Acta Geophysica

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-023-01185-3

RESEARCH ARTICLE - APPLIED GEOPHYSICS

An effective edge detection technique for subsurface structural

mapping from potential field data
Luan Thanh Pham1 · Hao Van Duong2 · Thong Kieu Duy3 · Saulo Pomponet Oliveira4 · Giau Manh Lai5 ·
Thanh Minh Bui5 · Erdinc Oksum6

Received: 7 March 2023 / Accepted: 29 August 2023

© The Author(s) under exclusive licence to Institute of Geophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences & Polish Academy of Sciences 2023

Abstract
Improving the horizontal boundaries of subsurface geological structures is one of the main objectives in interpreting potential
fields. To solve this problem, a number of different algorithms have been introduced based on the derivatives of the field.
However, these algorithms have some drawbacks, e.g., the determined edges do not match the actual boundaries. Here, we
present a new algorithm based on the gradient amplitude and its derivatives which yields more precise and clear bounda-
ries. The robustness of the proposed technique is illustrated using theoretical examples and a real example from Kon Tum
province, Vietnam. Our results show that the proposed technique can produce results with better resolution and minimizes
the artifacts in the pseudo-boundary map.

Keywords Boundary detection · Potential field data · Horizontal gradient amplitude · Kon Tum province

Introduction geologic structures through interpreting potential field

anomalies (Ansari and Alamdar 2011; Ekinci et al. 2013,
Interpretation of potential field data provides important 2015; Pal et al. 2016; Narayan et al. 2017, 2021; Kheyrol-
information on unexposed geological structures. In com- lahi et al. 2021; Eldosouky et al. 2021; Sahoo et al. 2022a,
parison to other geophysical methods, potential field meth- b, c; Altınoğlu and Polat 2022; Kamto et al. 2023; Pham and
ods are less expensive and have a broader coverage. The Prasad 2023). Numerous algorithms have been introduced
boundary detection filters have been widely used to map to extract borders, mainly based on derivatives of anomalies
(Kumar et al. 2018, 2020; Eldosouky et al. 2022). Cordell
and Grauch (1985) have located the edges using gradient
Edited by Prof. Ivana Vasiljević (ASSOCIATE EDITOR) / Prof. amplitude (THG). The THG of the field F is expressed as:
Gabriela Fernández Viejo (CO-EDITOR-IN-CHIEF). √
( )2 ( ) 2
* Luan Thanh Pham
𝜕F 𝜕F (1)
THG = + .
luanpt@hus.edu.vn 𝜕x 𝜕y
1
Faculty of Physics, University of Science, Vietnam National Roest et al. (1992) used the analytic signal (AS) peaks to
University, Hanoi, Vietnam map the source boundaries. The AS is defined as:
2
VNU School of Interdisciplinary Studies, Vietnam National √
University, Hanoi, Vietnam ( )2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2
𝜕F 𝜕F 𝜕F (2)
3
Geophysics Department, Hanoi University of Mining AS = + + .
𝜕x 𝜕y 𝜕z
and Geology, Hanoi, Vietnam
4
Department of Mathematics and Graduate Program The disadvantage of these techniques is that they perform
in Geology, Federal University of Parana´, Curitiba, PR, poorly in localizing the deep boundaries (Saibi et al. 2012;
Brazil
2016; Pham et al. 2023). Many normalized techniques have
5
Union of Geophysics, 95 Chien Thang, Ha Dong, Hanoi, been introduced as a function of the ratio of derivatives to
Vietnam
map all boundaries of shallow and deep structures. The tilt
6
Department of Geophysical Engineering, Süleyman Demirel derivative (TDR) is the first normalized technique presented
University, Engineering Faculty, 32260 Isparta, Turkey

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 Acta Geophysica

√
by Miller and Singh (1994). In this technique, the vertical ( )2 ( )2
derivative is normalized by its THG: 𝜕STDR 𝜕STDR (9)
THGSTDR = + .
𝜕x 𝜕y
𝜕F

