- Critical books on a particular subject, author or work.

- Dictionaries
- Encyclopaedias.
- Conference or colloquium proceedings: official collection of papers presented at a conference.
- Pamphlets: small printed works, usually less than 100 pages.
The references:
The references must make it possible to identify and locate the documents. The presentation of bibliographic
references is based on standards, including AFNOR standard ISO 690 Z 44-005 dated 1 August 2010 for paper
documents (standard ISO 690-2 for electronic documents). Other standards exist, such as those of the American
Psychological Association (APA), the Modern Languages Association of America (MLA), the University of Chicago,
Columbia University and the National Library of Medicine (NLM). The teacher who monitors your research is in
the best position to tell you which reference to use. Some elements of a reference are very important, such as the
author, the title of the document and the year of publication.
o Printed monograph (Print monograph)
NAMES, First names or Initials of authors. Title of the work and additional title in italics. Mention of edition.
Secondary authors. City of publication: Publisher, year of publication. Collection title, collection number, number
of pages. ISBN
Example : DJEBBAR Ahmed. L’âge d’or des sciences arabes. Paris : Le pommier, 2005.Le collège de la cité
n°22.120 p. ISBN : 2-7465-0258-5.
o Chapter of printed monograph (Author of chapter = Author of book)
Last name, First name. Title of chapter in italics. In: Title of book in italics. Publisher. City of publication:
Publisher, year of publication, pages of chapter. ISBN
Example: VERNETTE, Eric. Techniques d’étude de marché. In : L’essentiel du marketing. Paris : Eyrolles, 2008, p.
151-174. ISBN : 2-7465-0258-5.
ii. Periodicals
Collective serial publication with a single title, the issues of which, generally consisting of several articles listed in a
table of contents, follow one another chronologically at regular intervals. They are identified by a unique number,
the ISSN (International Standard Serial Number). In science, periodicals are the most important primary
documents, both in terms of content and number.
The various periodicals you will come across during your studies at university are:
►news periodicals (newspaper, magazine or journal): regional, national or international press, of an informative or
entertainment nature.
►research periodicals (scientific periodicals): specialist journals for academics and researchers in which research
work and results are published.
Periodical references
 Number of a serial periodical in print
Serial title in italics. Secondary titles for identification where necessary. Edition statement. City of publication:
Publisher, date of publication, numbering in the series. ISSN
Example : Sciences et Avenir. Auxerre : Sciences et Avenir, 2011, n°232. ISSN : 0996-699
 Article from a printed periodical
NAMES, First names of the authors of the article. Title of the article. Title of the periodical in italics, date of
publication, numbering of the periodical in the series (ex. volume, number in the collection), pagination of the
section. ISSN
Example :GIAVITTO, Jean-Louis. L’informatique à l'interface de l'activité humaine et sociale, Technique Et

Science Informatiques, 2010, N° 8, p. 8-9. ISSN : 0996-699.
iii. Encyclopaedia
 Article in a printed encyclopaedia
Last name, First name. Title of article in italics. In: Title of encyclopaedia. Date of publication. Publication date.
City of publication: Publisher, year of publication, number of pages.
Example : BOK Julien, Semi-conducteurs. In : Encyclopaedia Universalis, vol. 2, Paris : Encyclopaedia

Universalis, 2020, p. 879-883.
iv. Printed dissertation and thesis
A Master's thesis is the name given to the report of the research work carried out by a student during the Master's
year, which marks the end of the second university cycle.
A thesis is the report on the research work carried out to obtain a doctorate.
Dissertations and theses are part of the 'grey literature', which refers to documents that are not published
commercially, that do not pass through the usual distribution channels, and that have a high scientific value.
Thesis references
There is no mention of the city of publication, the publisher or the year of publication, but there is a specific
mention of the type of dissertation.
SURNAME and first name of the author. Title and additional title of dissertation or thesis in italics. Type of
publication - dissertation, thesis, etc : discipline. City of defence: University / institution Name where defence was
given, year of defence.
Example : EL HASSAN Youssfi .Théorie des harmoniques.119 p. Thèse de doctorat, sciences. Marseille : Université
Aix-Marseille 1, 1998
v. Printed course
SURNAME and first name of the author. Title of handout. City of publication: Institution, year of course, number of
pages.
Example: SCOTT, Sandrine. Mathématiques : algèbre linéaire. Toulouse : INSA. Publications INSA 1re année,
Cours, 2009, 83 p.
2. Types of document
i. Primary documents
Primary documents are original works, those which are the result of the author's act of reflection. Among the most
common and most representative are books, periodical articles, collective works, theses, etc.)
ii. Secondary documents

Secondary documents are descriptive or analytical data used to identify, describe and search for primary documents
(library catalogs, bibliographies, bibliographic databases, etc.).
When searching for information, we start by using secondary documents to find references to primary documents.
The various secondary documents you will come across during your studies at university are :
- library catalogues ;
- current commercial bibliographies: list of books published during a reference period (week, month or
year);
- national bibliographies: list of documents published in a given country;
- specialised bibliographies: list of documents published on a specific subject;
- annals: list of competition subjects.
iii. Tertiary documents

Tertiary documents are specialist works which cover a body of knowledge or concise explanations relating to terms,
authors or subjects. Encyclopaedias, dictionaries and directories are tertiary sources.
3. Different types of bibliography

Current bibliographies present, at varying intervals, a list of works or articles as and when they are published, most
of which can now be accessed online (bibliographic databases).
►Retrospective bibliographies list and describe documents published since a given date (from ... to the
present day).
►Descriptive bibliographies give the bibliographic references of a document (author, title, date of
publication, etc.).
►Analytical bibliographies give the bibliographic references of a document and a more detailed record,
ranging from a summary to a more detailed analysis.
►Thematic bibliographies group together documents on the same subject or theme.
►Systematic bibliographies group together documents published in the same place and/or on the same
date.
II. REFERENCE TOOLS
Reference tools are essential for carrying out the first stage of documentary research:
1. Dictionaries
To find out or clarify the meaning of a word, to make comparisons or contrasts.
There are different types of dictionaries: general dictionaries (language, synonyms, antonyms, etymology and
bilingual), specialised dictionaries (by subject or type of information), on CD or DVD.
- general dictionaries:Examples: Le petit Larousse, le Petit Robert, Le grand Robert & Collins, etc.
- specialised dictionaries:Examples: Dictionary of synonyms, Dictionary of chemistry,
Dictionary of Industrial Technology: Design, Production, Management, Maintenance, etc.
2. Encyclopaedias
Encyclopaedias are an indispensable and reliable tool for starting research on a subject. They help to define the
context, put an idea or a trend into context, broaden or narrow the subject, and find relevant keywords. They are
generally alphabetical, and a thematic flow (references at the end of each article and in the index) allows you to
jump from one article to another. They also provide bibliographical information at the end of the articles, enabling
you to link to other documents.
There are various types of encyclopaedia in print and/or on CD-DVD:
- general encyclopaedias: Examples: Encyclopaedia Universalis, Encyclopaedia Britannica
- thematic encyclopaedias: Examples: Théma (Larousse), MON QUOTIDIEN
- specialised encyclopaedias: Examples: L'Encyclopédie Cousteau, L'Encyclopédie Alpha.
3. Bibliographies or bibliographic databases

