JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH, VOL. 101, NO.

B8, PAGES 17,507-17,521, AUGUST 10, 1996

Acoustic emission,microstructure, and damage model

of dry and wet sandstonestressedto failure

Arno Zang, ChristianF. Wagner,andGeorgDresen

GeoForschungsZentmm,
Potsdam,Germany

Abstract. Twenty-threeuniaxialcompression testswereperformedon dry andwet Flechtingen

sandstone from Germany.Compressive strengthof wet coreis 60% of the strengthof dry core.
Beforefracture,the transverse P wavespeeddropsby 13% andthepulseamplitudeby 22% for
wet and37% for dry cores.Accumulatedstrainenergydoublesfor dry core.Acousticemissions
(AE) aredetectedwith 10 sensors for 19 cores.AE activitystartsat 84% of the fracturestrength
of wet cores(55 MPa) andat 91% of the strengthof dry cores(87 MPa). The ratio of locatedto
recorded AE is 0.37 for dry and0.13 for fully wet cores.AE hypocenter patternsdocument the
development of two oppositefracturecones.The negativeslopeof cumulativeAE-amplitude
frequencydistributiondropsby 50% beforefailurein dry cores.The slopeof thewet coredrops
andrecovers.Energydiscriminationof AE detectedby a broadbandsensorresolvesdifferent
stagesof damageandcapturesthe onsetof the dilatantthroughgoing macrofracture.Usingthe
analogyto visiblelight microfracturingeventsare separated into high-energyshortpulses(blue
AE) andlow-energypulseswith longdurationtimes(redAE). BlueAE areexplainedby intra-
granulargrainbreakage,redAE by multiplestickslipon crackplanesor grainboundaries.
Deformedcoresshowhighlyfracturedcalcitecementandmostlyintactquartzgrains.The
stochasticdamagemodelfor brittlecomposites developed highlightsthatmicrofracturingof the
sandstone is controlledby theamountanddistribution of theweakmineral(calcite).

Introduction mechanism solution. The studies are concerned with deformed

Acousticemissions(AE) are elasticallyradiated waves dryrock [Nishizawaet al., 1985;Hirata et al., 1987;Keppler
et al., 1988; Satohet al., 1990; Kusunoseet al., 1991; Lockner
generatedby the rapid releaseof mechanicalenergywithin a
material.The energyreleaseis causedby irregularstructural et al., 1992a],with fluid-injected-hydrofractured rock [Kranz
movementslike microfracturing,dislocationslip, or phase et al., 1990; Masuda et al., 1990;Masuda et al., 1993] and
thermallycycledrock [Falls et al., 1992;Jansenet al., 1993;
transition. While the first AE study in material science
discussed the "clicks"whichoccurduringa phasetransitionin Young,1993]. Eventstatisticscommonlyincludecumulative
steel [Forster and Scheil, 1936], the first AE study in number of AE, rate of occurrence, and amplitudefrequency
geologicalscienceused"subaudible noise"for predictingrock distribution [Mogi, 1962b; Scholz, 1968]. Recent event
bursts in mines [Obert, 1941]. AE history was recently statistics have focused on the evolution of the amplitude
reviewedfrom a materialscienceviewpoint[Scott,1991] and frequencydistributionof AE with stress[Main et al., 1990;
also for earth scienes[Lockner, 1993]. AE studiesutilize Meredith et al., 1990] and on the searchof AE damage
hypocenter mapping,eventstatistics,andfocal mechanisms to precursors [Holcombet al., 1990; Locknerand Byerlee, 1995;
investigatecrack formation, damage precursor,and failure Main et al., 1992]. Crackmodelsdescribing brittlerock failure
modes of rock. AE research is motivated in earth sciences [McClintockand Walsh, 1962; Brace and Bombolakis,1963;
Sammisand Ashby, 1986; Ashby and Sammis,1990; Lockner
since similar processesare thought to operate in rock
microfracturingand the formation of earthquakeruptures andMadden,1991a,b] are linkedto resultsobtainedfrom AE
[Mogi, 1962a]. experiments[Cox and Meredith, 1993; Rechesand Lockner,
Early sourcelocationstudieswere basedon few waveform 1994;Hori andMaro, 1995].
data [Mogi, 1968; Byerlee and Lockner, 1977; Locknerand In this paper we analyze and characterizethe fracture
Byeflee,1980]. Later, hypocentermappingtook advantageof process of dry and wet stressedsandstone basedon elasticAE
full waveform data stored in transient memories [e.g., wave parameters such as amplitude, duration time, pulse
Sondergeldand Estey, 1981; Lockner et al. 1991; Lockner and energyand the crosscorrelationof thesewaveletparameters.
Byerlee, 1995]. Recentstudiesfocuson the determinationof Full waveformanalysisof signalsfrom a broadbandsensor
AE hypocentersin space and time with complete focal combinedwith conventional hypocentermappingand event
statistics
areusedto gainsomenewinsightsinto the complex
process of crackdamageevolutionin poroussedimentary rock.
Copyright1996 by theAmericanGeophysical
Union.
The stochasticdamagemodel developedincorporatesthe
Papernumber96JB01189. differentstrengthvaluesof rock mineralsneglectedin previ-
0148-0227/96/9 6JB-01189 $09.00 ous models.

17,507
17,508 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND •VET SANDSTONE FAILURE

Experimental Technique (MarcoGmbH,Hermsdorf) was5 mm in diameterand2 mm

in thickness
with a resonance frequency
of 1 MHz. The PZT
Twenty-three uniaxialcompression testswereperformedon crystalswereencapsuled in brasshousingsthatconformedto
a sandstone from Flechtingen,NE Germany.The rocksare thecylindrical sidesof thesample.Thehousings werebonded
Lower Permianin age and form a layer about330 m thick to the samplewith machinegrease.In addition,we usedone
[Ellenberget al., 1976]. Mineral composition
was determined widebandsensor(FPW GmbH, Kisslegg)with a calibrated
to be mainlyquartz(65-75vol %) anda cementof calciteand transfer functionstabletowithin+ 5 dBin thefrequency
range
illite (15 vol %). Grain size rangedfrom 0.1 to 0.5 mm, and from 0.2 to 1 MHz.
initial porosityfrom 5.5 to 7%. Cylindricalrock cores50 mm A schematicdiagramof the data acquisitionsystem
in diameterand100mmin lengthwerecutfroma largeblock. includingthesensorgeometryis shownin Figure1. Acoustic
Theendswerepolishedwith 2400 grit (asperityheights<10 Ix events emitted from the stressed rock on the left are detected
m). Specimens
weredriedandkeptat roomtemperature
for 1 by eightPZTsensors (1-8) for hypocenter
mapping,
by PZT 9
month.Wet sampleswere saturatedin distilledwater for 1, 3, for on-linemonitoring,andby the widebandsensorWD for
or 14 days,respectively.
Subsequently,
dry andwet coreswere continuous
wavelet analysis.In additionPZT 1 was usedas
sealedwith epoxyvarnish.The epoxycoverprevents
wet cores sourcetransducer
for pulsetransmission
testsduringloading.
fromdrying.Thesealof dry coreswasnecessaryto obtainthe Eachof thethreeblocksof thedataflowchart
in Figure1 was
samestartingmaterialfor the deformationexperimentapart controlled
bya personalcomputer.
ThePCsweresynchronized
from saturation.
by a starterpulse.Theupperblockwasa transient
memory
The experimental setupconsistsof the loadingframe,the with a maximumof 12 channels,10-bit resolution,and a
AE sensors,andthe dataacquisitionsystem.We useda servo sampling frequency of 20 MHz (PSO9070).Usingeight
controlled
4.6 MN loadingframefrom MaterialTestSystems channels, up to 1000 AE per secondcouldbe storedwith a
(MTS)witha stiffness
of 11x109
N/m.All experiments
were signallengthof 512 byte.Thetransfertimeof 1000signals
fixed displacementrate tests(0.02 mm/min).Corresponding from transientto harddisk memorywas 40 s. A harddisk
strainratewas10'5 s'1. Twobrackets, eachcontainingfour partitionof 200Mbyteallowedthestorageof about22,000AE
piezoelectrictransducers(PZT) connected by springs,were wavelets.The triggerlevel for all channels
wasconstant
at 4.8
usedto determine AE hypocenters. The brackets
wereplaced reV. Signalsdetectedby the WD sensor(middleblock in
in planeslocated30 mm from the top and bottomof the Figure1) werepreamplified by 40 dB andthenanalyzed on-
cylindricalspecimen.The compressional wave PZT crystal line. Deadtime aftereachAE was0.5 ms. Eightwavelet

