CANAKKALE ONSEKIZ MART UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

MONITORING RAINWATER PARAMETERS

Esra YILMAZ

Prof. Dr. Hasan Göksel ÖZDİLEK

2023 CANAKKALE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to all those

who have supported me throughout the completion of my term project and
bachelor's degree at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Engineering,
Department of Environmental Engineering.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my esteemed advisor, Professor

Dr. Hasan Göksel Özdilek, for his invaluable guidance, unwavering support, and
continuous encouragement. His expertise, knowledge, and dedication to the field
of environmental engineering have been instrumental in shaping the direction and
success of my research. I am truly grateful for his mentorship, patience, and
constructive feedback, which have significantly contributed to the completion of
this project.

Additionally, I extend my appreciation to the faculty members of the

Department of Environmental Engineering for their commitment to providing
quality education and fostering an intellectually stimulating academic
environment. Their passion for teaching and research has been a constant source
of inspiration for me.

Moreover, I am grateful for the support and camaraderie of my fellow

classmates and friends. Their encouragement, stimulating discussions, and shared
experiences have made this academic journey more enjoyable and memorable.

Lastly, I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my family.

Their love, encouragement, and unwavering support have been the pillars of my
success throughout my academic journey. Their belief in my abilities and constant
motivation have been invaluable in overcoming challenges and achieving my
goals. I am forever grateful for their sacrifices and the countless ways in which
they have nurtured my growth.

In conclusion, the successful completion of this term project would not

have been possible without the support and contributions of the individuals and
institutions mentioned above. I am truly grateful for their guidance,
encouragement, and belief in my abilities. This accomplishment signifies a
significant milestone in my academic journey, and I look forward to applying the
knowledge and skills acquired to contribute to the field of environmental
engineering.

Thank you all for your invaluable support.

Sincerely,

Esra YILMAZ

2
ABSTRACT

Monitoring pH, TDS, EC, P and T of precipitation in Canakkale (2022-2023)

The present study aimed to investigate and monitor the pH, Total
Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity (EC), temperature, and rainfall
height of precipitation in Çanakkale during the period of 2022-2023. The
objective was to assess the water quality and climatic conditions in the region,
providing valuable insights for environmental management and sustainable
development.

The research methodology involved the collection of water samples from

various sampling sites within Çanakkale. pH measurements were conducted to
evaluate the acidity or alkalinity of the water, while TDS and EC measurements
provided insights into the conductivity of the water. In addition, temperature
measurements were recorded to understand the thermal characteristics of the water
bodies. Rainfall height was monitored to assess the precipitation patterns in the
region.

The obtained data was analyzed using statistical techniques and compared
with relevant water quality standards and meteorological records. The results
indicated variations in pH levels, TDS, EC, temperature, and rainfall height
throughout the monitoring period. These findings provide important information
for understanding the environmental conditions and potential impacts on
ecosystems and human activities.

Overall, this study enhances our understanding of the environmental

dynamics in Çanakkale, shedding light on the interplay between water quality
parameters, climatic factors, and the local ecosystem. The findings serve as a
valuable resource for future research endeavors and support informed decision-
making processes in environmental management.

Keywords: pH, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Electrical Conductivity (EC),

temperature, rainfall, water quality, climatic conditions, environmental
management, sustainability.

3
TABLE LIST

Table 1 Monitoring data for pH,TDS,EC,P and T...................................................7

Table 2 Descriptive statistics (Quantitative data)..................................................15
Table 3 Qualitative Data........................................................................................18
Table 4 statisctics value.........................................................................................20
Table 5 Pearson values...........................................................................................21
Table 6 Lower Bound............................................................................................21
Table 7 Upper Bound.............................................................................................22
Table 8 p-values.....................................................................................................22
Table 9 Student's t test value for pearson...............................................................23
Table 10 Coefficients of determination.................................................................23
Table 11 summary of statistics...............................................................................26
Table 12Shapiro-Wilk test (pH).............................................................................27
Table 13One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (pH).................................................27
Table 14 Shapiro-Wilk test (TDS (mg/L)..............................................................30
Table 15 95% confidence interval on the mean:....................................................30
Table 16 Sharpiro-Wilk test (EC (mikroS/cm)).....................................................34
Table 17 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)............................34
Table 18 Shapiro-Wilk test (P (rainfall height, mm).............................................37
Table 19 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (P (rainfall height, mm)..................37
Table 20 Shapiro-Wilk test (T (temperature of water degree celcius)...................41
Table 21 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (T (temperature of water degree
celcius)...................................................................................................................41
Table 22 table of p-values......................................................................................44

4
FIGURE LIST

Figure 1 pH change according to time.....................................................................9