General or specialised bibliographies or bibliographic databases have their origins in printed bibliographies,
thematic bibliographies and current bibliographies, which were published at regular intervals (monthly, quarterly,
annually, etc.) and covering a specific field. They allow searching by keywords (author, title, publisher, date,
number of pages, etc.) and data analysis (bibliometrics, etc.).
Examples:
 ALGERIANA is a multidisciplinary, multilingual bibliographic database, listing and reporting all types of
document produced about Algeria abroad. It has reached 17344 references.
 ASA (Algerian Scientific Abstracts) is a bibliographic, analytical, multidisciplinary and multilingual
database listing Algerian scientific publications at national and international level on all types of media. It
has now reached 4000 records.
 FRANCIS is a multidisciplinary and multilingual bibliographic database in the humanities, social sciences
and economics, containing almost 3 million bibliographic references, major professional journals, reports
and conference proceedings.
4. Library catalogues
A library catalogues is a set of records (document description sheet) of documents written and presented according
to standards in a paper or electronic catalogue. The catalogue can be used to search for a document and locate it in
the library using the call number. This is a descriptive list of the documents in the library: books, periodicals,
publications, theses, dissertations, reports, etc. Most catalogues are now computerised. They can be consulted on a
computer or are often accessible via the Internet. They are then called databases.
Some libraries still keep paper catalogues (manual catalogues). Manual access is by the most common methods:
either by author or by subject. In manual catalogues, librarians use two main indexing strategies: Rameau and free
indexing using a list of in-house descriptors.
There are three types of catalogue:
►A local catalogue describes the documents of a single library.
►A common catalogue references the documents of several libraries belonging to the same organisation, such as a
central library and faculty libraries.
►A union catalogue is a catalogue shared by several independent libraries. It makes it possible to locate,identify,
lend, produce shared cataloguing and manage collections.
Examples:
The Collective Catalogue of Algeria (CCDZ) includes all library documents related to the sector of higher education.
The University Documentation System Catalog (SUDOC) is the French union catalog produced by libraries and
documentation centres in the higher education and research sector.
The Arabic Union Catalogue (AUC) is a collaboratively nonprofit project which mainly aims to establish a
collaborative environment for Arab libraries and to reduce the cost of cataloging Arabic information resources by
sharing cataloging.is a collective catalog of around one hundred libraries selected from the Arab world.
5. Role of the catalogue
The catalogue enables :

►identify and locate a book, periodical title or thesis identified during bibliographic research.
►Find other bibliographic leads:

 by searching the catalog using your own vocabulary (natural language or free language)
 by using the keywords established by the library (documentary language)
III. WHERE TO FIND FURTHER REFERENCES?
Generally there are several sources of information:

►the footnotes
►the bibliographies at the end of chapters
►the bibliographies at the end of books
►readings requested by teachers
Remember also to note in the body of the text the debates mentioned and the authors cited
IV. METHODOLOGY: STAGES IN THE INFORMATION SEARCH PROCESS
In the second part of this chapter (Searching for information on the Internet), we will identify the stages in the
information search process.
V. WHERE TO FIND INFORMATION IN A LIBRARY
A source (book, journal title or dissertation) identified in a bibliographic search is identified and located in a
library:
 By searching the catalogue using your keywords (natural language or free language)
 Using the keywords established by the library (documentary language).
VI. SEARCH LANGUAGES
1. Natural or free language

This is the language we use every day, the language that evolves and whose rules result from usage.
Keywords are used if no specific language is used. These terms are extracted from a title, summary or text.
The disadvantages are a risk of :
► noise (the result of a search that is too imprecise, with too many irrelevant responses). Indeed:
o your subject may be too general
o the same word may designate several concepts (polysemy).
Example: The word "peine" means: A punishment, a sorrow, an effort, an embarrassment,......
►silence (more annoying than noise because it is less visible. In this case, the user receives a few responses but
misses out on several relevant references) because:
o a word can be declined or conjugated (minimal architecture, architectural minimalism .......)
o several words can designate the same concept or related concepts (copy, fake, reproduction, multiple,
series, etc.)
o Several spellings may be accepted (in the case of recent concepts).
o You may miss works written in a foreign language (urbanisme # urbanism).
The solution to noise and silence :
► noise (too many results)? Restrict your search

o add keywords
o use more precise words (by consulting a thesaurus)
o limit the search to specific fields (title, author, instead of all fields)
o use date restrictions
►silence (too few results)? You need to broaden your search

o Check that you have not made a spelling mistake, the main cause of "zero results" in the catalogue and
databases.
o remove certain keywords if necessary
o find synonyms or more general terms
o use truncation (*) on the right
o
2. Document languages
These are controlled and standardised artificial languages designed to formalise the data contained in documents
and in users' questions.
They are arbitrary and defined by information professionals according to their needs and the field covered.
There are two types of document language:
o classification languages and indexing languages on the one hand
o search languages.
a) Classification languages
Classification languages have been developed and are used to organise document repositories (libraries, etc.) and to
arrange documents in a coherent and logical way.
The principle of these languages is to organise all knowledge and to group together documents dealing with the
same subject.
The most widely used are the UDC (Universal Decimal Classification) with 9 numerical classes and the Dewey
numerical classification.
i. The Dewey classification system

The Dewey classification system divides human knowledge into 10 major classes, 100 divisions,
1000 sections and a multitude of sub-sections.
Example: 611.347 is the index of the work and indicates its subject. The index is followed by letters and numbers.
This is known as the call number.
611.347
600 TECHNOLOGY (Applied sciences) [class]
610 Medical sciences medicine [division]
611 Human anatomy [section]
611.3 Organs of the digestive system [subsection]
611.34 Intestine
611.347 Large intestine
ii. The call number

The call number is one of the elements of location. It corresponds to the address of the document on the shelves
and is established according to the subject dealt with in the document. The call number consists of the Dewey
classification index on the first line and the author number on the second line.
Example of a book call number : '' Techniques de l'expression écrite et orale '' écrit par Denis Baril et Jean Guillet »
808.044 (Dewey classification index)
B252t (author's number)
808.044 Dewey classification number
B first letter of author's name or first author's name
252 author number
t first letter of document title
b) Indexing languages
Indexing languages are tools used by managers of document repositories to analyse the content of documents in a
consistent way: all documents dealing with the same subject will be assigned the same indexing terms. The
principle of these indexing languages is to establish
o a list of precise terms to exclude any synonymy or homonymy (one term corresponds to a single
subject, and vice versa)
o rules for writing these terms
There are two main types of indexing language:
o lists of subject headings or authority lists: these lists are alphabetical and not hierarchical
o Thesauri: a thesaurus is hierarchical, with the terms in the thesaurus (called descriptors) organised
logically.
These indexing languages, among others, are used in document searches to find useful documents.
Classification languages and indexing languages are used during the intellectual processing of documents by
document managers. They are a tool used before documents are made available to users, before searches are carried
out.
c) Search languages
Search languages are derived from natural language but, unlike classification languages and indexing languages,
they are not fixed at the outset as tools.
Each person searching for a document creates their own search language.
The search language is made up of keywords taken directly from natural language and linked by Boolean operators
to indicate the "meaning" of the search.
Keywords and Boolean operators will make up the query that will be made using a document software program or
an Internet search engine.
Of course, you need to be familiar with the operating rules of these search tools in order to write definitive queries:
Boolean operators do not always take the same form depending on the search tool.
i. Keywords
A word or group of words chosen, either in the title or text of a document, or in a document search request, to
characterise its content. Keywords are therefore derived from natural language and are identified by analysis.
How do you choose your keywords?
- they are fixed words or expressions
- they are never questions
- they must correspond to the subject of the search
- they must not contain articles
- they must be free of spelling mistakes
Examples
- natural language: I need a book on "safety on a public works site".
- keywords: safety, site, '' public works''
- natural language: I need a book entitled "Waste management on building sites".
- keywords: management, waste, building, sites
ii. Boolean operators

As we have already seen, there are three Boolean operators which correspond to three possible associations
between two keywords: these operators are AND / OR / NOT.
Here is a graphical representation of the link created between the keywords (Two keywords) by each operator (each
oval represents all the documents containing the chosen keywords)
et ORou sauf
NOT
AND
The shaded area shows what will be found using two keywords and the operator used.
iii. Search query

A query is a question put to a documentary system, via its search tool, by means of a formula expressed in
documentary or natural language, with the aim of accessing resources whose content is likely to satisfy the user's
need for information.
Simple query: search a record using one subject word (descriptor) per field.
Search options: word, author, title, subject, collection and classification.
Compound search: search a record using several subject words (descriptors) and logical operators, truncation,
inverted commas, etc:
- Logical operators: AND, OR, NOT in capitals
- Parentheses
- Truncation (*)
- Inverted commas (exact expression search)
- Mask (?)
- Accents and case (SHIFT/min)
- For more complex queries, use the advanced search
VII. QUALITY CRITERIA FOR INFORMATION IN A BOOK
The evaluation of a book or periodical article enables us to assess its relevance to the needs of the work to be carried
out, and the quality of its content. Whatever the source of the document, it is always up to the researcher to carry
out this exercise in order to maintain his or her credibility. The aim of this exercise is therefore to learn how to
apply criteria to better assess the quality and relevance of the information contained in a book or periodical article.
The following criteria can be used to analyse the quality of the information:
i. Relevance of content.
ii. Reliability of information sources
iii. Reputation of the author
iv. Objectivity of the information
v. Accuracy of information
vi. Freshness of information
i. Relevance of content.
Benchmarks for assessing document relevance and verification solutions