Pulse Generator
Geotron USME-D
400 V
HP 5452O A

3.5" Floppy

KRENZ
PSO 9070,,,
PC AT 486
HD 270 MB

TRANSIENT
1
RECORDER
12CH 10bit 20 MHz

PC AT 386

1 SEK
3243
1 HD 2OO MB
FhG DRESDEN
8 parameter

_•• time
MTS System
TRACEABILITY PC AT 486
MTS 315.08 force Fz
1000 kN Test Star HD 250 MB
OS/2 2.1 Compaq

ELW Statron ,)
TG 20/1
0.5 - 20 DC ETHERNET
TCP/IP

Figure1. Dataacquisition
system
andacoustic
emission
sensor
assembly.
 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE 17,509

parameters weredetermined usingtheintegrated electronics

of
the PC-cardSEK 3243 (FhG, Dresden):(1) numberof event
(resolution32 bits), (2) time of first thresholdcrossing(32
bits), (3) durationtime of signal(32 bits), (4) time between
two signals(32 bits), (5) ring downcounts(16 bits), (6) rise
time to maximumamplitude(16 bits),(7) maximumamplitude
(analogpeak),and (8) pulseenergy(12 bits). Displacement
and force were recorded with MTS TestStar
Subsequently,data from transientmemoriesof PSO 9070,
waveletparameterfrom SEK 3243, and mechanicalloading
data from MTS were transferredto a Silicon Graphicswork-
station.
To locateAE hypocenters, we automaticallypicked first
arrivalsfrom tracesof eight channelstriggeringa threshold
amplitudeof 1.6 mV. In calculatingAE positions, we assumed
homogeneous core properties.We usedthe least squaresfit
iterationalgorithmof Lockneret al. [1992a].All codeswere
writtenin TurboPascal.A "successful" AE hypocenterlocation
requiresa minimumof four first arrivalsfrom eightchannels
of the miniature seismic network in use. Two important
supplements were madeto the algorithmusedby Lockneret
al. [1992a]in orderto obtainAE hypocenters in dry andwet
sandstones.First, not the full magnitude of the model
adjustment vectorcalculatedby the leastsquaresfit procedure
[Locknetet al., 1992a]is usedto correctthecoordinates of the
trueAE hypocenter positionin eachiteration,but only 10% of
the vector's magnitude.Second,we build in a break off
mechanism for the iteration process. An iteration was
terminated,when all threecomponents of the locationresidual
(dx, dy, dz) startedto increaseafter the first minimumvalue
hasbeenreached.Neglectingrequirement1, only 16% of AE
hypocenters were located.Neglectingrequirements1 and 2,
8% of hypocenters were "successfully" located.To estimate
the locationerror of hypocenters, PZT 1 was used as the
sourceandPZT 2 to PZT 8 as the receivers.The sourceinput
signalhad an amplitudeof 400 V and a pulsewidth of about
10 ps. The locationerror was estimatedto be lessthan + 3 mm
for a dry specimen.
Deformed rock cylinders after unloadingwere saturated
with epoxyresin.Sinceuniaxialfailure testswere performed,
a large percentageof microcracksand visible macrofractures
software. was presentin the core, even when part of the microcracks
have closed upon unloading.Subsequently,the cores were
axially sawedin half and the visible fracturepatternswere
investigated using the image analysis system DIANA
[Duyster,1993].Fromthecentralpartof eachhalf cylinderwe
preparedthin sections(30 gm in thickness)for optical
microscopyand polishedsections(3 mm in thickness)for
scanningelectronmicroscopy(SEM). Twenty opticalmicro-
graphswere taken with magnification200x along a profile
parallelto the uniaxialcompressionaxis in the centerpart of
eachthinsection(area25 x 45 mm). A grid of orthogonaltest
lineson the photographs was usedto determinethe lengthper
unit areaLA andthe surfaceareaper unit volumeSV of the
microcracks
[Underwood,1970].
Results
An overview of mechanical data, AE characteristics, and
microstructuralresults is given in Table 1. The first four
columnsshow samplespecificationsincludingthe degreeof
watersaturation.Columns5-9 showthe loadingpath,uniaxial
compressive
strength
(C•o),
peakstrain(So),finalstrain05max),
and Young's modulus(E). Positionof points A-D in the
loadingpath can be inferredfrom Figure 2. Two coreswere
subjectedto cyclic loadingfrom the origin (point O) to the
peakstress(pointB) andback(loadingpath:A-B-O). Young's
moduluswas determinedat point A on the loading path.

Table1. Mechanical
andAcoustic
Properties
ofFlechtin•en
Sandstone
Micro
Experi- Sample Prepared Sam- Load Peak Peak Final E AE From AE FromWD Macro
merit ration Path Stress Strain Strain PZT recorded crack crack

Num- C•o ao amax recorded EAE tdur LA -1 sV

bet % MPa % % GPa located mV s ms mm ram-1
940601 Fblyy dry aO A-D 65 0.52 0.77 14 3996 2424 ....
-

940629 Fb10 dry aO A-D 80 0.54 1.00 20 2997 441 ....

-

940706 Fb2xy dry aO A-D 76 0.54 1.38 19 3250 917 ....

-

940711 Fb9 wet 2 weeks 100 A-D 56 0.65 1.33 12 1731 342 .... -

940720 Fbl dry aO A-C 106 0.46 0.62 23 3126 1736 ....
-

940721 Fb2 dry aO A-D 104 0.47 0.96 25 3737 2201 - - - 0.112 18.2

940726 Fb3 dry aO A-B 106 0.45 0.45 24 999 239 - - - 0.043 18.6
940729 Fb4 dry aO A - - 0.32 16 ......
-

940801 Fb6 wet 100 A-D 50 0.47 0.92 12 1530 67 - - - 0.089 15.3
940915 Fb3zz wet •50 A-D 69 0.53 0.91 18 1998 222 1576 1.2 12 0.102 -

940916 Fb3yz wet2 weeks 100 A-D 77 0.42 0.69 24 1317 265 1317 0.3 8 -
_

941006 Fb27 wet3 days •28 A-D 70 0.42 0.73 19 1238 159 737 2.4 35 -
-

941007 Fb24 wet 3 days •24 A - - 0.25 13 83 .....

-

941010 Fb26 wet 3 days •34 A-C 57 0.44 0.62 14 1871 413 1316 4.0 6 - -

941012 Fb25 wet3 days •29 A-B 62 0.45 0.47 15 419 118 684 0.9 i 0.058 17.5
941013 Fb28 wet3 days •r27 A-D 79 0.41 0.65 21 1177 481 1655 2.5 20 0.143 .