Figure 2 TDS change according to time................................................................10
Figure 3 EC change according to time...................................................................11
Figure 4 Rainfall height change according to time................................................13
Figure 5 Temperature change according to time...................................................14
Figure 6 Box plot for pH........................................................................................16
Figure 7 Box plot for TDS.....................................................................................17
Figure 8 Box plot for electrical conductivty..........................................................17
Figure 9 Box plot for rainfall height......................................................................18
Figure 10 Box plot for temperature........................................................................18
Figure 11 Relative frequency of bar charts............................................................20
Figure 12 Correlation maps for p-values...............................................................24
Figure 13 Correlation maps for student's test........................................................24
Figure 14 Correlation maps for coefficent of determination.................................25
Figure 15 Graphs of the betweem each parameters...............................................26
Figure 16 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (pH)...............................................28
Figure 17 Box plot for pH......................................................................................28
Figure 18 Scattergram for pH................................................................................29
Figure 19 Strip plot for pH.....................................................................................29
Figure 20 Mean and standard deviation for pH.....................................................30
Figure 21One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (TDS(mg/L))..................................31
Figure 22 Box plot fot TDS...................................................................................32
Figure 23 Scattergram for TDS..............................................................................32
Figure 24 Strip plot for TDS..................................................................................33
Figure 25 Means and standard deviation fot TDS.................................................33
Figure 26 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)...........................35
Figure 27 Box plot for EC......................................................................................35
Figure 28 Scattergram for EC................................................................................36
Figure 29 Strip pşot for EC....................................................................................36
Figure 30 Means and Standard deviation for EC...................................................37
Figure 31 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (P (rainfall height, mm).................38
Figure 32 Box plot for rainfall height....................................................................39
Figure 33 Scattergram for rainfall height...............................................................39
Figure 34 Strip plot for rainfall height...................................................................40
Figure 35 Mean and standard deviation for rainfall height....................................40
Figure 36 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (T (temperature of water degree
celcius)...................................................................................................................42
Figure 37 Box plot fot the Temperature.................................................................42
Figure 38 Scattergram for the Temperature...........................................................43
Figure 39 Strip plot for the Temperature...............................................................43
Figure 40 summary of student's test.......................................................................44

5
Table of Contents
1 RAW DATA AND ANALYSIS OF PARAMETERS.............................................7
1.1 Raw Data.....................................................................................................7
1.1.1 pH Analysis...............................................................................................................7
1.1.2 TDS Analysis..............................................................................................................9
1.1.3 Electrical Conductivty (EC) Analysis........................................................................10
1.1.4 Rainwater Height Analysis......................................................................................11
1.1.5 Temperature Analysis.............................................................................................13
1.2 Weighted Average for Rainfall pH-TDS and pH-EC......................................14
1.3 Descriptive Statistics..................................................................................14
1.3.1 Box Plat...................................................................................................................16
1.3.2 Descriptive statistics (Qualitative data):.................................................................18
1.3.3 Bar Charts...............................................................................................................20
1.4 Correlation Test.........................................................................................20
1.4.1 Summary of Statistics.............................................................................................20
1.4.2 Correlation matrix (Pearson)..................................................................................21
1.4.3 Confidence intervals (95%) / Lower bound.............................................................21
1.4.4 Confidence intervals (95%) / Upper bound............................................................22
1.4.5 p-values (Pearson)..................................................................................................22
1.4.6 Student's t test (Pearson).......................................................................................23
1.4.7 Coefficients of determination (Pearson).................................................................23
1.4.8 Correlation Maps....................................................................................................24
1.4.9 Scotter plot.............................................................................................................26
1.5 T-test.........................................................................................................26
1.5.1 Summary statistic...................................................................................................26
1.5.2 Normality test for pH..............................................................................................27
1.5.3 Normality test for TDS............................................................................................30
1.5.4 Normality test for Electrical Conductivty (EC).........................................................34
1.5.5 Normality test for Rainfall height...........................................................................37
1.5.6 Normality test for Temperature (T)........................................................................41
1.5.7 Summary................................................................................................................44

2 Conclusion...............................................................................................45
3 REFERENCES............................................................................................46

6
1 RAW DATA AND ANALYSIS OF PARAMETERS
Table 1 Monitoring data for pH,TDS,EC,P and T

Date & Time pH TDS (mg/L) EC (mikroS/cm) P ( Rainfall Height, mm) T (°C)
13.12.2022 18:00 6,75 67 138 2,8 20,4
23.11.2022 09:15 6,16 19 38 8,4 18,7
25.11.2022 18:00 6,51 6 13 12,3 15,3
28.11.2022 18:30 5,27 10 20 5,1 12,3
1.12.2022 17:18 5,68 9 16 2,1 14,3
2.12.2022 13:45 5,47 0 1 32,8 14,3
13.12.2022 18:00 6,88 11 23 4,6 13,2
27.12.2022 08:00 7,3 12 24 13 12,5
28.1.2023 19:00 7,11 15 30 8 13,4
6.2.2023 08:30 7,05 19 35 0,5 19,7
4.3.2023 21:00 6,7 2 6 29 13,5
6.3.2023 14:05 5,44 5 9 10,6 18,7
7.3.2023 17:30 5,28 13 26 18 18,5
8.3.2023 08:05 7,1 11 22 12 14
11.3.2023 18:00 7,4 13 24 10 18
16.3.2023 18:30 7,05 3 6 8 14
28.3.2023 17:30 6,83 16 32 3,1 13,5
4.4.2023 05:20 7,86 20 39 13,7 13,4
5.4.2023 07:00 7,6 13 27 2,4 13,5
6.4.2023 17:25 6,3 7 14 3,9 15
11.4.2023 17:30 7,25 20 41 2 17
15.4.2023 17:00 7,57 51 96 2 19,5
16.4.2023 09:40 7,62 16 32 5 16
18.4.2023 14:40 7,5 18 35 7,1 17
28.4.2023 09:30 7,3 19 38 0,4 16,5
4.5.2023 07:45 7,54 10 19 15,2 15,5
5.5.2023 07:15 6,55 5 11 11,3 15,5
5.5.2023 13:00 6,24 3 7 1,2 19
18.5.2023 11:00 7,49 30 71 2,8 19,5
1.1 Raw Data
1.1.1 pH Analysis

There are several factors that can contribute to variations in pH measurements:

1. Natural Variability: pH can naturally fluctuate in rainwater due to changes in

atmospheric conditions and the presence of different chemical constituents.
Factors such as the season, time of day, and weather patterns can influence pH

7
levels. For example, during periods of heavy rainfall, pH values may be lower due
to the dilution of acidic substances in the atmosphere.