The relevance of a resource is the match between its information content and the need for information.
Does the type of document found meet the  See the instructions for the work to be carried
criteria for the job? out
 In relation to the text : To get a quick idea of the content of a
 Does the content address the subject? document, consult :
 Is the type of data proposed appropriate for the
task?  Title
 Is the level of information processing appropriate  The summary
(very general to very precise)?  Tables, graphs and diagrams
 Is the document at an academic level?  Contents (outline of the book and logic of the
 Does the vocabulary match the personal level of argument)
knowledge?  Index and keywords
 Introduction and conclusion
ii. Fiabilité des sources de l'information
Benchmarks for assessing the reliability of the verification source
In relation to the publisher :

 Visit the publisher's website and consult the
 Who is publishing the book (university, research sections explaining its mission.
organisation, professional association, pressure group,
other)?
 Does the publisher specialise in the field?
The publisher Elsevier Masson is renowned for
Some publishers specialise in scholarly content, with tight its medical books and journals.
control over the subjects covered and the choice of PUF is a university publisher.
authors. Vuibert, Dunod, Eyrolles...
Is the book aimed at the general public or an To identify the target audience :
academic audience?
 Visit the publisher's website and consult the
Depending on the target audience, the content may be sections explaining its mission.
adapted and simplified. This can result in a loss of quality  Consult directories of publishers on the Web
and depth of analysis.
iii. Reputation of the author
Benchmarks for assessing the document's author and verification solutions

Is biographical information provided (affiliation, To find out more about his biography :
training and expertise)?
 Read the back cover of the book.
The biography helps to assess the author's expertise on the  Find the author's personal file on the
subject in question. monograph publisher's website.
 Consult the author's personal file on the website
of the institution with which he or she is
affiliated.
 Search for the author's name in a Web search
engine.
Has the author written other documents on the To find publications:

subject?
 Search for the author's name in the catalogue on
In general, the more an author publishes on a subject, the the publisher's website.
more he or she establishes himself or herself as an  Find the author's name in online catalogues
authority in the field. such as the OPAC Library Catalogue,
Worldcat or Amazon.
 Search for the author's name in library
databases.
The author's visibility: To establish visibility :
 Is the author frequently cited in the literature?

 Search for the author's name in citation-based
 Have the author's published books been reviewed
in journals? databases such as Scopus.
 Find the author's name in a full-text search tool
Recognition of an author in a community of experts such as Microsoft Academic Research.
confirms the author's reputation in that field of expertise
alone.
iv. Objectivity of information
Benchmarks for assessing the objectivity of information and verification solutions
What seems to be the author's primary To identify the author's intentions:

intention (to educate, explain, inform, give a
personal opinion, sell, propagandise, etc.)?  Search the author's name in a Web search engine to
see if he or she is associated with a company or lobby
The more the author's intention is supported by a group.
scientific approach, the more objective the message  On the author's personal site, check whether outgoing
will be. links point to sites targeting a product or cause that
could influence the content of the document.
Is the language nuanced or very clear?
An objective text uses writing processes and Look for clues that might indicate the emotion involved in
techniques that demonstrate a rational approach. the writing: use of the imperative, presence of exclamation
marks, etc.
Does the information compare with that
from other sources dealing with the same
Research other sources on the same subject to check
subject?
whether the conclusions are similar. If they are original,
question their validity or innovative nature.
A comparison between different sources shows
whether a fact enjoys a consensus in the scientific
community.
Does the author present different points of

view? Consult the bibliography to see the diversity of sources.
To cover an issue objectively, the author must

necessarily consider the various facets of the
subject.
v. Accuracy of information
Benchmarks for assessing the accuracy of information and verification solutions
Does the text contain references and a To evaluate the bibliography :

bibliography?
 Check whether the bibliography is summary or
The number of references mentioned is an indication important.
of the author's effort to cross-check the facts cited in  Access the documents cited in the references to
the text. check their accuracy. Always go back to the source
of the data used.
Is there any evidence to cast doubt on the To carry out a quality check :
quality of the document?
o Examine the formatting of the references.
Evidence of negligence may demonstrate a lack of o Check that there are no spelling mistakes,
quality control. grammatical errors or stylistic errors in the text.
vi. Freshness of information
Benchmarks for assessing the timeliness of information and verification solutions

Is the information up to date? To check the freshness of information :
Working with data that is not up to date increases the o Check the year of publication on the back of the
risk of being out of step with the latest exchanges title page of the monograph.
within your community of experts. o Check the catalogue on the publisher's website to
see if it is the latest edition of the monograph. A
reprint may mean that the document is still
current.
o See if more recent books on the subject have been
published by searching online catalogues such as
the OPAC Library Catalogue, Worldcat or
Amazon.
If the subject has a historical aspect, is older or See the instructions for the work to be carried out or the
period documentation of interest? teacher's recommendations.
Conclusion
Printed documents, such as monographs, seem to make it easier to establish evaluation criteria. They are evaluated
by their publisher, just as printed documents such as journal articles are generally submitted to an editorial board
which determines the merits of the articles and their quality before they are published.
VIII. CITING REFERENCES
When writing a research paper, to support your argument, you often draw on ideas from well-known authors on a
particular subject or reproduce extracts from their works. It is very important to cite one's sources properly, to
incorporate these ideas correctly into one's work in order to avoid plagiarism, and to clearly list the documents
used. This obligation applies to all sources: books, periodical articles, encyclopaedias, audiovisual documents,
tables, graphs, websites, etc.
1. Why cite your sources of information?

Citing sources means :
 adding value to your research work, because citing external sources adds value to your own work
 make it easier for the reader to identify the sources used
 demonstrating a sense of professional ethics to enable the reader to check the accuracy of the information
 cited avoid plagiarism and respect copyright.
2. When should you indicate your sources?

 when reference is made to another person's idea, opinion or theory;
 when you use original data, graphs, illustrations, etc.; or
 when you quote someone else's words or extracts from written documents verbatim;
 when you express them in other words.
3. How do you indicate your sources?

With a bibliographical reference
i. A bibliographic reference :
o must "allow documents to be identified and then located without ambiguity".
o is made up of bibliographic elements (author, title, publisher, etc.) which are essential for the correct listing
of a document. These elements must be listed in a precise order. There are very strict presentation
standards.
o varies according to the type (book, article, conference, etc.) and medium (paper, online, CD-ROM, etc.) of
the document to which it relates,
o must be presented in the same style for each element (font size, thickness).
ii. Tables, graphs and illustrations

It is essential to indicate the origin of any illustrations, tables, graphs, photos, etc. included in your work, if you are
not the author. It is advisable to mention the source directly under this element.
iii. Quotations
There are two ways of quoting an author:
You can use a literal quotation: you reproduce exactly the terms used by the author. Punctuation, capitals, typos
and formatting (bold, italics, underlined) are reproduced as they are. Enclose the words in inverted commas (" ").
You can use an indirect quotation: you take an idea or a comment from a document and rephrase it in your own
words in order to summarise or clarify what the author has said. This is known as paraphrasing.
In all cases, the source must be mentioned, in the form of a bibliographical reference.
4. Bibliographical references: rules for presentation
i. How to include bibliographical references in your report

It is recommended that the bibliographical reference be placed in a note at the bottom of the page on which the
quotation appears, so that the reader can directly find out the origin of the document.
It is also possible to group bibliographical references together in an organised manner (thematic order, for
example) at the end of the document in the form of a bibliography.
Each citation is given a number in the order in which it appears in the text. These numbers are placed in
superscripts or between [...].
They refer to footnotes, placed in numerical order, containing the bibliographic references of the documents cited.
Example:
Quote in the text: «Dans la période récente, ces rapports de travail et

d'emploi se sont beaucoup transformés. Ils sont plus asymétriques [...]. 1»
_____________
1 ARTURO Pérez-Reverte. La peau du tambour. Paris : Seuil, 1997,
p.289.ISBN : 2-7465-0258-5
ii. How to write bibliographic references

Each document is described according to precise rules (there are very strict standards for the presentation of
bibliographical references).
The instructions for writing bibliographic references according to the type of document, as well as presentation
models, are described in paragraph 1 of this course.
B-INFORMATION SEARCH ON THE INTERNET Page
I.INTRODUCTION 12
II.SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION 12
1. Definitions 12
2. Search strategy 14
III.THE WEB AND INFORMATION SOURCES 15
i. Sources of information 15
ii. Different types of source
iii. List of encyclopaedias on the Internet
iv. The invisible web
IV. INFORMATION SEARCH TOOLS 17
1. Library catalogues 17
2. Documentary portals 18
3. Search directories 18
4. Search engines 19
5. Meta-search engines 20
6. Invisible web search tools 21
7. Thematic search tools 22
8. Webrings: broad searches in a specific field 22
V. QUERIES AND BOOLEAN OPERATORS 22
VI. EVALUATING SEARCH RESULTS 25
1. Evaluation criteria 26
2. Publication rules 26
VII.INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 27
VIII. REFERENCE TO AN ONLINE RESOURCE
I. INTRODUCTION
How do you search the Internet?