941014 Fb23 weti day •32 A-D 72 0.40 0.64 20 1255 343 2981 3.8 20 0.128
-

941017 Fb21 dry aO A-D 78 0.58 0.88 16 2944 923 2085 2.5 60 0.082 -

941018 Fb20 wet 2 weeks •-•10 A-D 77 0.43 0.65 20 1225 218 2031 1.2 24 0.091 -

950112 Fb29 wet 2 weeks 100 A-D 58 0.32 0.54 19 - - 1919 5.8 20 -
950116 Fb22 dry aO A-D 88 0.55 0.79 17 1217 639 1340 6.2 28 -
950314 Fb31 dry aO A-B-O 107 0.42 0.42 29 ......
950314 Fb30 wet 100 A-B-O 73 0.36 0.36 22 ......

Saturation
with
distilled
water.
PZT,
Piezoceramic
transducer.
WD,Wideband
sensor.
Energy
equivalent
(mVs):EAE=
•[A(0[
dtintegrated
from
first(tl) tolast(t2)threshold
crossing;A(0=
amplitude
ofAE(mV).Duration
timeofsignal
(ms):tdur=t2-tl
.LA,crack
length
perunitarea.
SV,
cracksurfaceareaperunitvolume.
17,510 ZANGET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE
FAILURE

Columns10-14 showcharacteristics
of AE recordedby both, 5.0
the PZT and the WD sensor.For the PZT, the total numberof Fbl o
recorded
(rec)andlocated(loc)AE arelisted.FortheWD, the
numberof recordedevents(rec), the maximumpulseenergy
4.5
equivalent
(EAE)andthemaximum
signal
duration
time(tdur)
are listed. The last two columns in Table 1 refer to results
from macrocrackand microcrackstatisticsobtainedby rock
half-cylinder
andthin sectionanalyses.
FromTable1 it is 4.0
evident that 19 cores were analyzed for AE hypocenter
locations(columns
10-11).The broadband
sensor wasusedin
11 experiments(columns12-14). Both PZT hypocenter
locationsandWD sensoranalyseswereobtainedfor 10 cores 3.5 , i • i , i i i •
(columns10-14). 0 20 40 60 80 1 O0

water saturation (%)

Mechanical Data Figure 3. Transversecompressionalwave speedversusdegree
of water saturationof the unstressedFlechtingensandstone
In Figure2, the cumulativenumberof AE andstressare core.

plottedversustimefor thedry sampleFb21.Uppercase letters

(A-D) referto pointsof loadingpathfromTable1. PointA is
chosenin the pureelasticpartof the stress-strain
curve.At A strengthdecreases
from 0.50_+0.05%
for dry to 0.44_+0.08%
for
we calculatetheYoung'smodulus.PointB represents thepeak wet cores.

stress,whichis equalto the uniaxialcompressive strengthof The speedof transversecompressional wavesis seenin
the cores.Point C is chosenin the postfailureregimeof the Figure 3 versus the degree of water saturation in the
specimen, wherethestressdropped to about50% of thepeak undeformedsandstone.For this purpose,the fully wet core
stress.D is definedby thepoint,wherethecorestressdropped Fb10 is dried out at room conditionswhile a diametralpulse
below15% of the fracturestrength.Lowercase letters(a-c) in transmissionexperimentthrough the center plane of the
Figure2 refer to time intervalsduringwhich 999 AE are cylinderis madewith two PZTs.At 100% saturation,the open
recordedby the PZT sensors. Time intervalsare separated by pore space(here 5.5%) is filled with water. The fully wet
linesperpendicular to the stresscurve.Horizontalplateaus in samplehas a wave speedof about4.8 kin/s, which dropsto
the AE time curve are due to the dead time of the transient about 4 km/s for the room dry core. The velocity of the
memory.FromFigure2 we determined a compressivestrength vacuumdriedspecimenis intermediateat about4.4 km/s.The
of 78 MPa and a Young's modulusof 16 GPa at point A. increaseof wavespeedwith watersaturationis consistent with
Averagerock propertiesare calculatedfrom resultsobtained classicalstudies on porous media [Wyllie et al., 1956;
on 20 cores excludingsampleswith different orientation O'Connell and Budiansky, 1974]. The complex saturation
(Table1: Fblyy, Fb2xy,Fb3yz).As a first-order
classification, sensitivityfor vacuumdriedcoresmay be explainedby partial
three statesof saturationare distinguished:dry (sat•0%), crack closure due to the chemical influence of water.
partiallywet(10%<sat<50%),
andfully wetcores(sat•100%). The changein transversewave speed(Figure4a) and first
Uniaxialcompressivestrengthis 94+13 MPa for dry, 69+8 pulse amplitude(Figure 4b) during deformationare shown
MPa for partially wet, and 55+4 MPa for fully wet cores. versus
normalized
stress
(c•/C•o)
for twocores.Theamplitude
Young'smodulusis 20+4 GPafor dry, 17+_3 GPafor partially measured is proportional
to the voltageoutput(millivolts)of
wet, and 14+4 for fully wet cores.Peak strain at fracture the AE sensorused (PZT). The dry specimenshowslower
velocitiesand higher amplitudescomparedto the wet core.
Thedecrease
in amplitude
beforefractureat •/•o=1 is more
F E pronounced(37% for dry, 22% for wet cores) than the
8O 3000
decrease in wavespeed(14% for dry, 12%for wet cores).
7O
2500 The stored(work doneelastic)andconsumed strainenergy
•' 60
2000 (work done inelastic)of the sampleis calculatedfrom the
• 50
force displacement data. For this purpose,we integratedthe
e 40 1500
measuredforce displacementdata of each experimentand
• 30 1000 subtracted a referenceforcedisplacement curve.The reference
20
500 curvewas obtainedin a calibrationexperiment,where a steel
10
cylinder(samesize as the rock cylinder)was compressed in
0
i ! i I i I i i i, ,[ i
betweenthe steel spacersof the loadingframe. The accumu-
0 10 20 30 40 50 lated strain energyshownin Figure 5 is the sum of stored
time (min) elasticenergyandconsumed inelasticenergy(e.g., dissipated
asheat).For convenience,pointsA-D from loadingpathof the
Figure2. Stressandcumulative numberof AE versustimefor
specimens(Table 1) are incorporatedin the strain energy
dry core Fb21. Loadingpath pointsA-D correspond to
differentstressregimes(A, elasticregime;B, peakstress;C, curve.In Figure5 the sum of the elasticand inelasticstrain
post failure; D, after stressdrop). Lowercaselettersa-c energyis plottedversustheverticalstrain.Accumulated strain
indicatetime sectionsin the loadingpath,where999 AE are energyof the dry sampleFb2 is abouttwice the value of the
recorded.Lines perpen-dicular to stresscurveseparatetime wet coreFb6 throughout the experiment.Criticalstrainenergy
sectionsa, b, and c. atpeakstress
c•o (Figure
5, B) is about
50 N m fordryand17
 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE 17,511