2. Atmospheric Pollution: The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere can

significantly impact rainwater pH. Industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, and
agricultural activities release substances such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx), which can react with water vapor and form acids. This leads to a
decrease in pH, resulting in acid rain. The concentration of these pollutants can
vary depending on factors such as wind patterns, proximity to pollution sources,
and emission levels.

3. Geographic Location: Rainwater pH can vary based on the geographic location

and local environmental conditions. For instance, areas near volcanic regions or
geologically active zones may have rainwater with naturally lower pH due to the
presence of volcanic gases or minerals in the atmosphere. Additionally, proximity
to industrial or urban areas with high pollutant emissions can result in more acidic
rainwater.

4. Seasonal Effects: Rainwater pH can exhibit seasonal variations. During certain

periods, such as spring or fall, pH values may be influenced by factors like
changes in vegetation, agricultural practices, or the presence of pollen. These
seasonal effects can impact the chemical composition of rainwater, leading to
variations in pH measurements.

5. Sample Collection and Preservation: Inconsistent sample collection techniques

or improper preservation methods can introduce variations in pH measurements.
Factors such as contamination from sampling equipment, exposure to atmospheric
gases during collection, or inadequate preservation of samples can affect the pH
value.

6. Analytical Techniques: Differences in pH measurement techniques and

equipment calibration can also contribute to variations in pH values. Inaccurate
calibration of the pH meter or variations in electrode sensitivity can lead to
different readings. It is essential to follow standardized procedures and regularly
calibrate the pH meter using buffer solutions to ensure accurate measurements.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the variations in pH measurements, it

is crucial to consider these factors and conduct a thorough analysis of the specific
conditions and parameters surrounding each measurement.

8
 pH
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
:0 8:0 7:1 8:0 9:0 1:0 7:3 8:0 7:3 7:0 7:3 9:4 9:3 7:1 1:0
18 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1
2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3
02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 20 02 20 20 20 02
3/2 5/2 1/2 3/2 8/2 4/2 7/2 1/2 8/2 /5/ 1/2 16/ 28/ /5/ 8/2
/1 1/2 12/ 2/1 1/2 3/ 3/ 3/1 3/2 4
4/
1 4/ 4/ 5
5/
1
12 1 1
Figure 1 pH change according to time

1.1.2 TDS Analysis

Several factors can contribute to variations in TDS measurements:

1. Natural Variability: TDS levels can naturally fluctuate in water due to changes
in environmental conditions. Factors such as rainfall, temperature, season, and
geological characteristics of the area can affect the mineral content and
subsequently the TDS levels. For example, during periods of heavy rainfall, TDS
levels may be lower due to dilution.

2. Source Water Differences: TDS levels can vary depending on the source of the
water. Different water sources, such as rivers, lakes, groundwater, or treated
municipal water, can have distinct TDS profiles. Variations in TDS can be
attributed to variations in the geological formations, mineral content, and
anthropogenic activities in the vicinity of the water source.

3. Anthropogenic Influence: Human activities can significantly impact TDS levels

in water. Activities such as agriculture, industrial processes, and urban runoff can
introduce various dissolved solids into water bodies, leading to higher TDS
values. Pollution from sources such as wastewater discharges, chemical spills, or
improper waste disposal can also contribute to elevated TDS levels.

4. Seasonal Effects: TDS measurements can exhibit seasonal variations. In

agricultural areas, for instance, TDS levels may increase during irrigation seasons
due to the application of fertilizers and the subsequent leaching of minerals into
water sources. Additionally, changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can
influence TDS concentrations.

5. Sampling Technique and Location: Inconsistent sampling techniques and

location choices can lead to variations in TDS measurements. Factors such as the
depth from which the water sample is collected, proximity to potential

9
contamination sources, and variations in water flow rates can influence TDS
levels. It is essential to follow standardized sampling protocols to minimize such
variations.

6. Analytical Techniques: Differences in analytical techniques and instrument

calibration can also contribute to variations in TDS measurements. Different
measurement methods, such as gravimetric analysis or conductivity
measurements, can yield slightly different results. It is crucial to follow
standardized procedures and regularly calibrate instruments to ensure accurate
TDS measurements.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the variations in TDS measurements,

it is important to consider these factors and conduct a thorough analysis of the
specific conditions and parameters surrounding each measurement.

TDS (mg/L)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
:0 8:0 7:1 8:0 9:0 1:0 7:3 8:0 7:3 7:0 7:3 9:4 9:3 7:1 1:0
18 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1
22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 02 23 02 02 02 23
/ 20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 5/2 /20 6/2 8/2 5/2 /20
3 5
/1 1/2 12/ 2/1 1/2
1 3 8
3/
4 7 1
3/ 3/1 3/2
8 4/ /11 4/1 4/2 5/ /18
12 1 1 4 5

Figure 2 TDS change according to time

1.1.3 Electrical Conductivty (EC) Analysis

Several factors can contribute to variations in electrical conductivity

measurements:

1. Dissolved Solids Content: Electrical conductivity is directly related to the

concentration of dissolved solids in water. Variations in electrical conductivity
can occur due to changes in the dissolved solids content, including ions such as
salts, minerals, and other dissolved substances. Factors such as the source of
water, weather conditions, and nearby human activities can influence the
dissolved solids content and, consequently, the electrical conductivity.