Searching for information in databases, on the Web or even within a document has become an extremely common
activity in the "information society". Once carried out by specialists, by trained professionals (documentalists,
librarians), it is now within everyone's reach.
The main aim of this course is to familiarise you quickly with the search for information, i.e. to acquire a
methodology for academic work and establish a search strategy. At the end of this course, you should be able to
easily find the exact information you are looking for in a minimum of time.
II. SEARCH FOR INFORMATION
1. Definitions
a) Characteristics of the Internet

The Internet is a global telecommunications network linking computers or local networks and enabling the
transmission of digitised data of all kinds (e-mail, Web, FTP, Telnet, discussion forums, chat, etc.).
All kinds of information can be found on the Internet. The most widely used application of the Internet is the World
Wide Web (often abbreviated to "WWW" or "the Web"), which provides access to pages of information posted on
websites via a browser. The most popular browsers are : Chrome, Firefox, Opera, Netscape...
Each of the domains that make up the Internet offers different types of information. Knowing this, you can then
direct your research according to your needs and with the research tools specific to the chosen domain.
On the Internet, as in everyday life, we can draw our information from many different sources. These are many and
varied, and represent a wealth of information. The following table shows the main areas of the Internet that provide
access to these sources.
Internet spheres Electroni Web

c mail Telnet Discussio Invisibl FTP
Information sources n forums e Web
Individuals
Organisations
Events
Books
Articles from magazines, newsletters and newspapers
Reference works (Encyclopaedias,
Dictionaries/Glossaries, Atlases, Bibliographic
directories)
Official documentation
Software, shareware and freeware
Two things are clear from this table:

1. The Web is a major source of information on the Internet.
2. The Invisible Web, although the information it contains is more difficult to locate, has enormous
information potential.
In fact, according to Internet Live Stats, there are currently over 1.93 billion websites online. Compared to what
would be the beginning of the Web in 1992, when there were only around 15,000 websites online, this is a
considerable increase.
The Web is therefore the most visible and best-known part of the Internet, and its popularity is growing all the
time.
2. The search strategy
Researching information requires a working methodology. This enables you to frame your investigation and achieve
your final objective, i.e. to present a selection of relevant and validated information that answers the question
posed.
The research strategy must guide all your research work. It
enables you to make the best use of the research tools available, helps you to sort out the information you are going
to gather and ensures that you don't waste any time.
The research strategy can be broken down into 8 steps:
Etape 1. Analyse your information needs precisely.

The first stage is carried out without tools: it consists of analysing your information needs in detail. What is the
nature of the work to be produced? In what form? A specific document, information, a course, a piece of university
research, a written report, an oral presentation, a slide show, a dossier, a poster, etc.
By when? In a week, in 2 months,...
For whom? One or more tutors, a wider audience, etc.
What for? To summarise a known subject, to introduce a new subject, to present a research topic.
Answering this question enables you to specify the expected level of information and the nature of the information
you are looking for.
How should you go about it? When to start work, working alone or in a group, planning meetings.
search for information.

The next step is to prepare your research. There are several aspects to this preparation:
► Identifying the subject of your research in all its dimensions: historical, sociological, economic, educational, etc.
This reflection helps to identify useful sources.
►Defining the aim of one's work: drawing up a bibliography, carrying out a state of the art, giving a single or
more developed response (synthesis, reports...).
►Fix your limits: time limits, geographical limits, language limits, etc. More generally, think about everything that
frames and constrains your work.
►Express the subject in simple concepts, in key words. Use synonyms and equivalents in English.
Choose the best sources of information to carry out your research. This involves two dimensions:
► the type of resources to be searched: library catalogues, databases, directories, search engines, meta-engines,
etc.
► the type of document you are looking for: monographs, journal articles, theses, conference proceedings, etc.
Locate the documents you need, according to the sources of information that contain them: think about libraries
and their online catalogues, databases and the web. Test the keywords you have chosen and their combinations,
and locate the documents that match your search.
Locate the documents in a library (your university's or another) and/or on the Internet. At this stage, you should
also note the following information about the documents: their title, author, date, publisher and/or author, name
of the page (site), date, visited on (date of consultation). These elements will be used to write the bibliographic
references.
und.
This involves identifying two major elements: the relevance and the quality of the information.
►Relevance means checking that what you have found matches what you were looking for.
Is the document found interesting? Are the issues I'm interested in addressed? Is the information recent? Is the
example relevant?
►The quality of a piece of information can be checked using a number of criteria: the author and his or her
reputation, the tone of the document (commercial, journalistic, advertising, serious, biased, etc.), the quality of the
content (: readability, quality of expression and spelling), its freshness (Updated? Page dated and signed?) and its
structure (clear, organised, error-free, ergonomic, etc.).
Process the search results.
This stage involves not plagiarising the information found, always quoting your sources if you are using an extract
from a text and presenting your results in the form of a bibliography written in accordance with standards.
ape 8. Examine and evaluate the results of your research

The final step is to examine the results of your research: did you obtain the information you were looking for? Is it
up-to-date enough? Is it reliable?
Remarks
An appropriate search strategy helps to reduce "noise" (irrelevant answers) and "silence" (absence of relevant
answers).
III. THE WEB AND INFORMATION SOURCES
We must not believe that a general-purpose search engine queries a single source and provides access to all the
information on the web:
►information sources are many and varied: they do not all have the same value;
For the query "digital skills", a web search engine may return side by side an article from the New York Times, a
definition from Wikipedia, a blog post from an influential internet user on the subject, a UNESCO report or a
question from a student in a forum.
►some information is not accessible via a general-purpose search engine: most online resources are part of the
"invisible web" (see point 4).
4. Information sources
To find information, we have to look for it in the possible places where it may reside, which constitute the sources of
information.
Information sources on the web include:
►traditional information sources (press agencies, large private or public interest organisations, expert associations,
scientific publications, etc.) which disseminate information validated according to a recognised process;
The APS press agency, AFP, Reuter, the National Library, publishers of scientific publications are traditional
sources of information.
► sources emerging from more or less formal collective structures, whose rules for publishing and validating
information are more or less strict.
The online encyclopaedia Wikipedia is a source that emerges from a community of authors; the quality of the
information it disseminates is linked to its own publishing rules and processes.
►informal sources (personal web pages, internet users' blogs, etc.) published without any control.
The blog of a Nobel Prize winner in economics is an informal source. The information published there may be of
great value, without however benefiting from validation by other specialists in the field.
► Web 2.0 or social information sources (social networks, blog, wiki, Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, etc.).
5. The different types of source
Information sources can be generalist or specialist. They can be organised as follows:
►fundamental textbooks (written by the founding authors of a field) and teaching resources.
►encyclopedias, dictionaries and glossaries (published by major publishers in a field) ;
► scientific journals (often published by learned societies, with articles validated by experts) and grey literature
(study or research reports, conference proceedings, theses, etc.);
►scientific popularisation (often in the form of journals or books aimed at the general public);
►news (daily press aimed at the general public or a more specialised readership, depending on the case);
►reports and reviews (produced by nationally or internationally recognised organisations and institutions);
►official sources (produced by governments or government bodies);
►bank of data and statistics (produced by groups of researchers or official bodies) ;
►blogs (published by Internet users who may or may not belong to clearly identified institutions).
When researching a field about which you know little, you should start by identifying the relevant sources that will
enable you to identify the associated concepts and terminology: dictionaries, glossaries, encyclopaedias, manuals,
etc.
3. List of encyclopaedias on the Internet
Site Language Subject Address Access