a strength)
andat 55+13MPa for wet cores(84% of wet fracture
strength).
Theratioof locatedto recordedAE is 0.37 for dry,
0.21forpartiallywet,and0.13for fullywet coressubjectedto
loadingpathA-D. Hypocenter distribution
of AE for dry core
Fb23 wet Fb21andpartiallywet coreFb28 is seenfor threedifferent
4.0
stress
regimesin Figure6. Time intervalsdenoted by a, b, c
canbe inferredfrom Figure2 for coreFb21. Eachdot in the
threecrosssectionsof the rock core (Cartesianview from top
(xy), zero degreesideview (xz), 90 degreesideview (yz))
3.5 representsthe positionof oneAE. Bothspecimens showone
Fb21
dry clusterof AE in the upperand one in the lower third of the
coreduringthe prepeakmicrofracturing activity(sectiona).
The AE clustersdocumentthe developmentof two fracture
conesexpectedfor uniaxialtestswith frictionalongthe end
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
caps[PengandJohnson,1972].Positions of AE hypocenters
coincidewith high stressed regionsin the sandstone cylinder
as simulatedby two- and three-dimensional finite element
b calculations.
In total, only 481 eventsare locatedin the wet
core comparedto 923 eventsin the dry core. The double
3O
clusterof AE from sectiona degenerates into a singlecluster
ß at the centerof the samplein sectionb. In this stagehigh
Fb21 dry
25
stressis expectedat opposedtips of the two fracturecones.
The occurrenceof AE clustersand their migrationin space
with time is independentof thedegreeof saturation.
2O
ß In Figure6 thereis no indicationof a localizedfailureplane
as can be seen from uniaxial experimentswith confining
pressure[e.g.,Lockneret al., 1992a].One explanationof the
15
Fb23 wet •ß observedAE patternsfrom Figure 6 is as follows. The
development of two fractureconesin our sandstone is docu-
mentedby oneAE clusterin the upperandoneclusterin the
lowerhalf of the cylindricalspecimen(Figure6a, sectiona).
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Notethatin thisexperiment thetwo AE clusterscoincidewith
the locations of the two sensor rings. From tests with
cv/•o asymmetric loadingconditions we canexcludeanyartifactsof
our receivergeometryin hypocenterdetermination. Absence
Figure4. (a) Wavespeedand(b) first pulseamplitudeof of AE at the endsof the specimenis due to end cap friction.
transverse
P wavestravelingthroughthe centerof dry andwet
sandstonecoresversusnormalizedstress.Amplitude(mV) is "Clamped"endsof the specimen suppressthe initiationof AE
proportional
to the transducer
voltageoutput.At normalized due to the presence of high horizontal
compressional stresses
stress
c•/•o=lfailureoccurs. (shown by finite element results).The development of the
throughgoing macrofractureis not documentedin the hypo-
centermapsfrom Figure6. But the onsetof the macrofracture
N m for fully wet cores.Fromthe unloading loopsof two is well documentedby the high-energypulsein Figure 10a
cores(Table1, loadingpathA-B-O)theratioof residual strain (seebelow).Themacrofracture occursin thepostfailure region
energyaftercycling(loadingandunloading) andthecritical
fracturestrainenergyat maximumload is determined to be
0.42 independentof thedegreeof saturation.
Thisratiogives lOO D
an estimateof the inelasticstrain energyconsumedby the • 9o
cores. 80 Fb2 dry
>, 7O

Acoustic Emission 60
50
In this section we obtain the location of AlE events 40 D
3O C Fb6wet
(hypocenter
determination),
theamplitude
or energy
frequency
distributionof AlE, and crosscorrelateAlE pulseenergywith 2O
the durationtime of the eventsin order to capturedifferent 10
0
stages
of brittlefracture
in dryandwetFlechtingen
sandstone.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
HypocenterDistribution strain, per thousand
The onsetof AE, definedas the time wherethe cumulative Figure 5. Accumulateddeformationenergyof dry and wet
numberof eventsis largerthan50 startsat differentabsolute sandstone
versusverticalstrain.Data are correctedfor loading
stresslevelsin dry andwet cores.On average,AE activity frame deformation.The sum of elasticand inelasticenergyis
starts at 87+23 MPa for dry cores (91% of dry fracture shown.Forreference,loadingpathpointsA-D areincluded.
17,512 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE

(a) Fb21 dry Co) Fb28 wet 27%

..

..

ß o.

ß.½:!?..;.',.'

a b c a b c

Figure6. Hypocenter distribution of AE in dry (Figure6a) andwet sandstone (Figure6b) for differenttime
sectionsin the loadingpath.Lowercase lettersa-c indicateincreasing time in the deformation experiment.
Correlationof timesectionsa, b, c in Figure6a with stressis foundin Figure2. Two clustersof AE in the time
sectiona supportsthehypothesis of thedevelopment of two fracturecones.A singleclusterof AE is evidentin
timesectionsb andc. This is seenfor bothdry andwet deformedcores.

of the specimen(loadingpath at point C), wherethe sample analysis(CCA) showshighcorrelation coefficients

strengthdropsdrastically.It hasto be pointedout that due to
the absenceof confiningpressurein our uniaxialexperiments,
hypocenterdeterminationfails when the dilatantmacrofracture
developsalong a high-stressed region of the shear fracture
cones.Nevertheless,the WD sensorcapturesthe onsetof the
dilatantmacrofracture(Figures10a and11a).
The spatialdistributionof AE hypocenters is evaluatedby
calculatingthe correlationintegralC(r) definedby Hirata et
at. (1987) as
(C(r=!0)=
0.1) from prepeakto peak region (localizedAE) and low
correlationcoefficients(C(r=10)=0.05) in the postfailure
region (delocalizedAE). This is true for dry and wet
specimens.Note that due to the smaller number of events
locatedin the wet core (Table 1), alsofewer dotsof the CCA
areseen.Due to waveattenuation causedby the development
of the fracturezone within the sandstone,
in the postfailure
regionprecise(error< 3 mm) hypocenter mappingmaynotbe
possible.

2 SingleEvent and Event Statistics

C(r)=•N(R<r) (1)
N(N-1)
We analyzedtheAE waveletsfromeightPZT by first pulse
statistics.
For 100AE in theprepeak(loadingpathA-B, Figure
fora setofN hypocenters (Pl,P2,'", PN),whereN(R<r)is the 8a), peak(Figure8b), postfailure(Figure8c), andafterstress
numberof hypocenter pairs(Pi,Pk) separatedby a distance dropregion(Figure8d) we determined the amplitudeandrise
smallerthanr. Limitedby thelocationerrorandsamplesize,r time of the first pulse.A singleAE eventis plottedup to 8
can rangefrom 3 to 100 mm. For a self-similarhypocenter times in Figure 8, if all channelswere available from the
distribution,C(r) is proportional to rD, whereD givesthe transientmemory.The datafrom the broadbandtransducerare
fractaldimension[Grassberger,1983;Lei et al., 1992]. High excluded. Amplitudes A<0 correspondto compression pulses,
C(r) valuesmean high correlationbetween• of a cluster andA>0 to dilatationalpulses.FromFigure8, it is evidentthat
with hypocenterdistancelessthanr, whereaslow C(r) values smallamplitudes ( [AI<10mV) andlowrisetimes(tR<5 gs)
representa low correlationinsidethe cluster.In Figure 7 we are commonin the prepeak(Figure8a) and peak rangeof
fixed the r value in (1) at 10 mm and plottedthe correlation stress(Figure8b,[AI<15mV,tR<5 gs).Amplitudes increase
integralC(r=10) for a movingwindowof 50 AEs versustime. up to 50 mV and rise timesup to 70 gs in the postfailure
Resultsfor the dry sampleFb21 (Figure7a) andthe partially (Figure8c) andafterstressdropregion(Figure8d). In Figures
wet sampleFb28 (Figure 7b) are seen.This currentcluster 8c and8d, a significant numberof AE hasfirstpulserisetimes
 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE 17,513

correlationintegralsC(r), cluster 50 AE, r=10 mm AE-distance larger than 20 gs. For 10 large rise time eventswe calculated
0.15
the corresponding hypocenterpositionsand the polarity ratio
Fb21 dry 8O of the first pulses[Lei et al., 1992]. Eventlocationsfall on the
0.13
70 upperand lower surfaceof the fracture cones.The ratio of
0.11 ß
60 •' dilatantto compressional first pulseamplitudesindicatesthat
50•_ shear type events dominate over tensile or collapse type
0.09 40 •n events.
0.07 ß 30 e From first pulse statistics, we calculated cumulative
0.05 20 •n amplitudefrequencydistributionsfor different stresslevels.
10 Accordingto GutenbergandRichter[1949], thenumber(N) of
0.03 f/" stress ßß 0 earthquakeswith magnitudelargeror equalM occurringin a
, i , i
0.01
0 10 20 30 40 50
regionduringa certainperiodis correlatedto M as
time (rain)
logN= a-bM (2)
0.15
Fb28 wet 27%
80
0.13
70 wherea andb areconstants. The b value,the negativeslopein
0.11 60 (2), is assumedto indicate the state of stressin the focal
50 •' region.In AE studiesN is commonlyreplacedby the number
0.09 of cumulativeacousticemissions,andM by the AE amplitude
40•
0.07
30 • [e.g., Scholz, 1968; Main et aL, 1992; Cox and Meredith,
0.O5 1993]. 20 '-