TDR = a tan √ . Although the normalized techniques can map both the
𝜕z
( )2 ( )2 (3) deep and shallow sources, they tend to produce artificial
𝜕F 𝜕F
𝜕x
+ 𝜕y boundaries (Ghomsi et al. 2022; Pham et al. 2022).
Apart from the above methods, several different methods
Verduzco et al. (2004) employed the peaks of the THG of were also presented in the literature (e.g., Oruc 2011; Yuan
the TDR (THGTDR) to depict the edges more clearly. The and Yu 2014; Nasuti and Nasuti 2018; Pham et al. 2019,
method is given by: 2021a; Ibraheem et al. 2021; Kafadar 2022, Prasad et al.
√ 2022a, 2022b, 2022c; Jorge et al. 2023) to map the edges of
( ) ( )2
THGTDR =
𝜕TDR 2
+
𝜕TDR
. (4) subsurface structures.
𝜕x 𝜕y This study aims to develop a new normalized filter
derived from THG derivatives to map the source edges with
The Theta technique by Wijns et al. (2005) normalizes the more resolution and less artifacts. We successfully demon-
THG by the AS. The detector provides the maxima over the strated the application of the presented filter on theoreti-
source boundaries and is expressed as: cal models and a real dataset from the Kon Tum province
√( ) ( ) located in Vietnam.
2 2
𝜕F 𝜕F
+
𝜕x 𝜕y (5)
Theta = a cos .
|AS| New method
Ma et al. (2016) proposed the improved horizontal tilt
angle (ITDX), namely the normalization of the THG of the To improve the applicability of the THG technique in
vertical derivative by the modulus of the second-order verti- extracting the borders of sources, Ferreira et al. (2013) intro-
cal derivative. The filter is calculated as: duced the tilt angle of the THG (TAHG) that is defined as
√( follows:
) 2( ) 2
𝜕2 F 𝜕2 F 𝜕THG
+
(6)
𝜕z𝜕x 𝜕z𝜕y 𝜕z
ITDX = a tan . TAHG = a tan √ .
| 𝜕2 F | ( )2 ( )2 (10)
| 𝜕z2 | 𝜕THG 𝜕THG
| | 𝜕x
+ 𝜕y

The denominator of Eq. 6 is calculated using the Laplace

The TAHG provides more reliable source boundary infor-
equation to reduce the noise effect.
mation than conventional methods and is therefore recom-
𝜕2F 𝜕2F 𝜕2F mended for mapping geologic structures from potential
= − − 2 (7) fields (Pham et al. 2021b, c). Here, we follow Ferreira et al.
𝜕z2 𝜕x2 𝜕y
(2013) and use a different combination of derivatives of the
Another normalized method is proposed by Nasuti et al. THG to create another THG enhancement, THGED, which
(2019), known as the normalization of the second vertical is defined as:
gradient by the gradient amplitude of the THG (STDR). The √(
method is defined as: ) ( ) 2 2
𝜕THG 𝜕THG 𝜕THG
𝜕z
− 𝜕x
+ 𝜕y
𝜕2 F THGED = a tan √ . (11)
M× 𝜕z2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2
STDR = a tan √ , 𝜕THG 𝜕THG 𝜕THG
( )2 ( )2 (8) 𝜕x
+ 𝜕y
+ 𝜕z
𝜕THG 𝜕THG
𝜕x
+ 𝜕y
The main target of the proposed technique is to provide
where M is a parameter chosen by the user. Here, we used locations of abrupt changes of density or magnetization.
M = 900.000 for gravity data and M = 50.000 for magnetic Similar to the TAHG filter, the peaks of the THGED show
data, as recommended by Nasuti et al. (2019). They also the boundaries of the anomalous bodies. The greatest advan-
showed that the THG of the STDR is an effective processing tage of the THGED is to provide the edges with great preci-
tool for highlighting the source boundaries: sion and sharpness. The resolution of the THGED result

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Acta Geophysica

Fig. 1  a 3D and b plan views of the gravity model, and c its corresponding gravity anomaly. Dashed lines indicate the real edges. Gray line in c
presents a profile over the model