L'Encyclopédie French, Generalist http://www.thecanadianencyclopedi Free
canadienne English a.com/
Encyclopædia English General http://www.britannica.com/ Subscription
Britannica
Encyclopédie French Generalist Free
Hachette
Multimédia
Encyclopédie French Generalist Free
Larousse
EncyclopædiaUniver French Generalist http://www.universalis-edu.com/ Subscription
salis
L'Encyclopédie de French Generalist www.agora.qc.ca Free
L'Agora
Wikipédia Multilingual Generalist Free
Scholarpedia English Sciences http://www.scholarpedia.org/ Free

Imago Mundi French Space and Earth http://www.cosmovisions.com/ Free
Sciences
4. The invisible web
Most Internet resources are not accessible via common search tools (engines such as Google, Bing, Yahoo! Search
or directories such as DMOZ). This is known as the "invisible web", "deep web", "hidden web", "deepweb" or
"darknet". The best search engines index less than 10% to 20% of the "visible web", because the resources on the
"invisible web" are on average of higher quality and more relevant than those on the surface web. Why is this?
Because they are developed or validated by experts who are authorities in their fields. In fact, search tools
(especially search engines) do not reference the following pages:
 Files that are not in HTML format (some search engines, such as Google, index other formats such as PDF,
PostScript, MS Office documents, etc.).
 Web pages protected by a password
 Pages with dynamic content
 Intranet sites
 Pages that are not referenced (no link points to the page)
 Sites (library catalogues/form access) that use a robot.txt file that prevents the engine from indexing the
pages
 Non-Web resources (FTP sites, Gopher, Usenet, forums, Chat, Telnet, etc.)
The invisible Web contains specialised databases that are very useful for documentary research (e.g. databases of
scientific articles, etc.). Fortunately, there are now search tools specialising in the Invisible Web (see Invisible Web
tools).
What's more, there is an even more hidden part of the Internet than the Invisible Web: documents located on client
machines (your computer, your neighbour's computer). There is software (eDonkey, eMule, µTorrent, BitTorrent,
etc.) that you can download onto your computer to share the documents you want with all the users of this
software. This is known as the "peer-to-peersearch system" or "P2P". This system allows you to exchange mp3s and
videos, as well as documents and applications.
IV. INFORMATION SEARCH TOOLS
1. Library catalogues
Libraries hold documents. To list and locate them, they are described by their bibliographic record.
A bibliographic record is a description of a document. It is organised according to fields: author, title, publisher,
collection, ISBN, year of publication, type of publication, summary, subject words, etc.
A library catalogue provides access to the bibliographic records of the documents it contains. In some cases, the
document itself can be accessed in digitised form from the catalogue.
a) Content indexing
To enable a search by subject, documents must be indexed, i.e. associated with keywords.
Traditionally, the indexing of documents in a library is manual and based on a thesaurus*; this is a set of predefined
keywords or subject words that the librarian chooses to associate with the document to describe its content.
When a user formulates a query using keywords in the field corresponding to the manual indexing of the catalogue,
they may find nothing simply because they have not used the words in the thesaurus.
The catalogues now include automatic indexing of the various fields in the records, in particular the "Title" and
"Summary" fields. It is thus possible to enter a query composed of keywords that will be searched in all these fields
at once, which partially removes the constraint of the closed vocabulary of the thesaurus, and brings this practice
closer to that of search engine queries.
The thesaurus remains an interesting tool for identifying important terms for a search.
The National System of onLine Documentation (SNDL) allows you to have access to a rich and various national and
international electronic documentation covering all areas of education and scientific research: (www.sndl.cerist.dz).
The electronic resources accessible via the SNDL portal fall into three categories
 Resources acquired via subscriptions from approved suppliers: These are classified into four main areas:
Life and Earth Sciences, Science and Technology, Humanities and Social Sciences, Multidisciplinary. There
are several types of resources: e_journals, scientometric databases, e_books, etc.
 The free resources available on the Net and can be of all types (books, theses, reports, communications,
journals, scientometric databases, etc.).
 Resources produced at national level by CERIST as part of its missions or in collaboration with national
and international organisations (theses, journals, databases).
The Collective Catalogue of Algeria (CCDZ) is a catalogue that brings together all the documentary holdings of
libraries in the higher education sector. This collective catalogue comprises 103 member libraries and more than
705453 localised records.
The SUDOC (Système Universitaire de Documentation) is the French union catalogue produced by libraries and
documentation centres in the higher education and research sector.
Sudoc opened in 2001 and has proved a resounding success. It covers the collections of 1 419 “deployed” or member
libraries along with the 1,793 public or private libraries from the Sudoc network which specialises in referencing
serial publications.
2. Documentary portals
A library portal (or documentary information system (DIS)) centralises access to a range of information search
services. These include:
► access to the catalogue of this library and other libraries;
► federated searching, which consists of simultaneously querying several tools (library catalogues, websites, search
engines, etc. Personalized services such as access to your reader's file, targeted information and monitoring tools.
► access to full-text documents (with or without authentication);
► access to encyclopaedias, dictionaries, the online press, etc.;
► personalised services such as access to your reader's file, targeted information and monitoring tools.
The Algerian University Libraries Portal (BiblioUniv) is a documentary portal open to all university stakeholders:
students, teacher-researchers, library managers, etc. (http://www.bibliouniv.cerist.dz/. BiblioUniv offers the
following information under various headings:
o News - Practical information: Library Directory
o Databases: national and international
o Individual catalogues: universities, schools, institutes, research centres, etc.
o Collective catalogues: RIBU (Regional Inter-University Library Network), CCDZ
o Monitoring tools: RSS feeds
o Means of communication: Forum, Twitter
o Portals: SNDL, PNST (The National Portal of Theses Reporting )
3. Research web directories

Web directories are search tools that list websites. web directories are made up of headings (also called categories),
which are in turn subdivided into sub-headings...
Each of the last sub-headings contains a list of websites.
Since the process of populating a directory is based on human selection, the resources found there are theoretically
of good quality.
However, they are relatively few in number, and do not always include the latest web content.
Examples of the best-known worldwide general directories:
 Dmoz.org  Bhanvad.com  Annuaire.indexweb.inf
 Annuaire.pro  Nomade.fr  Francite.com
 Ladenise.com  Lycos.fr  imarabe.org
 Site.journaldunet.com  El-annuaire.com  Al-Khayma.com
 Webrankinfo.com  Looksmart.com
 Gralon.net  Toplien.fr
But there are many others. The Rankplus site (http://www.rankplus.fr/) offers a ranking of French-language
directories and sites.
i. Use
A web directory can be used in two ways:
 by browsing the categories (navigating from heading to sub-heading to site),
 by searching using keywords.
ii. Outlook
Internet users make little use of web directories because they are not familiar with them. As a result, only specialist
directories are still active and growing.
Remarks
Specialised and thematic web directories focus exclusively on sites or web pages dealing with a certain subject, or
aimed at a certain specialised audience, collecting sites corresponding to one or more particular themes. Some also
provide access to resources on the invisible web (see point 6).
Specialised web directories:

 Booksc.org : The largest free website dedicated to scientific books and articles
 BrainTrack, guide to universities around the world
 CISMef, catalogue of resources for French-speaking healthcare professionals
 GeoGuide, earth sciences and geography
 formation-dz, guide to training in Algeria
 Infomine, resources for researchers
 Intute, resources for schools and universities
 MathGuide, offers a variety of mathematics lessons.
 SciSeek, science
 T-Algérie, Algerian web directory
 The www Virtual Library, catalogue of scientific links
4. Search engines
Search engines are the most widely used web access tools.
A search engine is a tool used to find web pages based on a query. It is a software robot (called a crawler or spider or
bot) that performs the following tasks:
► harvesting: web pages are crawled automatically by a robot ;
► automatic indexing: pages are analysed to extract significant words;
►interrogation based on a query: the keywords in the query are compared with the words extracted by indexing
and a list of selected web pages is displayed in order of relevance.
No search engine provides access to the entire Web. Familiarity with two or three engines will enable you to carry
out relevant searches.
i. The main generalist web search engines
 GoogleSearch (multilingual)  Info.com (multilingue)  Various (French)
 Baidu (Chinese)  LeMoteur (French)  Volunia(multilingual)
 Yahoo!Search (multilingual)  Lycos (multilingual)  Yauba (English)
 Yandex (russian, English)  Panguso (Chinese)  AOL (multilingual
 Bing (multilingual)  Qwant (French)  Ask (multilingual)
 Exalead (French)  Sogou (Chinese)  AltaVista (multilingual)
 Gigablast (English)  Soso (Chinese)
ii. The main open-source search engines
 DataparkSearch  Grub  YaCy (pair-à-pair)
 OpenSearchServer  Seeks  Whoosh
 ElasticSearch  Lucene / Solr / Nutch  Zettair( Intranet )
 Xapian  Constellio  Mnogosearch
iii. Specialised* search engines

The aim of subject-specific search engines is to overcome the drawbacks of generalist tools. There are search
engines that specialise in certain types of resources (images, videos, academic publications, blogs, RSS feeds,
people, etc.) or in certain fields (technology, music, mathematics, health, chemistry, etc.).
iv. The main specialist search engines
 Ghanni, music  Scirus, scientific information (Elsevier)

 Picsearch, picture  Strimoo.eu, blog
 Yahoo image  Science Research, science
 Google Images, picture  Scitopia, science and technology
 Google Patents, patents  SlideShare, slide
 Google Scholar, academic literature  Web 2.0 Search Engine
 Fooooo, video  Wikiseek, search in Wikipedia
 Blinkx, video  Google blog, Blog search
 PDFGeni, books, manualsPDF  IconFinder, icon
 PhiBot, scientific information  OAIster, open archives
 Yippy Blogs, blog  Neotake, ebooks
You Tube is a video hosting website and not a video search engine.
v. The limits of harvesting

Some web pages cannot be harvested by search engines: this is the invisible web or deep web. In particular, some
pages can only be accessed after authentication; others are dynamic pages composed from data stored in databases.
►There are private discussion forums (subject to authentication) whose posts are not indexed by the search engine.
►If you visit the AIR ALGERIE (http://fly.airalgerie.dz) or SNCF(http://www.voyages-sncf.com) website to make
an online reservation, the web page is dynamic: its information changes depending on how full the plane or train is.
►The administrator of a website can prevent search engine robots from indexing certain pages.
vi. The limits of automatic indexing

Some online documents are not indexed because the engine does not know how to process their format.
Documents in PDF format are now indexed by most search engines.
►To index images, search engines use the associated metadata, the text surrounding the image or tags left by web
users.
►Very short or "badly written" texts (SMS language) represent a challenge for automatic indexing.
5. Meta-engines( Meta search-engines)
a) Online meta-engines
A meta-engine is a tool that allows a single query to be submitted to several search engines and/or search
directories simultaneously. It retrieves the results and classifies them according to relevance index or other criteria.
The aim of using a meta-search engine is to access a greater number of pages referenced on the Internet, to benefit
from a greater number of functions, to have a greater number of results, to improve the search and to have a better
chance of finding more relevant documents.
b) The main online meta-engines
 innooo  seek.fr  vivisimo

 ixquick  seeks  dogpile
 metacrawler  mamma
c) Off-line meta-engines, or clients

These are software programmes that you can install on your computer and use. All you have to do is type in your
query and configure the meta-engine beforehand. Then you launch the Internet search. The results are downloaded
to your workstation.
d) The main offline meta-search engines
 copernic  digimind
 glooton  strategicfinder.
There are off-line meta-engines specialising in image searches. For example, the iwolf software is a search tool that
locates image and film files on the web by exploring web rings in search of files.
6. Search tools for the invisible web
The Invisible Web can be accessed using the following tools: specialised search engines, selective directories,
thematic search tools (thematic directories, sector portals, umbrella sites, links pages, etc.).
There are many thematic and selective search tools, and we will mention just a few sources by way of example,
others being presented in the "1000 sites" site directory.
a) Search engines and directories specialising in the invisible web

To identify Invisible Web sites, you need to use non-conventional search engines, meta-engines or directories. Here
are a few tools to help you get started.
i. The search directory
 Thunderstone: search for sites using its search engine or the categories in its thematic directory
ii. Search engines

 Xrefer: specialises in reference works: encyclopaedias, dictionaries, thesauri and collections of quotations.
 FindArticles: allows you to search through 5 million articles.
iii. Meta-engines
 Turbo10: searches databases for results in specialised fields.
 Profusion (from Intelliseek) searches for results in databases of text, sound, images, articles, magazines,
books, etc.)
iv. Selective directories

Selective directories are tools created and maintained by individuals, often information professionals. They are lists
of sources deemed relevant in their field and are generally open on the invisible Web. Internet users will find links
to databases, reference sites, the press, mailing lists and research documents.
 Bookmark directory(Library bookmarks are directories that list web resources. They work in a
similar way to directories. Many libraries offer their users bookmark directories, i.e. a selection of relevant
and reliable sites on one or more disciplines).
 BnF bookmarks: encyclopaedic selection of Internet resources by BnF librarians
 Signets Universités: collaborative and selective directory of over 2,600 sites chosen by university
libraries and CERIMES.
 The www Virtual library: selective directory of websites compiled by volunteers (specialists from
academic institutions around the world)
 REPSIT: selective directory of websites classified under 16 thematic headings divided into sub-sections.
7. Thematic search tools
a) Thematic directories or sector portals

To find information specific to an industry or sector of activity, there are thematic directories or sector portals. To
find this type of tool, you can consult "portals of portals", i.e. directories or directories of sector portals. You can
consult these two tools: Indexa and Les Annuaires.
b) Umbrella sites
Umbrella sites are tools similar to thematic portals, but with a commercial aspect.
They bring together players and centralise information and transactions in a particular sector. Umbrella sites
generally have four sections: a specialised directory, editorial content (information, interviews, features), exchanges
(forum, mailing list, classified ads) and a customer loyalty area (members' area, shop, catalogue).
These tools can be located on the Internet using thematic directories, bookmark directories, etc.
You can also consult the Search Engine Colossus site, which lists search engines and directories by country and by
theme.
8. Webrings, a broad search in a specific field
Webrings allow you to discover a large number of sites corresponding to a given theme. A detailed list of all the sites
can be obtained from any member site. Webrings are managed manually and selected to ensure quality and
reliability.
The mainWebrings are:
 Geology&EarthScienceWebring (Sites dedicated to the study of geology and earth sciences)
 Formula 1 motor racing: http://www.webringf1.com/ (The site deals with subjects related to Formula 1
V. QUERIES AND BOOLEAN OPERATORS
Once the keywords and their synonyms have been defined, the query needs to be formulated using a query
language. In some cases, search engines return results that have nothing to do with the subject you are interested
in. How can you avoid this and target your search more effectively?
1) Choose your keywords carefully

 Before starting any search, find the keywords that best correspond to the subject you want to study.
 Don't hesitate to use synonyms ("African elephant mass" instead of "weight...", for example).
 Broaden the search field with more general terms (to obtain more results).
 Refine results by adding more precise terms.
 Do not carry out searches containing less than two or three well-chosen keywords at the same time.
 Certain words that are too common and could appear in a query are discarded by search engines (le, la, de,
un, des, a, and, as, ...). They are therefore useless.
There's no point in asking a question in natural language, because search engines aren't really designed to recognise
them at the moment.
2) Vary the combinations of keywords used