0.03
We calculatedb values from AE pulse statisticsfor
10
ßß
0 differentstressregimesbeforeand after failure. In Figure 9,
! , i i i i i
0.01
0 10 20 30 40
the b valueof the dry sampleFb2 is comparedto the b* value
time (min) of the wet sampleFb20. The dry b valuesin Figure 9a are
obtainedfrom first pulsestatisticsshownin Figure8, whereas
Figure 7. Current cluster analysis of AE hypocenter wet b* valuesin Figure 9b are calculatedfrom the energy
distributionfor samplesFb21 and Fb28. The value of the
frequencydistributionof pulsesdetectedby the WD sensor.
correlation integralC(r) at a particulartimetc indicates how
strongthe correlation is of the last 50 AE with timest<tc. Dry b valuesdropbeforefailure, whereaswet b* valuesshow
Largevaluesof C(r) correspond to highcorrelationin theAE a drop andrecoverybeforefailure. Sincepulseenergyscales
clusterand vice versa. C(r) dropsfrom high values in the with the square of pulse amplitude, a factor of 2 is seen
prepeak regionto low valuesin thepostpeak region. betweenb andb* valuesin Figure9.

• 5O

ß 30 t
= -10
940721 Fb2 dry
Pre Peak =. -30 Peak

•' -50 • -50 • I , • I • I ,

20 40 60 0 20 40 60
first pulse rise time (•s) b first pulse rise time (lEtS)

ß 30 %. ß

m -10
ln am n .10 g***
ß

t,,'3 .
•-101-;** ****
1

=. -30 PostFailure a -30

After Stress Drop
= -50 , • I • = -50 r • I • t ,

0 20 4o 6o 0 20 40 60
c first pulse rise time (lEts) d first pulse rise time (lEts)
Figure 8. First pulseamplitudeversusfirst pulserise time from eight PZT sensorsfor four selectedstress
regimesof dry coreFb2.(a) Prepeak,(b) peak,(c) postfailure,
and(d) afterstressdropregime.
17,514 ZANG ET ,a•.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONEFAILURE

250 dividedby the numberof AE, an analogof the b value, is

-,- b-value
plotted in Figure 10b. For times smaller than 30 min, the
200
--- force normalizedenergyvalue is constantat about0.03 mV s, since
150 z
only pulsesfrom the transmissionexperimentare detected.
Beforepeakstress,the normalizedcumulativeenergyof the
100 ,- AE signalsdrops.It recoversin the postfailureregion.Signals
emittedin the stableslidingregime,wherethe wet corehas a
5O residualstrengthof about15% of the peakstrength,showa
Fb2 dry constantenergyvalue of about0.025 mV s. Note that Figures
o 0 9b and 10b do not necessarilyhave identicalbehavior,even if
30 35 40 45
similarquantitiesare plotted. The b* valuein Figure9b first
a t (min) drops,indicatingan increasednumberof large-amplitude
events.Thentheb* valuerecoversbeforefailure,indicatingan
increased numberof small-amplitude eventswith little energy.
This latter increase of b* value coincides with the decrease of
250
the normalizedcumulativeAE energy(Figure10b) documen-
--,- b*-value
--- force 20O ted by hundredsof AEs with small energiescomparedto the
main fracture.

150 In Figure 11 the AE energyis plottedversusthe duration

time of signalsfor dry and wet cores.The dry specimenin
100 Figure11a yielded2084 eventswith energieslessthan about
0.5 mV s and duration times less than 5 ms. The onset of the
5O
assumed macrofracture producesan energyequivalent5 times
largeranda durationtime 10 timeslonger.The wet specimen
30 31 32 33 in Figurelib showsmultiplestrongeventswith pulseenergies
t (min)
rangingfrom 0.5 to 1.25 mV s. The energypeakvalueis about
b one-halfof the value of the dry core.In Figure11c only the

Figure 9. Calculatedslope(seeequation(2)) of (a) amplitude

and (b) equivalentenergy frequencydistributionsof AE 1.25 200
signalsversusdurationtime of thedeformationexperiment for Fb3zz wet energy
dry coreFb2 andwet coreFb20.Note thatthe slopebasedon 1.00
AE amplitudes in (Figure9a) is calledb valueandthe slope 150
basedon AlE energyequivalentsin (Figure9b) is called b*
value.
0.75
0.50 100
•
Pulse Energy 0.25 50

The pulseenergyof AE detectedby the WD sensorcanbe 0.00

0
usedto quantifythestateof damagein dry andwet sandstone. 0 10 20 30 40 50
Sofar, onlya few studiesdiscuss singlepulse[Kuksenkoet al., a t (min)
1990; Mansurov, 1994] or cumulativeAE energy [Storchet
al., 1992; Santoset al., 1994]. The energyequivalentusedin
this paperis definedas the integralover signal amplitudes
0.05 150
takenfromthe timebetween
first (tl) andlast(t2) threshold
crossing

t2
0.04

0.03
Fb3zz
wet
/•
Ecum/AE 100 E'
EAE
:=I •4(t)l
dr. (3)
t1 0.02
o
_

50 2
LU
Equation(3) is not calculatedby mathematical integration 0.01
of AE wavelets but by using the integratedhardware
electronicsof the PC-cardSEK 3243. To obtainenergyvalues 0.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
thesquareamplitudeis necessary in (3). The variationof AE
energyandloadversustime for specimen Fb3zzis plottedin
Figure10. Theenergyof singlepulsesversustimeis shownin
b t (min)
Figure10a.High-energy
pulses
(EAE•,imV s) areemittedin Figure 10. AE energyequivalent(mV s) andforce(kN) versus
the postpeakregion. More than 99% of the 1576 pulses time for wet core Fb3zz: (a) single pulse energy and (b)
detectedhaveenergiesbelow0.25 mV s. For comparison, the cumulative energy per event. For reference, the energy
energyequivalentof the 400-V pulsetravelingthroughthe equivalentof the 400-V ultrasonicpulseis 0.03 mV s (see
centerof the wet core is 0.03 mV s. The cumulativeenergy Figure10bfor times< 30 min).
 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONEFAILURE 17,515

2.5
i , i , I , i , i , i , i ,
Microstructure
941 017 Fb21 dry
2.0 AE 1-2085 The orientation distribution of 222 macrocracks from the
half-cylinder
Fb6inFigure
12a(area
ofanalyses
5000mm2)is
1.5 seenin Figure12b. The maximumnumberof fracturesoccurs
at about + 20 degreesdeviation from the uniaxial stress
1.0
direction,which is parallel to the zero-degreemarker.Our
0.5
directionis alsosupported
by theorientation
analysisof cracks
%
in laboratorydeformedcylindersof Westerlygranite[Moore
0.0 I • I , I , I , I
andLockher,1995]. Cumulativefracturelengthper unit area,
o lO 20 30 40 50.. 60 7O

tdur (ms)