does not depend on a parameter that is chosen by the user as where c1, …, c5 are given by:
the recent high resolution methods. Because the THGED is � �
determined by the ratio of gradients of the THG, it enables to ⎧ c1 = 2𝛽 3 + 15𝛽 2 + 35𝛽 + 25 ∕12,
⎪ � �
map the boundaries of deep sources more clearly compared ⎪ c2 = −8𝛽 3 − 54𝛽 2 − 104𝛽 − 48 ∕12,
to the THG. In this work, the horizontal gradients are calcu- ⎪ � �
lated in the spatial domain using finite differences, while the ⎨ c3 = 12𝛽 3 + 72𝛽 2 + 114𝛽 + 36 ∕12, (13)
⎪ � �
vertical derivatives are calculated using the β-VDR approach ⎪ c4 = −8𝛽 3 − 42𝛽 2 − 56𝛽 − 16 ∕12,
⎪c � �
of Oliveira and Pham (2022), which uses a finite difference = 2𝛽 3 + 9𝛽 2 + 11𝛽 + 3 ∕12,
⎩ 5
formula to attenuate the noise effects:
( )
𝜕THG and THG hi is the data upward-continued to
𝜕z
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) hi = z0 − 𝛽Δh − (i − 1)Δh with z0 is the height of the
c1 THG h1 + c2 THG h2 + c3 THG h3 + c4 THG h4 + c5 THG h5
= ,
Δh
(12)

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Fig. 2  Enhanced maps of data in Fig. 1c a THG, b AS, c TDR, d THGTDR, e Theta, f TAHG, g ITDX, h THGSTDR, i THGED. Dashed lines
indicate the real edges
observation plane, Δh = 1∕ 10 of grid spacing and 𝛽 = 30
(Oliveira and Pham 2022).
In the next sections, the performance of the presented
technique is estimated by comparing its outputs with those
calculated by other detectors such as the THG, AS, TDR,
THGTDR, Theta, ITDX, TAHG, and THGSTDR.
Synthetic examples
The validity of the present technique is examined on syn-
thetic gravity data and on noise-free and noisy synthetic
magnetic anomalies.
The first example is a gravity anomaly pattern of two pris-
matic model sources. Figure 1 presents the perspective and
plan views of the bodies. The prisms have the same size of
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50 × 140 × 4 ­km3 with the tops of the G1 and G2 sources at
depths of 4 km and 8 km, respectively. The density contrasts
of the sources G1 and G2 are 0.3 and − 0.3 kg/m3, respec-
tively. The gravity anomalies of these prisms were calculated
at 201 × 201 observation points with 1 km sampling interval
by the algorithm of Rao et al. (1990) (Fig. 1c). Figure 2a
presents the edges extracted by applying the THG detector
to the anomaly in Fig. 1c. One can notice from this figure
that the large amplitude response of the shallow source G1
dominates the THG map, and the boundaries of the deeper
source G2 have very low resolution. Figure 2b presents the
AS of the gravity anomaly in Fig. 1c. The AS anomalies
clearly enhance anomalies caused by the shallow body G1,
while the outlined edges of the deeper body G2 is blurred.
Figure 2c displays the TDR anomalies of gravimetric anom-
aly in Fig. 1c. Clearly, the TDR does not provide a sharp
gradient over the boundaries, and its maxima and minima
Acta Geophysica

Fig. 3  A 2-D cross section (Fig. 1c) constructed from the model a gravity anomaly, b THG, c AS, d TDR, e THGTDR, f Theta, g TAHG,
h ITDX, i THGSTDR, j THGED

Table 1  Geometric and Parameters/Model label M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7

magnetic attributes of the
magnetic model x-coordinates of center (km) 35 60 130 130 40 100 160
y-coordinates of center (km) 130 130 130 130 40 40 40
Width (km) 6 6 26 80 40 40 40
Length (km) 100 100 26 80 40 40 40
Top depth (km) 3 5 5 7 4 7 9
Bottom depth (km) 5 7 7 11 7 10 13
Declination (°) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Inclination (°) 90 90 90 90 90 90 90
Magnetization (A/m) 1 −1 1.2 2 2 −2 2