Don't hesitate to do research on different combinations of keywords. For a search engine, the following two
expressions will be completely different:
 holidays in the South
 holidays in the Sahara
For a human being (who knows Algeria), it is clear that they relate to virtually the same subject.
3) Watch out for accents
In principle, accented characters are unimportant. A search on "bébé phoque" will give the same results as a search
on "bebe phoque". Unless, however, the word exists in another language (this is often the case between French and
English).
Doing a search on the word "elephant", for example, is likely to return results in English (where the "e "s are not
accented). This is annoying if you don't have a basic command of the language.
4) Specific instructions
i. Singular and plural
It is easy to see that searches for words in the singular do not necessarily give the same results as for words in the
plural. Some search engines automatically look for the plural of a singular word (in fact they perform a truncation).
For those that don't, truncation allows you to search for both the plural and the singular.
Example: chat will look for chat, chats, chatte, chattes, chaton, chatière, chatouille, chateaubriand...).
ii. Synonyms
If you don't have enough ideas yourself to find synonyms for the keywords in your search, you can ask the search
engine to do the work for you. Example: do a search on "maison" and "~maison".
iii. Wildcard (*)

To search for several possible forms of a keyword, you can use the wildcard character (*) by adding it to the end of a
word.
Example: program*, the engine will search for the term "program" as well as "programme", and " Programming "; "
programed ".
5) Giving instructions to search engines
i. Searching for an expression

To force the search engine to find a specific expression rather than separate words, enclose the words in inverted
commas. Example: " Little Man ".
ii. Space
By default, the space is considered as a string separator, but also as the expression of the addition of strings. It is
equivalent to [+] or [AND] (see below).
iii. Exclude words

When a search returns related results that are not desired, you can ask for certain words to be avoided: put a " -"
sign in front of the word. Make sure there is a space before the minus sign.
Example: the search " music -piano" will find all results about music that do not include piano.
iv. Making a word obligatory

To obtain results that only contain a specific word, put a [+] sign in front of the word.
Examples: music +piano................ +Little +man... +tourism+Venezuela
v. Making several words mandatory at the same time

Use the "AND" operator to get results that contain several words at once. Not all search engines accept this policy.
Example: music AND piano
vi. Choose between several words

Use the "OR" operator to get results that contain one or more of the words. The operator must be written in capital
letters.
vii. The order of the terms in the query can be important

The first words of the query define the context; the following words specify the search area.
Example: Ask for "geography Algiers" rather than "Algiers geography" to find information about a geography
conference taking place in Algiers. ( which will focus on the geography of the city of Algiers).
viii. Search only one website
To restrict the search to a single website: add the expression site:www.lesite.com to the search keywords. Example:
word processing site:sio2.be
6) The "fields" zones
i. Title
Searches for keywords only in the title of web pages. Example: title:leucose -
ii. THE URL

The search is carried out in the web address. You can therefore search for a word in a URL or domain.
Example: -url:darwin ; - u:darwin ; - host: Darwin; - domain: com; - site: com
iii. A link
This field is used to search for pages with a link to a given site. This search can be useful because a site that is
relevant to a search will surely be referenced by other relevant sites on the same theme.
Example: link:www.fundp.ac.fr
iv. Natural language

A natural language search consists of asking the search engine a question in the form of a sentence, such as "Where
can I find calcium? It then queries a database made up of questions already asked by Internet users and for which it
has the answer. The engine then tries to match the question to one in its database. Example: What is the Internet?
v. Format
This very interesting feature is available on some search engines. It allows you to search only for pdf (Adobe) or doc
(MSWord) files, for example, which is particularly interesting when you consider that many background files,
reports, articles, etc. are in these formats.
vi. The question mark ( ? )

This replaces a single letter anywhere in the word.
vii. Intuitive search

For many sites, it is not necessary to consult a directory or search engine. In fact, when you are looking for a site for
which you know the institution or organisation, it is relatively easy to guess the address of the site, provided you
understand how URLs are formed.
To start, type http://www.
Then enter the name or acronym of the organisation
End with the domain <http://www.siteware.ch/Webresources/domains/>
Examples: USDB website; Intuitive search: this is an Algerian university → www.USDB.dz
Microsoft site; Intuitive search: this is a commercial company → www.microsoft.com
FAO site; Intuitive search: it is an international organisation →www.fao.org
7) Understanding the URL of a site
To find your way around, you first need to understand how internet addresses are formed. They are all based on the
same principle: protocol://computer/directory/file.html#ancre
The address of a site (URL) provides a great deal of information at a glance (if the URL is not written down, simply
point the mouse at the link and the URL will appear at the bottom of the browser). It looks like this

protocol:// Protocol used for dialogue between different connected machines. http is the protocol
used for web pages. There are other protocols (FTP, gopher, etc.).
computer / Name of the computer on which the files are located (host name). This host name is
divided into domain and sub-domain
For example, www.fundp.ac.be - is a Web server (www.) located in Belgium (be) in the
academic sub-domain (ac) and it is called fundp (Faculté Universitaire Notre-Dame de
la Paix in Namur)
The main domains are as follows (Full list of domains
<http://www.siteware.ch/Webresources/domains/>) :
com: commercial,
edu: universities and education (US),
gov: government agencies,
int: international organisations,
mil: military (US),
net: networks,
org: NGOs.
A country is determined by its ISO code (dz - Algeria, be - Belgium, fr - France, uk -
United Kingdom, etc.).
directory / Directory in which the document is located on the server. There are often sub-
directories.
document.html Name of the web page or file (see documents and formats), requested
#ancre Determines a specific location on the web page
For example, the address of a site can tell you whether it is an official site, a university site, in which country it is
located... And if the organisation into directories and sub-directories is logical (it depends on the designer) you can
get an idea of the subject.
Example:
What can we say about the page whose address is :
http://jama.ama-assn.org/issues/v281n17/rfull/joc81655.html?
 It's a web page (joc81655.html)

 The server is called jama.ama-assn.org
 It's an organisation (.org)
 The document is called joc81655.html
 It is located in a sub-directory called rfull/, itself located in a sub-directory v281n17 of the sub-directory
issues.... (the document is located in a deep directory of the tree structure)
Intuitively, you might think that the document is an article (rfull) from Vol. 281, No. 17 (v281n17) of JAMA (Journal
of American Medical Association), located in the online archive of scientific journals published by the AMA
(American Medical Association).
But beware, the name of a site is sometimes misleading and some people take advantage of it.
Example: http://www.whitehouse.com/ , http://www.whitehouse.org/ vs http://www.whitehouse.gov
In conclusion, while analysing a site's URL provides good clues, it is far from sufficient to form a definitive opinion
on the quality of the information it contains.
VI. EVALUATING SEARCH RESULTS
1. Evaluation criteria
A resource is a concrete entity that conveys information. In the context of an information search on the web, the
resources contributing to meeting the need for information can take a variety of forms: web page, bibliographic
record, document in PDF format, book, image, etc.
Evaluating a resource involves studying :
 sa relevance: does the information it conveys correspond to the information need?

 sa quality: is the information it contains reliable and well presented?
The relevance of a resource is the concordance of its informational content with the information need.
To do this we can answer the following questions:

►is the content relevant to the field being searched?
► does the content answer the questions initially asked?
► Does the content provide useful information for the research beyond the questions initially posed?
The quality of a resource is based on:

►the reliability of the information, i.e. the confidence that can be placed in its veracity ;
►the quality of the presentation of the information, which covers the quality of the writing (structuring of
the information, written expression, illustrations), as well as its readability and accessibility.
The reliability of information is linked to the context in which it was communicated (validation process) and the
underlying intention (commercial, academic, official, etc.).
a) Identifying the source

A source can often be identified by consulting the site's home page and decrypting the URL of the resource: on
which server is the site hosted? In what form does the site's URL appear (domain, sub-domain, domain name, etc.),
to get an idea of the nature of the site, its origin, nationality, status, category, etc.?
In a URL, we can distinguish :
 le domain (dz, fr, com, org, etc.): this characterises the general orientation of the site (algeria, france,
commercial, organisation, etc.);
 le domain name (education.fr, over-blog.com, openoffice.org, etc.): this is often used to identify the nature
(university, institutional, association, etc.) and status of the site (official, private, personal, etc.);
 le sub-domain, if any (indicated as a prefix).
For example: in http://c2i.education.fr/, the domain name is education.fr and the sub-domain is c2i.
b) Assessing the reputation of the author

To assess an author's reputation, you can rely on clues provided by the author him/herself or others in connection
with
 son professional or associative activity (profession, experience, achievements, status, level of education)
 son affiliation (company, organisation, government, university, etc.);
 sa recognition by peers.
c) Assessing the freshness of information