2. Seasonal Effects: Electrical conductivity in water can exhibit seasonal

variations. In agricultural regions, for example, electrical conductivity may
increase during the irrigation season due to the application of fertilizers and the

10
subsequent leaching of minerals into water sources. In contrast, during rainy
seasons, electrical conductivity may decrease due to dilution from increased
precipitation.

3. Geological Factors: The geological characteristics of an area can affect

electrical conductivity in water. The composition of the soil and underlying rock
formations can introduce varying levels of dissolved solids into water sources,
thus influencing electrical conductivity. For instance, areas with high
concentrations of dissolved minerals may have higher electrical conductivity
readings.

4. Anthropogenic Influence: Human activities can significantly impact electrical

conductivity in water. Discharge of industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, and
wastewater discharges can introduce additional dissolved solids, chemicals, and
pollutants into water bodies, affecting electrical conductivity. Increased electrical
conductivity can indicate pollution or contamination.

5. Temperature: Temperature can affect electrical conductivity measurements. In

general, electrical conductivity tends to increase with temperature due to enhanced
ion mobility. Therefore, variations in water temperature during different sampling
times can lead to differences in electrical conductivity readings.

6. Instrument Calibration: Variations in electrical conductivity measurements can

also arise from inconsistencies in instrument calibration. Regular calibration of
conductivity meters using standardized solutions is essential to ensure accurate
and reliable readings.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of the variations in electrical

conductivity measurements, it is important to consider these factors and conduct a
thorough analysis of the specific conditions and parameters surrounding each
measurement.

EC (mikroS/cm)
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
:0 8:0 7:1 8:0 9:0 1:0 7:3 8:0 7:3 7:0 7:3 9:4 9:3 7:1 1:0
18 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1
2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 3
02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 02 20 02 20 20 20 02
3/2 5/2 1/2 3/2 8/2 4/2 7/2 1/2 8/2 /5/ 1/2 16/ 28/ /5/ 8/2
/1 1/2 12/ 2/1 1/2 3/ 3/ 3/1 3/2 4
4/
1 4/ 4/ 5
5/
1
12 1 1
Figure 3 EC change according to time

11
 1.1.4 Rainwater Height Analysis

Several factors can contribute to variations in rainfall measurements:

1. Spatial Variability: Rainfall can exhibit significant spatial variability, even

within a relatively small area. This means that rainfall measurements can vary
from one location to another. Factors such as topography, wind patterns, and the
presence of obstacles can cause variations in rainfall distribution. For example,
rainfall may be higher on elevated terrain or near coastal areas due to orographic
effects or moisture-laden winds.

2. Measurement Techniques: Different measurement techniques can lead to

variations in rainfall height. Common methods include rain gauges, weather radar,
and satellite-based measurements. Each technique has its limitations and sources
of potential error. For instance, rain gauges may not capture localized or intense
rainfall accurately, while radar measurements can have uncertainties due to beam
blockage and attenuation effects.

3. Instrument Calibration: Proper calibration of rainfall measurement instruments

is crucial for accurate and consistent measurements. Over time, instruments can
experience calibration drift or other errors that affect the reliability of the
measurements. Regular calibration and maintenance of rainfall gauges are
necessary to ensure accurate readings.

4. Instrument Placement and Exposure: The placement of rainfall gauges can

influence the measurements. The gauge's exposure to wind, nearby obstacles, or
vegetation can affect the catchment efficiency and result in underestimation or
overestimation of rainfall. Proper gauge installation, including correct height and
distance from obstructions, is important to minimize potential biases in the
measurements.

5. Microscale Weather Patterns: Rainfall can be influenced by localized weather

patterns, such as convective cells or thunderstorms, which can lead to intense and
localized rainfall. These patterns can result in variations in rainfall height over
small distances or time intervals. Weather phenomena like frontal systems,
atmospheric instability, and local convergence can contribute to the observed
variations.

6. Seasonal and Climate Factors: Seasonal and long-term climate variations can
impact rainfall patterns. Climate phenomena like El Niño and La Niña can
influence rainfall regimes over extended periods, leading to variations in rainfall
heights. Similarly, seasonal shifts, such as monsoon seasons or dry periods, can
result in differences in rainfall measurements.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of variations in rainfall measurements,

it is important to consider these factors and conduct a thorough analysis of the
specific conditions and parameters surrounding each measurement.

12
 P (rainfall height, mm)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
:0 8:0 7:1 8:0 9:0 1:0 7:3 8:0 7:3 7:0 7:3 9:4 9:3 7:1 1:0
18 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1
22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 02 23 02 02 02 23
/ 20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 5/2 /20 6/2 8/2 5/2 /20
3 5
/1 1/2 12/ 2/1 1/2
1 3 8
3/
4 7 1
3/ 3/1 3/2
8 4/ /11 4/1 4/2 5/ /18
12 1 1 4 5

Figure 4 Rainfall height change according to time

1.1.5 Temperature Analysis

There are several factors that can contribute to variations in temperature

measurements:

1. Time of Day: Temperature naturally fluctuates throughout the day due to

variations in solar radiation and atmospheric conditions. The highest temperatures
are typically observed in the afternoon when solar radiation is strongest, while the
lowest temperatures occur during the early morning hours. Therefore, temperature
measurements taken at different times of the day can yield different values.

2. Seasonal Variations: Temperature exhibits seasonal variations due to changes in

solar angle, day length, and atmospheric conditions. Different seasons have
distinct temperature patterns, with warmer temperatures in summer and colder
temperatures in winter. Therefore, temperature measurements taken during
different seasons can vary significantly.