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Fig. 4  a 3D and b plan views of the magnetic model, and c its corresponding magnetic anomaly, d noisy magnetic anomaly. Dashed lines indi-
cate the real edges
are located over the centers of the bodies. Figure 2d displays
the boundaries detected by the THGTDR technique. One
can notice that the responses from the shallower source G1
dominate the THGTDR map, and the determined boundaries
of the deep source G2 are faint. In addition, the THGTDR
produces false edge information between the sources. Fig-
ure 2e depicts the edges detected by applying the Theta
detector to gravimetric data in Fig. 1c. Although this detec-
tor can map all the edges of the sources, it generates false
edge information between the structures, and the obtained
borders are diffuse. Figure 2f presents the edges estimated
by the TAHG. Clearly, the technique can simultaneously
map the edges located at different depths. Although TAHG
is an effective tool to map all edges, the resulting edge image
presents a low resolution. Figure 2g presents the boundaries
computed by applying the ITDX detector to gravimetric data
in Fig. 1c. As depicted in this figure, the ITDX provides
a high-resolution representation of the edges, but creates
a false border between the sources. Figure 2h depicts the
edges obtained by the THGSTDR technique. Although the
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THGSTDR shows sharp boundaries for the anomalies, it
also brings false boundary between the bodies. Figure 2i
presents the edges outlined by the THGED. Like the ITDX
and THGSTDR, the THGED can provide edges in higher
resolution compared to the THG, AS, TDR, THGTDR,
Theta and TAHG methods. The proposed method, however,
can map all source boundaries without artificial boundaries,
in contrast to ITDX and THGSTDR.
A 2-D cross section was constructed from the first
model in order to help visualize the efficacy of the meth-
ods (Fig. 1c). Figure 3a shows the magnetic anomaly of the
profile. Figures 3b–j show the THG, AS, TDR, THGTDR,
Theta, TAHG, ITDX, THGSTDR and THGED. Since the
TDR, THGTDR, Theta, ITDX and THGSTDR locate the
edges based on the zero values of the vertical derivatives
that also can yield zero values outside the structures, they
produce artifacts in edge maps. Both the TAHG and THGED
can map all the edges without false information. Although
these techniques are not dominated by the large signals
Acta Geophysica
Fig. 5  Enhanced maps of the data in Fig. 4c a THG, b AS, c TDR, d THGTDR, e Theta, f TAHG, g ITDX, h THGSTDR, i THGED. Dashed
lines indicate the real edges
responded from the body G1, the THGED can provide
sharper responses over the edges.
The second example includes two thin dykes at differ-
ent depths (M1 and M2), two overlapping sources (M3 and
M4), and three sources having the same size, but located
at different positions (M5, M6 and M7). The properties
of the sources are presented in Table 1. The perspective
and plan views of the sources are presented in Fig. 4a
and b. Figure 4c presents the magnetic anomaly of these
sources, which is calculated at a square grid with cell size
of 1 × 1 km using the Rao and Babu (1991) algorithm.
Here, we applied the same edge detection filters used in
the previous example to the magnetic anomaly in Fig. 4c.
Figures 5a and b depict the THG and AS results, respec-
tively. We can see that the large signals responded from
the shallow bodies M1 and M5 dominate the THG and
AS maps, and the determined boundaries of the deeper
bodies are blurred. Figure 5c presents the edge map of the
TDR method. Although the lateral edges are determined
by zero values of the TDR, this method brings some spuri-
ous edges around the sources M2, M3 and M6. Figure 5d
presents the result calculated by the THGTDR technique.
It can be seen that this technique does not yield a clear
image for the edges, and it also brings some spurious
edges around the sources M2, M3 and M6. Figure 5e shows
the result calculated from the Theta technique. Although
the technique is more effective than the THG, AS, TDR
and THGTDR in providing a clear image for the edges,
it yields spurious peaks around the structures M2, M3
and M6. Figure 5f depicts the edges determined by the
TAHG technique. This method can extract all the source
edges without false boundaries, but the edge images in
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Fig. 6  Enhanced maps of the data in Fig. 4d a THG, b AS, c TDR, d THGTDR, e Theta, f TAHG, g ITDX, h THGSTDR, i THGED. Dashed
lines indicate the real edges
the TAHG map are diffuse. Figures 5g and h depict the
estimated boundaries by the ITDX and THGSTDR filters,
respectively. These results showed that both techniques
are more effective than the THG, AS, TDR, THGTDR,
