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Learning Outcomes (CO2)
PHD112/PHC112
CELL BIOLOGY/LIFE SCIENCES
Chapter 2
Lecture : Cell Respiration
By Mdm Roz Azinur Che Lamin
Introduction : How Cells Release
Chemical Energy
All energy-releasing pathways :
• require characteristic starting materials
• yield predictable products and by-
products
• produce ATP
At the end of this lecture, students should be able :
• To explain the fundamental differences anaerobic
and aerobic respiration.
• To discuss the raw materials and products of each
of these processes: glycolysis, fermentation, the
Krebs cycle, and electron transfer phosphorylation.
• To describe process of alternative energy
pathways such as fats, proteins and glycogen.
ATP Is Universal Energy Source
• Photosynthesis get energy from the sun
• Animals get energy second- or third-hand
from plants or other organisms
• Regardless, the energy is converted to the
chemical bond energy of ATP
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Making ATP Main Types of

Energy-Releasing Pathways

• Plants make ATP during photosynthesis Anaerobic pathways Aerobic pathways

• Cells of all organisms make ATP by breaking

• Evolved first • Evolved later
down carbohydrates, fats, and protein • Don’t require oxygen • Require oxygen
• Start with glycolysis in • Start with glycolysis
cytoplasm in cytoplasm
• Completed in cytoplasm
• Completed in
mitochondria

Energy-Releasing Pathways
Overview of Aerobic Respiration

C6H1206 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H20

glucose oxygen carbon water
dioxide

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Main Pathways Start

with Glycolysis
The Role of Coenzymes

• NAD+ and FAD accept electrons and

• Glycolysis occurs in cytoplasm
hydrogen from intermediates during the
• Reactions are catalyzed by enzymes first two stages

Glucose 2 Pyruvate • When reduced, they are NADH and

FADH2
(six carbons) (three carbons)
• In the third stage, these coenzymes
deliver the electrons and hydrogen to the
transfer chain

Overview of Aerobic Respiration

cytoplasm glucose
Glucose
2 ATP ATP
GLYCOLYSIS
energy input to
e- + H+
• A simple sugar
start reactions (2 ATP net)
2 pyruvate
2 NADH

mitochondrion
2 NADH
e- + H+ 2 CO2 (C6H12O6)
e- + H+
8 NADH 4 CO2
e- + H+ Krebs
2 ATP
2 FADH2 Cycle

• Atoms held
e- ELECTRON
TRANSPORT
PHOSPHORYLATION
32 ATP together by
covalent bonds
H+ water

e- +oxygen
TYPICAL ENERGY YIELD: 36 ATP

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Glycolysis Occurs Energy-Requiring Steps

in Two Stages
ENERGY-REQUIRING STEPS
OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Energy-requiring steps
glucose
ATP
ADP 2 ATP invested

– ATP energy activates glucose and its six-carbon P

glucose–6–phosphate
derivatives
P
• Energy-releasing steps ATP
fructose–6–phosphate

– The products of the first part are split into three- ADP
P P
fructose–1,6–bisphosphate DHAP
carbon pyruvate molecules
– ATP and NADH form

Energy-Releasing Steps
ENERGY-RELEASINGSTEPS
Net Energy Yield from Glycolysis
OF GLYCOLYSIS
PGAL PGAL
NAD+
Pi NADH
NAD+
Pi NADH Energy requiring steps:
P P P P 2 ATP invested
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
substrate-level
ADP ADP phosphorylation
ATP ATP
2 ATP invested

P P
Energy releasing steps:
3-phosphoglycerate 3-phosphoglycerate
2 NADH formed
P P

2-phosphoglycerate 2-phosphoglycerate 4 ATP formed

H2O H2O
P P

ADP
PEP

ATP ADP
PEP

ATP
substrate-level
phosphorylation
Net yield is 2 ATP and 2 NADH
2 ATP invested

pyruvate pyruvate

to second set of reactions

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Preparatory reactions/ Pyruvate

Second-Stage Reactions oxidation
• Occur in the
inner outer
mitochondria mitochondrial mitochondrial

– Pyruvate is oxidized (one of the carbons from

membrane membrane

• Pyruvate is broken pyruvate is released) and CO2 is given off.

down to carbon – Two carbon acetyl group is attached to
dioxide coenzyme A (coA), forming acetyl-CoA.
– NAD+ is reduced and NADH results.
• More ATP is formed inner outer
compartment compartment

• More coenzymes are

reduced

Preparatory Reactions What Is Acetyl-CoA?

pyruvate + coenzyme A + NAD + • A two-carbon acetyl group linked to
coenzyme A
acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2 CH3