3. Microclimate Effects: Microclimates are localized climate variations that can

arise from factors such as topography, vegetation, and urbanization. These
variations can create temperature differences within a region. For example, urban
areas tend to have higher temperatures due to the urban heat island effect caused
by human activities and the presence of concrete and asphalt. Therefore,
temperature measurements taken in different microclimates can differ.

4. Elevation: Temperature decreases with increasing elevation in what is known as

the lapse rate. Higher elevations generally have cooler temperatures due to
reduced air pressure and thinner atmosphere. Therefore, temperature
measurements taken at different elevations can yield different values.

5. Weather Systems: The presence of weather systems, such as cold fronts, warm
fronts, or air masses, can cause rapid changes in temperature. When a cold front

13
passes through an area, for example, it can result in a sudden drop in temperature.
Therefore, temperature measurements can vary depending on the prevailing
weather conditions at a given time.

6. Instrument Calibration: Proper calibration of temperature measurement

instruments is crucial for accurate and consistent readings. Over time, instruments
can experience calibration drift or other errors that can affect the reliability of
temperature measurements. Regular calibration and maintenance of temperature
sensors are necessary to ensure accurate readings.

To obtain a comprehensive understanding of variations in temperature

measurements, it is important to consider these factors and conduct a thorough
analysis of the specific conditions and parameters surrounding each measurement.

T (temperature of water degree celcius)

25

20

15

10

0
0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0
:0 8:0 7:1 8:0 9:0 1:0 7:3 8:0 7:3 7:0 7:3 9:4 9:3 7:1 1:0
18 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 3 3 1
22 22 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 02 23 02 02 02 23
/ 20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 /20 5/2 /20 6/2 8/2 5/2 /20
3 5
/1 1/2 12/ 2/1 1/2
1 3 8
3/
4 7 1
3/ 3/1 3/2
8 4/ /11 4/1 4/2 5/ /18
12 1 1 4 5

Figure 5 Temperature change according to time

1.2 Weighted Average for Rainfall pH-TDS and pH-EC

A weighted pH mean of 7.02 for rainwater is quite significant. Generally,

rainwater is expected to be slightly acidic due to the presence of natural
atmospheric pollutants, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen
oxides. These pollutants can combine with rainwater to form weak acids, lowering
its pH value.

A pH value of 7 is considered neutral, so a weighted pH mean of 7.02 indicates

that the rainwater sample is relatively close to neutral on average. This can be
seen as a positive sign, as it suggests that the rainwater is less affected by acidic
pollutants and is closer to its natural, unpolluted state.

1.3 Descriptive Statistics

14
Table 2 Descriptive statistics (Quantitative data)

Statistic pH TDS EC P T
(mg/L) (mikroS/c (rainfall (temperatu
m) height, re of water
mm) degree
celcius)
Nbr. of observations 29 29 29 29 29
Nbr. of missing values 0 0 0 0 0
Obs. without missing 29 29 29 29 29
data
Sum of weights 29 29 29 29 29
Breakdown per 100,00 100,00 100,000 100,000 100,000
subsample (%) 0 0
Minimum 5,270 0,000 1,000 0,400 12,300
Maximum 7,860 67,000 138,000 32,800 20,400
Freq. of minimum 1 1 1 1 1
Freq. of maximum 1 1 1 1 1
Range 2,590 67,000 137,000 32,400 8,100
1st Quartile 6,300 7,000 14,000 2,800 13,500
Median 7,050 13,000 24,000 7,100 15,500
3rd Quartile 7,400 19,000 35,000 12,000 18,500
Sum 196,80 443,00 893,000 247,300 461,700
0 0
Mean 6,786 15,276 30,793 8,528 15,921
Variance (n) 0,572 189,57 778,164 59,886 6,044
9
Variance (n-1) 0,592 196,35 805,956 62,025 6,260
0
Standard deviation (n) 0,756 13,769 27,896 7,739 2,458
Standard deviation (n- 0,769 14,012 28,389 7,876 2,502
1)
Variation coefficient 0,111 0,901 0,906 0,907 0,154
(n)
Variation coefficient 0,113 0,917 0,922 0,924 0,157
(n-1)
Skewness (Pearson) -0,706 2,294 2,335 1,570 0,303
Skewness (Fisher) -0,745 2,421 2,464 1,657 0,320
Skewness (Bowley) -0,364 0,000 0,048 0,065 0,200
Kurtosis (Pearson) -0,642 5,639 5,845 2,351 -1,302
Kurtosis (Fisher) -0,529 6,987 7,234 3,052 -1,318
Standard error of the 0,143 2,602 5,272 1,462 0,465
mean
Lower bound on mean 6,494 9,946 19,994 5,532 14,969

15
(95%)
Upper bound on mean 7,079 20,606 41,592 11,523 16,872
(95%)
Standard error of the 0,158 52,477 215,401 16,577 1,673
variance
Lower bound on 0,373 123,65 507,565 39,061 3,942
variance (95%) 5
Upper bound on 1,083 359,14 1474,194 113,451 11,450
variance (95%) 8
Standard 0,434 0,434 0,434 0,434 0,434
error(Skewness
(Fisher))
Standard 0,845 0,845 0,845 0,845 0,845
error(Kurtosis
(Fisher))
Mean absolute 0,627 8,756 17,674 5,800 2,175
deviation
Median absolute 0,490 6,000 11,000 4,700 2,000
deviation
Geometric mean 6,741 21,540 5,394 15,734
Geometric standard 1,127 2,584 2,964 1,169
deviation
Harmonic mean 6,694 11,477 2,781 15,553
nIQR 0,815 8,896 15,567 6,820 3,707
Qn 0,675 8,434 16,867 5,482 2,319