Theta and TAHG in providing sharp gradients over the
boundaries. However, we can note in both Figures 5g and
h the presence of spurious peaks around the sources M1,
M3, M4, M5 and M6, as well as above the sources M3, M5
and M6. Figure 5i presents the edges highlighted by the
THGED. Similar to the TAHG detector, the THGED can
map all the edges, and avoid yielding false edges. How-
ever, it can provide clearer edges compared to the TAHG
detector. The result also confirms that the proposed tech-
nique is less sensitive to the body depths.
In the third example, the sensitivity of the proposed
technique and the others to noise was tested by mapping
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the edges of the magnetic model with the noise present in
the observed anomaly (Fig. 4d). This noise is of Gaussian
type with amplitude of 5% of the anomaly amplitude to
anomalies in Fig. 4c. Figures 6a and b depict the bounda-
ries obtained from the THG and AS methods, respec-
tively. Since the THG method only requires the horizontal
gradients of magnetic data, it is less susceptible to noise
than the AS technique, as reported by Saibi et al. (2019).
However, both techniques are again dominated by the
large signals responded from the shallow bodies M1 and
M5. Figures 6c and d depict anomalies calculated from
the TDR and THGTDR techniques, respectively. As the
THGTDR method is determined from gradients of the
TDR, it is more affected by noise than the TDR. While
the TDR can provide a balanced image for all structures,
the THGTDR is dominated by the large signals responded
Acta Geophysica
Fig. 7  Geological map
from the shallower structures M1, M2, M3 and M5. More-
over, both methods bring false edge information around
the sources M2, M3 and M6. Figures 6e and f present
the edges extracted from the Theta and TAHG methods,
respectively. These methods are effective in generat-
ing balanced images for the source edges. However, the
boundaries in the Theta and TAHG maps are diffuse.
In addition, the Theta detector generates false borders
around the structures M2, M3 and M6. Figures 6g and
h display the boundaries obtained from the ITDX and
THGSTDR techniques, respectively. As depicted in these
figures, the ITDX and THGSTDR techniques are more
susceptible to noise than the other techniques. The reason
is that these detectors are based on the second vertical
gradient of data. Figure 6i presents the edges detected by
the proposed technique THGED. It is noteworthy that the
THGED can clearly determine all the edges in the pres-
ence of random noise. The THGED is less susceptible
to noise than the ITDX and THGSTDR methods, and it
does not yield false edges around or above the sources.
In this case, the THGED still yields the edge images with
a high resolution.
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Fig. 8  a Bouguer gravity anomaly from the Kon Tum province, b Bouguer gravity anomaly subjected to an upward continuation of 500 m
Real example
The practical applicability of the presented technique
THGED was tested by mapping the structural boundaries
from real Bouguer gravity anomalies of the Kon Tum prov-
ince, Vietnam.
Figure 7 displays the geology map of the area. The pre-
Proterozoic formation is dominating in middle and north-
western of the area. Its components include the garnet-
cordierite-sillimanite-biotite gneiss, cordierite sillimanite
crystalline schist, marble, calciphyre and quartzite. In the
pre-Proterozoic formation has Proterozoic intrusive for-
mation of gabbro amphibolite. From East-North to West-
South, there are trias and latter trias formations which
include granite, granosyenite and granite, porphyritic
granosyenite, two-mica granite, biotite granite, aplite
granite dyke, porphyritic granite dyke, gabbro-diabase,
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and diabase dykes. The later formations such as the pre-
Pleistocene and Pleistocene distribute in the Western
and East-Southern parts which include tholeiitic basalt,
olivine basalt and sand, silt, clay, cobble, pebble, respec-
tively. Quaternary volcanism is generally observed in the
western plateau and in the area (Huong et al. 2023). Both
pleistocene and quaternary formations exist along the
river valleys, therein the quaternary have sand, silt, clay,
kaolinite and laterite compose. The study area exists with
three fault systems which include East–North to West-
South in the whole area, North–South in the left and the
additional fault system in West–North to East–South of
the area.
Figure 8a presents the Bouguer gravity anomaly of
the Kon Tum province with grid interval of 200 × 200 m,
which was acquired in 2001 by the Department of Geol-
ogy and Minerals of Vietnam, and all corrections were
performed by them. To attenuate the effects of noise, we
Acta Geophysica