• Total products per glucose= 2acetyl-CoA + 2NADH

Acetyl group
C=O
+ 2CO2 Coenzyme A
• Acetyl-CoA will be used in the Krebs cycle

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2nd Stage of Aerobic Respiration

Acetyl-CoA
Formation
coenzyme A
pyruvate The Krebs Cycle/ Citric acid cycle
NAD+
(CO2) NADH
CoA
acetyl-CoA Overall Reactants Overall Products
Krebs Cycle
CoA
• Acetyl-CoA • Coenzyme A
• 3 NAD+ • 2 CO2
oxaloacetate citrate
• FAD • 3 NADH
NADH
NAD+
NAD+
NADH • ADP and Pi • FADH2
FADH2 NAD+ • ATP
FAD
NADH

ATP ADP +
phosphate
group

Coenzyme Reductions during

First Two Stages
Electron Transport Chain

• Glycolysis 2 NADH • Occurs in the mitochondria

• Preparatory
reactions 2 NADH • Coenzymes deliver electrons to electron
• Krebs cycle 2 FADH2 + 6 NADH transfer chains

• Total 2 FADH2 + 10 • Electron transfer sets up H+ ion gradients

NADH
• Flow of H+ down gradients powers ATP
formation

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Electron Transport glucose Creating an H+ Gradient

GLYCOLYSIS

Chain pyruvate

OUTER COMPARTMENT
 Electron transfer chains KREBS
CYCLE

are embedded in inner

mitochondrial ELECTRONTRANSFER
PHOSPHORYLATION
NADH
compartment

 NADH and FADH2 give up electrons that they

picked up in earlier stages to ETC
 Electrons are transferred through the chain
 The final electron acceptor is oxygen INNER COMPARTMENT

ATP Formation Summary of Transfers

glucose
ATP

2 PGAL
ATP

2 NADH
ATP 2 pyruvate
INNER
glycolysis
COMPARTMENT

2 FADH2
2 CO2 e–
2 acetyl-CoA
2 NADH
H+
H+
ADP 2 ATP Krebs
6 NADH KREBS
ATP CYCLE H+
+ Cycle
2 FADH2
H+
ATP
Pi 4 CO2 36 ATP
H+

H+
ADP
electron + Pi
transfer H+
H+
phosphorylation
H+

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Summary of Energy Harvest (per

Importance of Oxygen molecule of glucose)
• Glycolysis
• Electron transport chain requires the
presence of oxygen – 2 ATP formed by substrate-level
phosphorylation
• Krebs cycle and preparatory reactions
• Oxygen withdraws spent electrons
from the electron transfer chain, then – 2 ATP formed by substrate-level
combines with H+ to form water phosphorylation
• Electron transport chain
– 34 ATP formed

Energy Harvest from

Coenzyme Reductions
• What are the sources of electrons used to
generate the 34 ATP in the final stage?
– 4 ATP - generated using electrons released
during glycolysis and carried by NADH2 (2)
– 34 ATP - generated using electrons formed
during second-stage reactions and carried by
NADH (8) and FADH2 (2)
Energy Harvest Varies
• NADH formed in cytoplasm cannot enter
mitochondrion
• It delivers electrons to mitochondrial
membrane
• Membrane proteins shuttle electrons to
NAD+ or FAD inside mitochondrion
• Electrons given to FAD yield less ATP than
those given to NAD+

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Energy Harvest Varies
• Skeletal muscle and brain cells Electrons
from first-stage reactions are delivered to
NAD+ in mitochondria
– Total energy harvest is 38 ATP
• Liver, kidney, heart cells
Electrons from first-stage reactions are
delivered to FAD in mitochondria
– Total energy harvest is 36 ATP
Anaerobic Pathways
• Do not use oxygen
• Produce less ATP than aerobic pathways
• Two types of fermentation pathways
– Alcoholic fermentation
– Lactate fermentation
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Efficiency of
Aerobic Respiration
• 686 kcal of energy are released
• 7.5 kcal are conserved in each ATP
• When 38 ATP form, 270 kcal (38 X 7.5) are
captured in ATP
• Efficiency is 270 / 686 X 100 = 39 percent
• Most energy is lost as heat
Fermentation Pathways
• Begin with glycolysis
• Do not break glucose down completely to
carbon dioxide and water
• Yield only the 2 ATP from glycolysis
• Steps that follow glycolysis serve only to
regenerate NAD+
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Alcoholic Fermentation Yeasts

• Pyruvic acid from glycolysis loses one C in the • Single-celled fungi
form of CO2 to form acetaldehyde, which is
reduced to ethyl alcohol by NADH. • Carry out alcoholic fermentation