1.25 , I

1.00 - 941018 Fb20 wet

[] AE 1-2031 '
0.75 --

0.50 ,- ß

[]
0.25 • []

0.00
0 12 18 24 3O

b tdur (ms)

0.25

BlueAE
0.20

0.15

LU 0.10

0.05
Red AE

0.00
0 I 2 3 4 5

C tdur(ms) 0 N=222

Figure 11. Pulseenergyequivalentof AE versusdurationtime

of AE for (a) dry coreFb21, (b) wet coreFb20, and (c) dry
core Fb22. Accordingto the spectrumof light, we separate
microfracturingeventsof dry coreFb22into high-energyshort
pulses(blue AE) and low-energyeventswith long duration
times(redAE).
90 270
microfracturingeventsfor the dry specimenFb22 are plotted.
Energies are restricted to values below 0.25 mV s, and
duration times below 5 ms. Two distinct classes of AE can be
distinguished.Accordingto the spectrumof light, short-pulse
high-energy eventsare called"blueAE" andsignalswith long
duration times and low energies are called "red AE."
Intragranulargrain breakageduring crack initiation may be
responsible for the occurrenceof blue AE, whereasred AE
180
may be causedby multiple slip on reactivated,rough crack
surfaces.Pore crushingand collapsephenomenaoccurring b
undernear hydrostaticstressstatesmay fall into the "blue"
Figure 12. (a) Fracturepatternof sawcut half-cylinderFb6
category.Analyzing the evolutionof blue and red AE with and (b) correspondingorientation distributionof visible
time or stressin Figure 11c, we foundthat first, both classes macrocracks obtainedfromimageanalysis.Notethatin Figure
occursimultaneously, andsecond,they increasein energyand 12b 222 cracksare analyzed,andzero degreesmeansaligned
durationtime while approaching failure. with appliedstress.
17,516 ZANGET AL.' DRYAND WET SANDSTONE
FAILURE

LA,is0.089
mm-1foroursandstone.
InTable
1 theLA values SV datafromopticalthinsectionanalysis
arelistedin the
of nine coresinvestigatedare listed in column15. Cores last columnof Table 1. They showno significantdifference.
subjectedto loadingpath A-B have an averagevalue of for differentloadingpathsor rock saturations.The optical
LA=0.051_+0.011
mm -1,those
subjected
toloading
path
A-Dto micrographof the deformeddry sampleFblyy in Fig. 14a
LA=0.104_+0.022
mm-1.Hence
cumulative
fracture
length
per showstransgranular crackssplittingboth grain and cement
unit area doublesfor cores stressedto failure (path A-D) minerals.The SEM pictureof the deformedwet coreFb20 in
compared
to coresloadedto peakstress
(A-B) independent
of Fig. 14b showshighly fracturedcalcite cementand nearly
the degreeof saturation. intact quartz grains.Evidencefor mode II microfracturing
comes from the observation of sheared calcite twins in thin
WhileLA is a usefulparameter
to showdamage
accumu-
lation, the breakdownof crack densityversuscrack length sections.

[e.g.,Lockneret al., 1992b;MooreandLockner,1995]is

more informative. In Figure 13 the results of optical
microcrackanalyseson dry coreFb21(Figures13aand13b) StochasticDamage Model
and wet core Fb23 (Figures13c and 13d) are seen.Both
Most of the models concerned with fracture in brittle rock
intergranular
cracks(IGC) andtransgranular
cracks (TGC)are
measured.In total, 149 microcracksof core Fb21 and 138 arebasedon cracksin isotropichomogeneous
material[Brace
microcracks of core Fb23 are evaluated. Maximum crack and Botnbolakis,1963; Peng and Johnson, 1972; Horii and
widthin bothcoresis lessthan30 gm (Figures13a and13c). Netnat-Nasser,1985; Ashby and Hallam, 1986; Ashby and
Maximumcracklengthof the wet specimen (Figure13c) is Samtnis,1990; Lockner and Madden, 1991a, b; Lockner et al.,
larger(625l•m)thanfor thedrycore(280l•m).Averagegrain 1992b; Reches and Lockner, 1994]. Local differencesin
size is 150 gm for core Fb21 and 200 gm for core Fb23. fracturetoughnessor energyreleaserate, G, due to different
Histograms in Figure13b and 13d indicatethatcrackswith mineralpropertiesare neglected.Stronggrains,however,can
lengthsof about50 gm dominatein Fb23,andcrackswith act as crackbarriers,whereasweak grainsor grainboundaries
lengths
of about100 gm dominate in coreFb23.In principle, mayenhancecrackgrowth.Barriermodelsweredeveloped for
datafor determiningthe breakdown of cracknumber(crack earthquakes [Ak/, 1979] androckbursts[Kuhntet al., 1987].
density)versuscracklengthin a doublelogarithmicplot are We developeda two-dimensionalstochasticmulticompo-
availablefromFigure13. Thetotalnumberof cracksanalyzed, nent brittle fracture model, which can account for local
however,is too small to allow a reliable determinationof the differencesin rock strength.The modelis necessary
to explain
breakdowncracklength. the observed microstructure of the deformed sandstones.

Fb21 dry
3O
5O
A

ß IGC 4O
2O ß TGC

ß
10 o 20
ß ß ß
ß ß
m ml ß
mm• 10
ß
m

200 400 600 0 200 400 600

crack length(pm) b crack length •m)

Fb23 wet
3O 80

A
70
IGC 60
2O TGC
50
ß ß

ß 40
mm ß 30
10
m m ß
20
m m
10
mmmm••
m m ß
0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600

crack
length
(pm) d crack
length
(pm)
Figure13. (a,c)Crackwidthversuscracklengthand(b,d)cracklengthhistograms for 138 microcracks
of dry
coreFb21and149microcracks of wetcoreFb23.Opticalthinsectionanalyses
includesintergranular
(IGC) and
transgranular
cracks(TGC).
 ZANG ET AL.' DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE 17,517

I QTZ 1
2
[-• CAL 3
4

I I
200ttm 200
I 234... 100
a
A plane
of
maximum
shear
stress
.11iiiiiii!iiiiil
.neo. m-v.es
Figure 15. Two-dimensionalstochasticbrittle fracturemodel
of heterogeneous material.The planeof randomenergyrelease
rate (G) valuesof quartzandcalcitemineralsis assumedto be
perpendicular to the planeof maximumshearstressin uniaxial
compression experiments of rock cylinders.

pondingto the criticalvaluesof quartzand calcite[Landolt-

BGrnstein,1982]. A line is drawnthroughscatteredG values,
whichareseparated by theunitlengthof cells(/=1), for better
visualizationof the differencesin strengthbetween neigh-
boringmineralgrains.
Sincethe polarityratio of first pulseamplitudesfrom eight
PZT sensorsindicatesthat shear type events dominateover
tensile or collapsetype AE events in the sandstonecores
beforefailure, the following single crack model is used.For
b thegrowthof a pennyshapedshearcrackwith diameter(crack
length),c, tilted by 45 degreeswith respectto the vertical
Figure14. (a) Opticalmicrograph
of deformed
dry coreFblyy compressive stress,•, the energy releaserate is [Sih and
with transgranularcracks and (b) SEM micrographof Liebowitz,1968]
deformedwet core with highly fracturedcalcite cementand
intactquartzgrains.
2x Gauss random distribution of energy release rate G