Fig. 9  Enhanced maps of the data in Fig. 7b a THG, b AS, c TDR, d THGTDR, e Theta, f TAHG, g ITDX, h THGSTDR, i THGED

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Fig. 10  Lineaments/geological contacts (black lines) extracted by the THGED with geological structures
applied a 0.5 km upward continuation to the Bouguer
anomaly before applying the methods (Fig. 8b). As
shown in Fig. 8b, the use of an upward continuation of
0.5 km produced a smoother map but did not change the
primary shapes of the field. In this case, we also com-
pared the result of the proposed technique THGED with
those determined by other techniques. Figure 9a presents
the THG map of the gravimetric anomaly in Fig. 8b. As
depicted in this figure, the THG does not yield a clear
image for structural configuration of the Kon Tum region.
Only some faint boundaries are observed in the THG map.
Figure 9b presents the AS map of the gravimetric anom-
aly in Fig. 8b. It is apparent that the AS is dominated by
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some transformed anomalies with large amplitudes, thus
is also unable to produce a clear image of the structures
of the study region. Figure 9c depicts the edge image
determined from using the TDR. The method provides a
balanced image for structures, but sharp signals are not
observed in the TDR map. Figure 9d presents the result of
the THGTDR, which outlines the boundaries by the peaks
rather than the zero contours. We can see that the edges
extracted from this technique are faint and discontinu-
ous. Figure 9e presents the edges estimated by the Theta.
Although the peaks in the Theta map are represented by
the same amplitude, these peaks are connected, that an
exact mapping of structures becomes difficult. In addition,
Acta Geophysica
as shown in the theoretical examples, the Theta technique
yields false boundaries around the sources, making real
geological structures difficult to determine. Figure 9f
exhibits the edges estimated by the TAHG. Although the
TAHG can well equalize the anomalies having different
amplitudes, the edges in the TAHG map appear with a
low resolution. Figures 9g and h exhibit the boundaries
obtained from applying the ITDX and THGSTDR detec-
tors to data in Fig. 8b, respectively. We can see that the
results in the ITDX and THGSTDR maps are quite similar.
Although the ITDX and THGSTDR methods show sharp
transformed signals for the anomalies, they also bring
false edges around and above the sources, as shown in the
synthetic studies. Moreover, these peaks in the ITDX and
THGSTDR maps are linked, thus it is not straightforward
to identify geological boundaries in the study area. In this
case, the ITDX and THGSTDR methods also enhanced
the noise in gravity data, leading to a complex image of
the structures. Figure 9i exhibits the result of applying
the proposed method THGED. As demonstrated in the
theoretical examples, the THGED can map all the edges,
and is less sensitive to the source depths. In addition, the
proposed technique THGED yields a higher resolution
image without any false edges. Figure 10 presents line-
aments/geological contacts (black lines) extracted from
the THGED and geology maps of the Kon Tum. One can
see that the THGED is helpful in extracting a wide range
of structures in the Kon Tum. The maxima of the THGED
show a good correlation with the boundaries of the trias
and pre-Proterozoic formations and some faults in the
geology map (Fig. 10). Beyond the identified boundaries,
other boundaries have been mapped, demonstrating the
performance of the TAED in enhancing geological discon-
tinuity zones. Since the use of the proposed method can
extract subsurface geological bodies, the new boundaries
may relate to deeper structures, which have not been map
ped.
Conclusions
An improved version of the THG technique (THGED),
namely the inverse tangent of the ratio between the gra-
dients of the THG, has been introduced for more pre-
cisely locating the source edges. The proposed technique
was demonstrated on theoretical gravimetric and mag-
netic anomalies, also real gravity data from the Kon Tum
(Vietnam). In comparison to other methods, the THGED
technique can highlight the edges of potential field data
with higher precision and resolution, avoiding false edges
and highlighting both shallow and deep sources. The pro-
posed technique uses high-order derivatives, but a suit-
able calculation of these derivatives render the method
less sensitive to noise, as shown in the synthetic example.
In addition, the results in the synthetic example also show
that the proposed technique can determine superimposed
sources more clearly compared to other techniques.
Acknowledgements This study was supported by Ministry of Natu-
ral Resources and Environment, Vietnam under Grant Agreement No:
TNMT.2022.02.20, and by National Council of Technological and
Scientific Development, Brazil, Process 316376/2021-3. Luan Thanh
Pham was funded by Vingroup JSC and supported by the Postdoctoral
Scholarship Programme of Vingroup Innovation Foundation (VINIF),
Vingroup Big Data Institute (VinBigdata), code VINIF.2022.STS.43.
Declarations
Conflict of interest No potential conflict of interest.
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