To assess the freshness of the information, we need to identify the date on which the resource was created and
possibly the date on which it was last updated. The frequency with which the source is updated is also a very useful
benchmark.
2. Publication rules
To assess the reliability of a source, we can look at the following publication rules:
a) No validation process
The content of personal, commercial or opinion websites is generally not subject to any validation. This does not
detract from their popularity, which can be excellent even though the information may prove to be false.
b) Traditional validation process
Scientific publications produced in an academic context are often subject to a review process by specialists in the
field who are themselves recognised by their peers (peerreview). This is an excellent guarantee of reliability. When
this is not the case, we speak of grey literature.
Similarly, institutional sites publish information that has been validated beforehand within the institution, due to
the performative role of the information disseminated (legal texts, recommendations, official information, etc.).
A resource that cites its sources is always more reliable.
c) Original validation process

Some sites contain resources that are subject to an original validation process. This is the case with the Wikipedia
collective encyclopaedia project, which anyone can modify and improve. The founding principles of the project are
published and describe the conditions for its development, particularly in terms of :
 nature content: this is a general and specialised encyclopaedia, which must not contain original
productions, propaganda or debates on opinions;
 qualité content: the search for accuracy is a rule that applies to contributors, who must cite their sources
and adopt a neutral point of view.
It goes without saying that some pages of this encyclopaedia may contain errors or adopt points of view that are not
neutral. The encyclopaedia is maintained by a group of people who enforce its founding principles to the best of
their ability.
Banners can sometimes be spotted at the top of a Wikipedia article: they help readers to assess the quality of the
information contained in the article. They indicate, for example, when an article is a draft, does not cite its sources
sufficiently, or contains information that needs to be verified. "Wikipedia does not offer any tools for assessing the
validity of assertions made in an article".
VII. RETRIEVING INFORMATION
Saving an online resource means saving it on your workstation.
1. Saving a web page

A web page is made up of HTML source code, which contains only text and links to other resources. These
resources (images, videos, style sheets, etc.) are also located on the web server, but in separate files.
Browsers allow you to save a web page so that you can keep it on your computer. There are two options:
► complete web page: in this case the entire page is saved, including the resources that make it up (images, videos,
etc.) which are placed in a folder with the same name as the file in HTML format ;
►HTML only: only the source code of the page is saved; this allows you to retrieve the text of the page but not the
resources that make it up.
2. Retrieving part of a document

You may need to retrieve part of a web page to integrate it as a quote in a document. If it is a portion of text, it may
be useful to integrate it by copy/paste as unformatted text: this avoids the text styles of the web page integrating
poorly with the graphic charter of your own document.
If it is an image, the browser allows you to save the image you click on: this allows you to re-use the image file in
any other document.
If it is a sound or video file, there is generally no standard function built into the browser to download it, but
browser extensions can be added to allow this.
VIII. REFERRING TO AN ONLINE RESOURCE
When using resources, whether to quote extracts from them or to refer to them, a list of bibliographic references
must be drawn up in accordance with certain rules.
In the case of online digital resources, specific information must be added.
Standard: There is a standard that precisely defines the composition and typography of a bibliographic reference to
an electronic document (reference ISO 690-2 or Z 44-005-2).
The rules are the same as for traditional documents, but we must add :
►the type of medium (online, CD-ROM, sound recording, etc.);
►the address of the resource (URL);
►the date on which the resource was consulted.
1. Basic model for a website
Author. Date [Date]. Title [Medium]. Resource address. (consulted on ...)
►Author: the organisation or individual in the case of a personal page.
►Date: the date of the last update, if known.
►Title: the title of the site's home page.
►Support: this is written between square brackets; it includes: [Online] [CD-ROM] [Sound recording], etc.
►Resource address: this is the URL.
►User consultation date: this is written as (consulted on day month year).
Example: The National Library of Algeria. [On line]. http://www.biblionat.dz/ (consulted on 10/10/2011).
2. Basic model for an Internet resource, including a web page

Author. Date. "Title of the resource. In: Wider resource, [Medium] Resource address (accessed on ...)
►Larger resource: if applicable, add the larger resource to which the cited document is attached; proceed as
follows: In Author/title or title of the site or document containing the resource.
Example: Caron, Rosaire. "How to cite an electronic document". In: Université Laval - Bibliothèque. Website of the
Université Laval Library. [On line]. http://www.bibl.ulaval.ca/doelec/citedoce.html (consulted on 10 October 2011)
BIBLIOGRAPHY/WEBOGRAPHY
- DEBLIQUY Pierre-Yves. Chercher n'est pas trouver (Outils, méthodes et stratégies à l'usage de ceux pour
qui l'information compte). Editeur : Edi.pro. 2015. Collection : Guide pratique,ISBN : 978-2-87496-244-8
- Aeris(Aide aux Étudiants pour la Recherche d'Information Scientifique). Page modifié le 17/07/2006. [En
ligne]. http://aeris.11vm-serv.net/cours/internet/url.html (consulté le 10/09/2014)
- C2IMES (C2i Mutualisé pour l'Enseignement Supérieur).[En ligne].http://www.c2imes.org/index.html

(consulté le 01/10/2014).
- Infosphére.Mise à jour le 4-01-2010.[En ligne]. http://sites.uclouvain.be/infosphere/sciences/index.html

- Wikilivres.[En ligne].
https://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Recherche_d%27informations_sur_internet (livre).
- L'encyclopédie libre Wikipédia.[En ligne]. https://fr.wikipedia.org/(consulté le 01/10/2014).
- Guidesde la bibliothèque de l’université de Montréal.Mise à jour le 28 janvier 2015. [En ligne].

http://guides.bib.umontreal.ca/disciplines/’consulté le 01/08/2014
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COURSE METHODOLOGY FOR WRITING

CHAPTER II: INFORMATION RETRIEVAL, SYNTHESIS AND USE

- Critical books on a particular subject, author or work.

o Printed monograph (Print monograph)

o Chapter of printed monograph (Author of chapter = Author of book)

 Number of a serial periodical in print

 Article from a printed periodical

Example :GIAVITTO, Jean-Louis. L’informatique à l'interface de l'activité humaine et sociale, Technique Et

 Article in a printed encyclopaedia

Example : BOK Julien, Semi-conducteurs. In : Encyclopaedia Universalis, vol. 2, Paris : Encyclopaedia

iv. Printed dissertation and thesis

ii. Secondary documents

iii. Tertiary documents

3. Different types of bibliography

II. REFERENCE TOOLS

3. Bibliographies or bibliographic databases

There are three types of catalogue:

►A local catalogue describes the documents of a single library.

5. Role of the catalogue

The catalogue enables :

►Find other bibliographic leads:

III. WHERE TO FIND FURTHER REFERENCES?

Generally there are several sources of information:

IV. METHODOLOGY: STAGES IN THE INFORMATION SEARCH PROCESS

V. WHERE TO FIND INFORMATION IN A LIBRARY

VI. SEARCH LANGUAGES

1. Natural or free language

The solution to noise and silence :

► noise (too many results)? Restrict your search

►silence (too few results)? You need to broaden your search

i. The Dewey classification system

ii. The call number

ii. Boolean operators

iii. Search query

VII. QUALITY CRITERIA FOR INFORMATION IN A BOOK

Benchmarks for assessing document relevance and verification solutions

Benchmarks for assessing the reliability of the verification source

In relation to the publisher :

iii. Reputation of the author

Benchmarks for assessing the document's author and verification solutions

Has the author written other documents on the To find publications:

The author's visibility: To establish visibility :

 Is the author frequently cited in the literature?

Benchmarks for assessing the objectivity of information and verification solutions

What seems to be the author's primary To identify the author's intentions:

Is the language nuanced or very clear?

Does the author present different points of

To cover an issue objectively, the author must

Benchmarks for assessing the accuracy of information and verification solutions

Does the text contain references and a To evaluate the bibliography :

Benchmarks for assessing the timeliness of information and verification solutions

VIII. CITING REFERENCES

1. Why cite your sources of information?

2. When should you indicate your sources?

3. How do you indicate your sources?

ii. Tables, graphs and illustrations

4. Bibliographical references: rules for presentation

i. How to include bibliographical references in your report

Quote in the text: «Dans la période récente, ces rapports de travail et

ii. How to write bibliographic references

How do you search the Internet?

II. SEARCH FOR INFORMATION