Fracturemodelsfor quasi-homogeneous
rock cannotaccount crack
between
barriers
(G<Gtl)
for highlyfracturedcalcitecementsurrounded by nearlyintact I.o•n ---- no'cra.ck
(G>Gtl)
quartzgrains.In our modelwe consideran arbitraryplane •12

perpendicularto theplaneof maximumshearstresswithinthe •10

sandstone cylinder(Figure15). A realisticthree-dimensional
modelwould requirea coneof failure planeswith the same
stressdata,becauseof axial symmetry.We are makinga two- st-
•4
dimensionalapproximation.The shear stress plane is
subdivided into 20,000 unit squareswith randomlydistributed
strengthvalues of quartz (QTZ) and calcite (CAL), ß 0
ß ,
JUili 1111
. !
1111
!lUl
HH
,
!1level(Gtl)
! , ! , i , i , , , • . ! ß , , ! ,

respectively. Unit cell diameteris chosento approximately 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

correspond to the grainsize (0.5 ram) of the sandstone.An relative length L
arbitraryline,L, in Figure15 cutsmineralgrainswith different Figure 16. Linear profile of 100 mineral grainswith different
strengthvalues. The variation of mineral strengthsis energy release rate values. Two Gaussian distribution
represented by differentcriticalenergyreleaseratevaluesof functions,
onefor 75%quartz(G=9.20+1.84
J m-2) andone
the unit cells.For example,Fig. 16 shows100 nonuniformly for 25%calciteminerals
(G=0.63_+0.13
J m-2) simulate
the
distributed G values calculated with a TurboPascal random differencein strengthof neighboringmineral grains in the
generator.
G values
cluster
at9.2J/m 2, cortes- Flechtingen
2 and0.63J/m sandstone.
(Read
J/mE2
asJm-2.)
17,518 ZANG ET AL.' DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE

Gii• (0.34/E)
c•2c (4) G=s{2[-ln(1-random)]}
0'5cos(2•trandom)+m(5)

assuminga Poisson'sratio of 0.25. In (4) the G value of a wherem is the averagevalueof thebell-shaped
distribution,
s
criticalcrackis determinedby the appliedstress,cy,the crack the half width, and "random" is a random number with 0<
length,c, andYoung'smodulus,E. The proportionality factor random<l. A third random generatorbetweenzero and 99
in (4) becomes 0.59,whenconsidering crackstilted20 degrees allowsthevariationof theconcentration
of minerals.In Figure
asshownin Figure12 insteadof 45 degreeswith respectto the 16 the following set of parametersis used: first Gaussian
vertical stressdirection. The factor, however, has no influence distribution
withm=9.2J/m2 ands=1.84J/m2 for quartz,
on the resultsof our energyrelaserate basedmodel,but only secondGaussian distribution
with m=0.63J/m2 ands=0.13
on the absolute stresslevel, which can be calculated from Gtl J/m2 for calcite,andthirduneven randomdistribution
which
level (seebelow)data.Note thatthe appliedstresslevel would picks 75% of data from the first Gaussianand 25% of data
be reducedby crackstilted 20 insteadof 45 degreeswith from the second Gaussian distribution. A two-dimensional cut
respectto thevertical.Usingexperimental dataof Flechtingen throughthe rock core is modeledby generating100 G value
sandstone(dry: average strengthcy=94 MPa and average profilesanalogousto Figure16 with a lengthof L=200 units.
Young'smodulus E=20 GPa;wet: cy=55MPa,E=14 GPa),and Basedon the compositewith 75% quartzand 25% calcite
assuming thatc scaleswith theaveragegrainsize(c=0.3ram), grains,thenumberof criticalcracks(Nc) andthemaximum
we calculatedthe criticalenergyreleaserate (Giic) and cracklength(Cmax) is determined
usinga TurboPascal code.
fracturetoughness
(Kiic) of shearcracksfrom(4). For dry In Figure17, Nc andthenormalized maximum cracklength
sandstone,
weobtainGiiC= 45J/m
2 (Kiic= 0.99MPaml/2), (Cmax/L) areplottedversusincreasingGtl valuescorrespon-
andforwetsandstone
GiiCTM22J/m
2 (Kiic= 0.55MPaml/2). dingto an increasing
appliedload.The numberof cracksstarts
Data are comparableto fracturetoughness
of tensilecracksin to increase
at Gtl=0.4J/m2, whichis the lowerlimit of
sandstone
determined
experimentally
(dry:KiC= 0.70 MPa Gaussian distributed G values for calcite. The maximum
m1/2[Atkinson,
1984]andwet:KiC= 0.25[Storch
et al., number
of cracks
perstress
levelisabout
4000atGtl=lJ/m
2.
1992]). This impliesthat about20% of the grainsare brokenat peak
In Figure16 a criticalcrackexistsif its G valuegivenby stress.
Thenormalized
maximum
cracklength(Cmax/L)
shows
the G test level (Gtl, horizontalline) exceedsthe randomG a slightincrease to 0.05 (corresponding to Cmax=0.010 mm)
value assignedto the rock mineral (G<Gtl, crack growth below Gtl--0.8 J/m2.It sharplyincreases to0.73(Cmax=0.146
betweenG barriers).If G>Gtl, no crackexists.For largerGtl mm)at Gtl=l J/m2. Thesharp increase in maximum crack
valuescorresponding to increasingstress,first, the numberof lengthindicatesrock failure. Assumingshearcracksto be
cracks increases, and second, neighboring cracks may responsible for acousticemissions,about4000 AE would be
coalesce.The resultingcracksare consideredto have a length, expected for thedry sandstone. Thisis in goodagreement with
whichis the sumof the lengthsof the individualcracks,anda experimental data (Figure2). More importantly,Figure 17
G value, which is the sum of the energy values of the demonstrates thatcrackinitiationandpropagation in heteroge-
individual cracks. The algorithm is based on the discrete neousmaterialsis controlledby the amountanddistributionof
additionof cracklengthsand energies.The processof crack theweakmineral(herecalcite).FromFigure14b,it is evident
growth and crack coalescencesimulated by jumps into that hard inclusions(quartz)are shieldedfrom crackingif
different energy levels is repeateduntil failure occurs.The cementis presentat the grain contacts.Cementand grain
sampleis assumedto fail, when the first macrocrack crosses boundarycracksdominate.In the caseof poorly cemented
theentireshearplane(Figure15,L=200). grains, intragranularquartz cracking is expecteddue to
It hasto be pointedout that the modelpresentedis a pure Hertziangraincontacts[Zhanget al., 1990].
statisticalapproach.Every increasein stresslevel (increasing
Gtl value) requiresa completelynew generationof the crack
patternin thecomposite material(20,000newG values).Only 2x Gauss random distribution of G

on average,the crackpatternsfor two randomrunsat the same 4000 cmax/L 1.0

Gtl value are the same.A relationbetweenthe crack pattern 0.9 ...J

fromstresslevelGtl1 andthecrackpatternfromstresslevel 0.8 x

3000
0.7 E
Gtl2 does not exist. Thereforethe calculationof stress 0.6
redistributionat particularmineral grainsin our modelis not 2000 Nc 0.5 "-'
possible.However,crackinteractionis takeninto accountby 0.4 =
assuming Gtl to be proportionalto the cracklengthin eachtest 1000 0.:5 ..•
procedure. From thisrequirementit followsthat the Gtl value 0.2 o
0.1 o
duringa testprocedureis only increasedwhenthe lengthof a 0.0
particularcrackhasto be changeddue to the G valuesof the i i i ! i , i , i , , ,

nextneighborsin therandommineralassembly. 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