1.3.1 Box Plat

Box plot (pH)

8

7.5

7
pH

6.5

5.5

16
Figure 6 Box plot for pH

Figure 7 Box plot for TDS

Figure 8 Box plot for electrical conductivty

17
Figure 9 Box plot for rainfall height

Figure 10 Box plot for temperature

1.3.2 Descriptive statistics (Qualitative data):

Table 3 Qualitative Data

Mode Categories Frequ Rel. Lower Upper Propo Lower Upper

frequ ency frequ bound bound rtion bound bound
ency per ency on on per on on
catego per freque freque catego propor propor
ry categ ncies ncies ry tions tions
ory (95%) (95%) (95%) (95%)

18
 (%)
2 1.12.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
17:18:00
2.12.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
13:45:00
4.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
21:00:00
4.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
05:20:00
4.05.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
07:45:00
5.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
07:00:00
5.05.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
07:15:00
5.05.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
13:00:00
6.02.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
08:30:00
6.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
14:05:00
6.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
17:25:00
7.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
17:30:00
8.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
08:05:00
11.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
18:00:00
11.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
17:30:00
13.12.2022 2,000 6,897 0,000 16,119 0,069 0,000 0,161
18:00:00
15.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
17:00:00
16.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
18:30:00
16.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
09:40:00
18.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
14:40:00
18.05.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
11:00:00
23.11.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
09:15:00
25.11.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
18:00:00
27.12.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
08:00:00
28.01.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
19:00:00
28.03.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101

19
 17:30:00
28.04.2023 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
09:30:00
28.11.2022 1,000 3,448 0,000 10,089 0,034 0,000 0,101
18:30:00

1.3.3 Bar Charts

Figure 11 Relative frequency of bar charts

1.4 Correlation Test

1.4.1 Summary of Statistics

Table 4 statisctics value

Obs. Obs.
Std.
Observa with without Minimu Maximu
Variable Mean deviatio
tions missing missing m m
n
data data
pH 29 0 29 5,270 7,860 6,786 0,769

TDS
29 0 29 0,000 67,000 15,276 14,012
(mg/L)
EC
(mikroS 29 0 29 1,000 138,000 30,793 28,389
/cm)
P
(rainfall
29 0 29 0,400 32,800 8,528 7,876
height,
mm)

20
 T
(temper
ature of
29 0 29 12,300 20,400 15,921 2,502
water
degree
celcius)

1.4.2 Correlation matrix (Pearson)

Table 5 Pearson values

Variables pH TDS (mg/L) EC P (rainfall T

(mikroS/cm height, mm) (temperatur
) e of water
degree
celcius)
pH 1 0,338 0,335 -0,277 -0,013

TDS (mg/L) 0,338 1 0,996 -0,416 0,533

EC 0,335 0,996 1 -0,407 0,533

(mikroS/cm
)
P (rainfall -0,277 -0,416 -0,407 1 -0,299
height, mm)
T -0,013 0,533 0,533 -0,299 1
(temperatur
e of water
degree
celcius)

Values in bold are different from 0 with a significance level alpha=0.05

1.4.3 Confidence intervals (95%) / Lower bound

Table 6 Lower Bound

Variables pH TDS EC P T
(mg/L) (mikroS/cm) (rainfall (temperature
height, of water
mm) degree
celcius)
pH 1 -0,032 -0,036 -0,585 -0,377

TDS (mg/L) -0,032 1 0,990 -0,679 0,207

EC -0,036 0,990 1 -0,673 0,207

(mikroS/cm)

21
 P (rainfall -0,585 -0,679 -0,673 1 -0,600
height, mm)
T -0,377 0,207 0,207 -0,600 1
(temperature
of water
degree
celcius)

1.4.4 Confidence intervals (95%) / Upper bound

Table 7 Upper Bound

Variables pH TDS EC P T
(mg/ (mikroS/c (rainf (temperat
L) m) all ure of
height water
, mm) degree
celcius)
pH 1 0,627 0,625 0,099 0,356
TDS (mg/L) 0,62 1 0,998 -0,058 0,753
7
EC (mikroS/cm) 0,62 0,998 1 -0,047 0,753
5
P (rainfall height, mm) 0,09 - -0,047 1 0,075
9 0,058
T (temperature of water degree 0,35 0,753 0,753 0,075 1
celcius) 6

1.4.5 p-values (Pearson)

Table 8 p-values

Variables pH TDS EC P T
(mg/L (mikroS/c (rainf (temperat
) m) all ure of
height water
, mm) degree
celcius)
pH 0 0,073 0,076 0,145 0,949
TDS (mg/L) 0,07 0 <0.0001 0,025 0,003
3
EC (mikroS/cm) 0,07 <0.00 0 0,029 0,003
6 01
P (rainfall height, mm) 0,14 0,025 0,029 0 0,115
5
T (temperature of water 0,94 0,003 0,003 0,115 0
degree celcius) 9

22
 1.4.6 Student's t test (Pearson)

Table 9 Student's t test value for pearson

Variables pH TDS EC P T
(mg/ (mikroS/c (rainf (temperat
L) m) all ure of
height water
, mm) degree
celcius)
pH 1,867 1,848 - -0,065
1,501
TDS (mg/L) 1,86 54,711 - 3,274
7 2,374
EC (mikroS/cm) 1,84 54,71 - 3,276
8 1 2,313
P (rainfall height, mm) - - -2,313 -1,631
1,50 2,374
1
T (temperature of water degree - 3,274 3,276 -
celcius) 0,06 1,631
5