• NADH becomes NAD+ (is oxidized). This is the • Saccharomyces cerevisiae

fermentation that commonly occurs in yeast.
• Like lactic acid fermentation, alcoholic
fermentation allows glycolysis to continue by
ensuring that NADH is returned to its oxidized
state (NAD+).
• Baker’s yeast
– Carbon dioxide makes bread dough rise
• Saccharomyces ellipsoideus
– Used to make beer and wine

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Alcoholic Fermentation Lactate Fermentation

glycolysis
C6H12O6
2 ATP
energy input 2 ADP
• Carried out by certain bacteria
2 NAD+

2 NADH
4 ATP • Electron transfer chain is in bacterial plasma
energy output 2 pyruvate
membrane
2 ATP net
ethanol
formation
2 H2O
2 CO2
• Final electron acceptor is compound from
2 acetaldehyde environment (such as nitrate), not oxygen
electrons, hydrogen
fromNADH • ATP yield is low
2 ethanol

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Lactate Fermentation (cont’)

• Pyruvic acid from glycolysis is reduced to

lactate by NADH, which is then oxidized
to NAD+.

• This commonly occurs in muscle cells.

• Lactic acid fermentation allows glycolysis

to continue by ensuring that NADH is
returned to its oxidized state (NAD+).

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Lactate Fermentation
glycolysis
C6H12O6

2 ATP

energy input 2 ADP 2 NAD+

2 NADH
4 ATP

energy output 2 pyruvate

2 ATP net

lactate
formation
electrons, hydrogen
fromNADH

2 lactate

Carbohydrate Breakdown &

Storage
Making Glycogen
• If glucose intake is high, ATP-making machinery
• Glucose is absorbed into blood goes into high gear

• Pancreas releases insulin • When ATP levels rise high enough, glucose-6-
phosphate is diverted into glycogen synthesis
• Insulin stimulates glucose uptake by cells (mainly in liver and muscle)

• Cells convert glucose to glucose-6- • Glycogen is the main storage polysaccharide in

phosphate animals

• This traps glucose in cytoplasm where it can

be used for glycolysis

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Using Glycogen
• When blood levels of glucose decline,
pancreas releases glucagon
• Glucagon stimulates liver cells to convert
glycogen back to glucose and to release it to
the blood
• (Muscle cells do not release their stored
glycogen)
Energy from Fats
• Most stored fats are triglycerides
• Triglycerides are broken down to glycerol and fatty
acids
• Glycerol is converted to PGAL, an intermediate of
glycolysis
• Fatty acids are broken down and converted to
acetyl-CoA, which enters Krebs cycle
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Energy Reserves
• Glycogen makes up only about 1% of the
body’s energy reserves
• Proteins make up 21% of energy reserves
• Fat makes up the bulk of reserves (78%)
Energy from Fats
• Most stored fats are triglycerides
• Triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and
fatty acids
• Glycerol is converted to PGAL, an intermediate of
glycolysis
• Fatty acids are broken down and converted to
acetyl-CoA, which enters Krebs cycle
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Reaction Sites
Energy from Proteins FOOD

complex
fats glycogen carbohydrates proteins

fatty simple sugars amino acids

acids glycerol (e.g., glucose)

• Proteins are broken down to amino acids glucose-6-

phosphate
NH3

urea
carbon
backbones

PGAL

• Amino acids are broken apart

2 ATP glycolysis 4 ATP

(2 ATP net)
NADH pyruvate

• Amino group is removed, ammonia forms, is Acetyl-CoA

NADH CO2

converted to urea and excreted NADH,

FADH2
Krebs
Cycle
2 ATP
CO2
e–

• Carbon backbones can enter the Krebs

ATP
ATP
ATP

many ATP
cycle or its preparatory reactions H+
e– + oxygen
fats

Evolution of Processes
Metabolic Pathways Are Linked
• When life originated, atmosphere had little oxygen
Aerobic Respiration Photosynthesis
• Earliest organisms used anaerobic pathways • Reactants • Reactants
– Sugar – Carbon dioxide
• Later, noncyclic pathway of photosynthesis
increased atmospheric oxygen – Oxygen – Water

• Products • Products
• Cells arose that used oxygen as final acceptor in
– Carbon dioxide – Sugar
electron transfer
– Water – Oxygen

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Life Is System
of Prolonging Order
• Powered by energy inputs from sun, life continues
onward through reproduction
• Following instructions in DNA, energy and
materials can be organized, generation after
generation
• With death, molecules are released and may be
cycled as raw material for next generation
END OF LECTURE
Thank You
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Conclusion
• ATP is a common energy currency that drives
metabolic reaction in cells.
• ATP can be produced by aerobic and
anaerobic respiration
• Aerobic respiration involve the process of
glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Kreb cycle
electron transport chain.
• Anaerobic respiration involve glycolisys only.
• Fat and protein can be the alternative for
alternative energy source
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