To simulatebrittle failure of Flechtingensandstone,we
useda stochastic failuremodelwith two mineralcomponents.
With helpof two Gaussiandistributionfunctions,G valuesof
quartz and calcite are generatedwith 20% scatter along
differentgrain profilesof the shearplane in Figure 15. A
Gaussian distribution function can be written with
numbers[Weber,1990] by
energy release rate Gtl (J/mE2)
Figure17. Numberof cracksNc andmaximumnormalized
cracklengthCmax/L versusthe energyreleaserate testlevel
(Gtl, appliedload)for a composite
with 75% quartzand25%
calcite.Gaussiandistributed
G valuesfor the two components
random aregenerated
for 100 x 200 mineralgrains.(ReadJ/mE2asJ
 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE 17,519

Discussion and Conclusions saturation (Figure10). For similarstresslevels,dry coresgive

longersignalswith higherenergiescomparedto wet cores.The
Uniaxialcompression testson Flechtingensandstoneshow
latter give multiplehigh-energyevents(Figures10a and lib)
thataddeddistilledwaterreducesthe peakstrengthof therock
indicatinga stepwisefailureprocess. Failureof dry coresoften
by a factorof 2. ForwetspecimenstheAE threshold (onsetof
is indicatedby oneor two largeAE, whichhavehigherenergy
AE) andtotalnumberof AE is lowercompared to dry cores.
and longer durationtimes comparedto the large AE of wet
Onaverage, thetotalnumberof recorded AE dropsfromabout
cores(Figure 11). This may be due to a largerstrainenergy
3300for dryto 1500for fully wetcores.Theratioof locatedto
storedin dry cores.The occurrenceof blue and red AE was
recordedAE dropsby a factorof 3. Oneexplanation for the
foundindependentof water saturation.Also the migrationof
changein AE characteristics may be the degradation of the
waveforms due to increased wave attenuation in wet cores. AE clusterin spacewith time showsno differencefor dry and
wet cores.
AE-basedb valuesfrom amplitudefrequencydistribution
confirma dropprior to failurefor dry specimens, whichhas The lengthof time (1, 3, and 14 days)that the samplesit
fully saturatedbut unstressedhas no significanteffect on
beenobservedpreviously[Scholz,1968;Main et al., 1992;
Cox and Meredith, 1993]. Wet b* values from energy fracturestrength(Table 1). The differencein strengthbetween
frequency distributionshowa dropandrecoverybeforefailure wet anddry runsmayreflectthe activityof waterat cracktip
(Figure9). Our experimental dataare supported by the crack reaction sites as discussedin the literature [e.g., Atkinson,
model of Hori and Maro [1995]. The model consistsof 1984; Lockner, 1993]. Besidessubcriticalcrack growth,we
interactingwingcracksin a linearelasticsolidwith porewater suggest mechanismslike swelling of clay minerals and
pressure and is able to explainthe b valuevariationbefore reducedgrainboundaryfriction in orderto explainthe lower
strength values of our wet deformed cores at room
failurefor bothdry andwet samples.We do not supporttheir
temperature.
hypothesis thatchanging porewaterpressure is responsiblefor
therecoveryof wet b values,sincein ourexperiments no pore Our preliminarymicrostructural analysesshowsthat cracks
pressure can build up. Due to uniaxialcompression without in dry coresoftenhavesharpligamentsandshowtransgranular
jacket(exceptrubberband),the build up of porepressureis splitting of both quartz and cement minerals (Figure 14a).
suppressed. The permeability of the Flechtingen sandstone is Cracks in wet cores mostly follow grain boundariesor
about0.1 x 10-15m2 (0.1 reD).Another explanation for preferentiallyfractureweakcementminerals(Figure14b). Our
temporalfluctuations in b valuesis stresscorrosion-enhancedobservationon Flechtingensandstoneare in contrastto those
crackgrowth[Meredithet al., 1990].Gradations from single obtainedon dry deformedBereasandstone [Wonget al., 1992;
cuspto a morecomplextime dependence of b valuescanbe Menendez et al., 1996]. From dilatancy, microscopic, and AE
modeledby differentstresscorrosion exponents. data the authors distinguish different crack types in Berea
Within the frameworkof theHori andMaro [1995] model, sandstone for differentstresslevels.They foundthat prepeak
anotherexplanation for the occurrence of red andblueAE is crackingis mostlyintergranular, whereasnearpeakstressand
possible.With increasingload, sliding is initiated along in the postfailure region intragranular quartzcracksseemto
preexisting cracksurfaces.The resultingenergyreleasedis dominate. Menendez et at. [1996] attribute intergranular
considered as the sourceof red AE. At higherstress,traction- cracksto shearruptureof cementedgrains,and intragranular
free wingsstartto grow at the tips of the slidingsurfacesof quartz cracksto HertzJanfracturesat grain contactswithout
the microdefects.These tensile cracks radiate high-energy cement. For Flechtingen sandstone,we did not observe
elasticwaves,whichmaycorrespond to theoccurrence of blue Hertzian fracturesirrespectiveof stresslevel and degreeof
AE. From the evolution of blue and red AE versus time in water saturation. Since our tests were unconfined, the stress at
Figure 11, we concludethat both tensileand shearevents grain contactsmay have been lower comparedto triaxial or
occursimultaneously throughoutthe experiment.This would hydrostaticcompactiontests on Berea sandstone.It is also
implytheco-existence of frictionalshearingandtensilecrack possiblethat the micromechanics of fracturedependson the
openingat all stagesof brittlerock deformation. This is also type of sandstone,in particular on the properties and
statedbyLockner[1993].In Figure11c,a dotcloseto theblue distribution of cement(seestochastic damagemodel).
AE borderis interpretedas pureshearand a dot closeto the Frequentlyoccurringtransgranularcracks in dry cores
red AE borderas puretensile.At low stresslevels(AE with affectingquartzandfeldsparminerals(Figure14a) may result
energy<0.05 mV s, t<l ms) we foundmanymixedevents from the releaseof a larger portion of storedelastic strain
(partblueandpartred). At higherstress,AE events(macro- energy.However,transgranular crackingin dry coresis not
cracks)tendto be eitherpureshearor puretensile. fully understood.The occurrenceof grain boundaryand
MechanicalandAE energydissipation indicatechangesin cementcracksin both dry andwet coresare supportedby the
thedominantcrackingprocess. Duringthe test,wet specimens resultsof our stochasticdamagemodel. The two-component
storeonlyhalf of the strainenergyof dry specimens (Figure brittle fracturemodelis able to explainthe presenceof zones
5). MaximumAE energy(Table 1) dependson the loading with highly fracturedcalcite cement surroundedby nearly
path.Thevaluesincrease from1 mV s (loadingpathA-B), to intactquartzgrains.The onsetof microfracturing occursin the
4 mV s (pathA-C), andto 5 mV s (pathA-D) for partiallywet weak calcite minerals, where G values are low. The amount
cores.AE durationtime increasescorrespondingly
from 1 ms, and distribution of calcite controls the total number of cracks
to 6 ms, and to 22 ms for respectiveloading paths. For (or AE), andmoreimportant,alsothe fracturestrengthof the
samples subjected to loading path A-D, the averaged composite.Strong quartz grains with high G values are
maximumdurationtime dropsfrom 74 msfor dry to 20 ms for shielded from cracking (barriers), because weak cement
fully wet specimens.In conclusion,increasingstressyields minerals absorb most of the applied stressesby large
stronger AE with longer duration time independentof deformationsandstress-induced
microfracturing.
17,520 ZANG ET AL.: DRY AND WET SANDSTONE FAILURE

Future AE studiesfocusingon full waveform analysisof onthebaseof determination

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(ReceivedOctober13,1995;revisedApril 5,1996;
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