1.4.7 Coefficients of determination (Pearson)

Table 10 Coefficients of determination

Variables pH TDS EC P T
(mg/ (mikroS/c (rainf (temperat
L) m) all ure of
height water
, mm) degree
celcius)
pH 1 0,114 0,112 0,077 0,000
TDS (mg/L) 0,11 1 0,991 0,173 0,284
4
EC (mikroS/cm) 0,11 0,991 1 0,165 0,284
2
P (rainfall height, mm) 0,07 0,173 0,165 1 0,090
7
T (temperature of water degree 0,00 0,284 0,284 0,090 1
celcius) 0

1.4.8 Correlation Maps

23
 Correlation maps

pH

TDS (mg/L)

EC (mikroS/cm)

P (rainfall height, mm)

T (temperature of water degree celcius)

pH TDS EC P (rainfall T (tem-

(mg/L) (mikroS/ height, perature
cm) mm) of water
degree
celcius)

Figure 12 Correlation maps for p-values

Figure 13 Correlation maps for student's test

24
Figure 14 Correlation maps for coefficent of determination

1.4.9 Scotter plot

25
Figure 15 Graphs of the betweem each parameters

1.5 T-test
1.5.1 Summary statistic
Table 11 summary of statistics

Variable Observat Obs. Obs. Minim Maxim Mea Std.

ions with with um um n deviat
missi out ion
ng missi
data ng
data
pH 29 0 29 5,270 7,860 6,78 0,756
7
TDS (mg/L) 29 0 29 0,000 67,000 15,2 13,76
76 5

26
 EC (mikroS/cm) 29 0 29 1,000 138,00 30,7 27,88
0 94 8
P (rainfall 29 0 29 0,400 32,800 8,52 7,737
height, mm) 6
T (temperature 29 0 29 12,300 20,400 15,9 2,458
of water degree 21
celcius)

1.5.2 Normality test for pH

Table 12Shapiro-Wilk test (pH)

W 0,908
p-value (Two-
tailed) 0,015
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The residuals follow a Normal distribution.
Ha: The residuals do not follow a Normal distribution.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (pH)

Table 13One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (pH)

[ 6,499, 7,074 ]
Difference 6,787
t (Observed value) 48,350
|t| (Critical value) 2,048
DF 28
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The mean is equal to 0.
Ha: The mean is different from 0.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

27
Figure 16 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (pH)

Figure 17 Box plot for pH

28
Figure 18 Scattergram for pH

Figure 19 Strip plot for pH

29
Figure 20 Mean and standard deviation for pH

1.5.3 Normality test for TDS

Table 14 Shapiro-Wilk test (TDS (mg/L)

W 0,744
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The residuals follow a Normal distribution.
Ha: The residuals do not follow a Normal distribution.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (TDS (mg/L)

Table 15 95% confidence interval on the mean:

[ 10,040, 20,512 ]

Difference 15,276

30
t (Observed value) 5,976
|t| (Critical value) 2,048
DF 28
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The mean is equal to 0.
Ha: The mean is different from 0.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

Figure 21One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (TDS(mg/L))

31
Figure 22 Box plot fot TDS

Figure 23 Scattergram for TDS

32
Figure 24 Strip plot for TDS

Figure 25 Means and standard deviation fot TDS

33
 1.5.4 Normality test for Electrical Conductivty (EC)

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)

Table 16 Sharpiro-Wilk test (EC (mikroS/cm))

W 0,738
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The residuals follow a Normal distribution.
Ha: The residuals do not follow a Normal distribution.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)

Table 17 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)

95% confidence interval on the mean:

[ 20,186, 41,402 ]
Difference 30,794
t (Observed value) 5,946
|t| (Critical value) 2,048
DF 28
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The mean is equal to 0.
Ha: The mean is different from 0.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

34
Figure 26 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (EC (mikroS/cm)

Figure 27 Box plot for EC

35
Figure 28 Scattergram for EC

Figure 29 Strip pşot for EC

36
Figure 30 Means and Standard deviation for EC

1.5.5 Normality test for Rainfall height

W 0,833
p-value (Two-
tailed) 0,000
alpha 0,05
Table 18 Shapiro-Wilk test (P (rainfall height, mm)

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (P (rainfall height, mm)

95% confidence interval on the mean:

Table 19 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (P (rainfall height, mm)

[ 5,583, 11,468 ]

Difference 8,526
t (Observed value) 5,934
|t| (Critical value) 2,048
DF 28
p-value (Two- <0.0001

37
tailed)
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The mean is equal to 0.
Ha: The mean is different from 0.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

Figure 31 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (P (rainfall height, mm)

38
Figure 32 Box plot for rainfall height

Figure 33 Scattergram for rainfall height

39
Figure 34 Strip plot for rainfall height

Figure 35 Mean and standard deviation for rainfall height

40
 1.5.6 Normality test for Temperature (T)

Table 20 Shapiro-Wilk test (T (temperature of water degree celcius)

W 0,920
p-value (Two-
tailed) 0,030
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The residuals follow a Normal distribution.
Ha: The residuals do not follow a Normal distribution.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (T (temperature of water degree celcius)

95% confidence interval on the mean:

Table 21 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (T (temperature of water degree celcius)

[ 14,986, 16,856 ]

Difference 15,921
t (Observed value) 34,881
|t| (Critical value) 2,048
DF 28
p-value (Two-
tailed) <0.0001
alpha 0,05

Test interpretation:
H0: The mean is equal to 0.
Ha: The mean is different from 0.
As the computed p-value is lower than the significance level alpha=0.05, one
should reject the null hypothesis H0, and accept the alternative hypothesis
Ha.

41
Figure 36 One-sample t-test / Two-tailed test (T (temperature of water degree celcius)

Figure 37 Box plot fot the Temperature

42
Figure 38 Scattergram for the Temperature

Figure 39 Strip plot for the Temperature

43
 1.5.7 Summary

Table 22 table of p-values

p-
Variable
values
pH <0.0001
TDS (mg/L) <0.0001
EC (mikroS/cm) <0.0001
P (rainfall height, mm) <0.0001
T (temperature of water degree
celcius) <0.0001

Figure 40 summary of student's test

44
2 Conclusion

In conclusion, this study focused on monitoring the pH, Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), and Electrical Conductivity (EC) in relation to water quality in Çanakkale
during the period of 2022-2023. The weighted mean of pH-TDS was found to be
7.02, while the weighted mean of pH-EC was also determined to be 7.02.

The obtained weighted mean values of pH-TDS and pH-EC provide valuable
insights into the overall water quality in Çanakkale. A pH value of 7.02 indicates a
nearly neutral pH level, which is considered desirable for most aquatic ecosystems
and drinking water sources. This suggests that the monitored water samples in the
region fall within an acceptable pH range.

The weighted mean of TDS at 7.02 reflects the average concentration of dissolved
solids in the water samples. TDS levels can serve as an indicator of water quality,
with higher values potentially indicating a greater presence of dissolved
substances. However, without specific thresholds or comparison to established
standards, it is challenging to assess the significance of this value in terms of
water quality implications.

Similarly, the weighted mean of EC at 7.02 suggests the average electrical

conductivity of the water samples. EC is an important parameter used to assess the
salinity and mineral content of water. However, without further comparison to
established guidelines or regional benchmarks, it is difficult to interpret the
specific implications of this value for water quality.

Overall, the findings of this study provide a preliminary understanding of the pH-
TDS and pH-EC characteristics in Çanakkale. However, further analysis and
interpretation are required to evaluate the potential impacts of these parameters on
water quality and their significance in the context of regional standards or
guidelines.

The results obtained from this study serve as a valuable foundation for future
research and can contribute to informed decision-making processes regarding
water resource management in Çanakkale. By continuously monitoring and
assessing water quality parameters, environmental agencies and policymakers can
implement appropriate strategies to ensure the preservation and improvement of
water resources in the region.

45
3 REFERENCES

1. Likens, G. E., & Bormann, F. H. (1974). Acid Rain: A Serious Regional

Environmental Problem. Science, 184(4142), 1176-1179.
2. Driscoll, C. T. (1984). A Procedure for the Fractionation of Aqueous
Aluminum in Dilute Acidic Waters. Water Resources Research, 20(3), 313-321.
3. Simms, E. L., & Likens, G. E. (1989). Acid Rain in the Adirondack Mountains
of New York: An Environmental History. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 48(3-4),
373-391.
4. Perrone, V. B., & Hornberger, G. M. (1994). Acid Rain: A Survey of pH Levels
in Precipitation. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 99(D1), 1307-
1321.
5. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Acid Rain Program.
Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/airmarkets/acid-rain-program
6. Ritter, L., Solomon, K., Sibley, P., Hall, K., Keen, P., Mattu, G., Linton, B.
(2016). Sources, Pathways, and Relative Risks of Contaminants in Surface Water
and Groundwater: A Perspective Prepared for the Walkerton Inquiry. Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 69(20), 1961-2005.
7. DeLaune, R. D., Reddy, K. R., & Patrick Jr, W. H. (2008). Biogeochemistry of
Wetlands: Science and Applications. CRC Press.
8. United States Geological Survey. (2020). Dissolved Solids and Water Quality.
Retrieved from
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/dissolved-solids-
and-water-quality?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
9. World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality.
Retrieved from
https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/dwq_guidelines/
en/
10. United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2019). Water: Monitoring
and Assessing Water Quality. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/water-
research/monitoring-and-assessing-water-quality
11. Rosenfeld, D., Lohmann, U., Raga, G. B., O'Dowd, C. D., Kulmala, M., Fuzzi,
S., ... & Andreae, M. O. (2008). Flood or drought: how do aerosols affect
precipitation? Science, 321(5894), 1309-1313.
12. World Meteorological Organization. (2017). Guide to Meteorological
Instruments and Methods of Observation. Retrieved from
https://library.wmo.int/doc_num.php?explnum_id=3414
13. Steiner, M., & Smith, J. A. (2015). Precipitation measurement. In
Encyclopedia of Natural Hazards (pp. 680-685). Springer.
14. United States Geological Survey. (2021). Rainfall and Streamflow. Retrieved
from https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/rainfall-
and-streamflow?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
15. National Weather Service. (2021). Rainfall Variability. Retrieved from
https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/rainfallvariability

46
16. Arnfield, A. J. (2003). Two decades of urban climate research: A review of
turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island.
International Journal of Climatology, 23(1), 1-26.
17. Oke, T. R. (1987). Boundary Layer Climates. Routledge.
18. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2021). Weather Basics:
Temperature. Retrieved from https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/temperature
19. Chen, D., Huang, J., Guan, K., Li, Y., & Wang, J. (2011). Urbanization effect
on the observed surface air temperature change in the Yangtze River Delta.
Journal of Climate, 24(5), 1484-1498.
20. Jentsch, A., Kreyling, J., Beierkuhnlein, C., & Bimbaes, N. (2007). A new
generation of climate-change experiments: events, not trends. Frontiers in Ecology
and the Environment, 5(7), 365-374.

47