MITOCHONDRIA &

CHLOROPLASTS
Structures & Functions
 OBJECTIVES
• To describe the parts and functions of
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• To compare and contrast the following in
terms of input and output
ØStages of cellular respiration
ØLight dependent and light independent reactions
ØTo distinguish the three pathways of Carbon
dioxide fixation
 §Rod-shaped organelles
Mitochondria
(Singular: Mitochondrion) §Occupy 15-20% of the volume of an average
mammalian liver cell.

§has its own circular DNA (similar to the DNA of

prokaryotes) and reproduces independently of
the cell in which it is found.

•Mitochondrial DNA is localized to the matrix,

which also contains a host of enzymes, as well as
ribosomes for protein synthesis.

•The outer membrane contains many channels

formed by the protein porin and acts like a sieve,
filtering out molecules that are too big.

•Similarly, the inner membrane, which is highly

convoluted so that a large number of infoldings
called cristae are formed, also allows only certain
molecules to pass through it and is much more
selective than the outer membrane.
Contrary to their illustration as ovoid structures in most textbooks, mitochondria are actually
dynamic organelles that fuse and divide to form constantly changing tubular networks inmost
eukaryotic cells
http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/mitochondrial-fusion-and-division-14264007#
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION
STAGES INPUT OUTPUT SITE
ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS 2 ATP 2 ATP (net) Cytoplasm
RESPIRATION 1 Glucose 2 Pyruvate
2 NAD 2 NADH

AEROBIC TRANSITION/ 2 Pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA Matrix of

RESPIRATION OXIDATIVE 2 NAD 2 NADH Mitochondrion
DECARBOXYLATION/ 2 CO2
PYRUVATE OXIDATION
KREB’S CYCLE/ 2 Acetyl CoA 2 ATP Matrix of
CITRIC ACID CYCLE 6 NAD 6 NADH Mitochondrion
2 FAD 2 FADH2
4 CO2

ELECTRON TRANSPORT 2 NADH 4 or 6 ATP Inner membrane of

CHAIN (from Glycolysis) 6 ATP Mitochondrion
2 NADH 16 ATP
(from Transition) 4 ATP
6 NADH 6 H2O
(from Kreb’s Cycle)
2 FADH2
(from Kreb’s Cycle)
6 O2
7
Summary of Glycolysis
INPUT OUTPUT
1 Glucose 2 Pyruvate
2 ATP 4 ATP
2 NAD+ 2 NADH

§Occurs in cytoplasm
§ beginning pathway for both aerobic
& anaerobic respiration
§ can occur in oxygen-rich & oxygen
poor cytoplasm
§ Oxygen plays no role in this process
§ requires NAD+ to function
§ lack of Oxygen leads to NADH build
up that causes a shortage of NAD+
Summary of Glycolysis
INPUT OUTPUT
1 Glucose 2 Pyruvate
2 ATP 4 ATP
2 NAD+ 2 NADH

§Occurs in cytoplasm
§ beginning pathway for both aerobic
& anaerobic respiration
§ can occur in oxygen-rich & oxygen
poor cytoplasm
§ Oxygen plays no role in this process
§ requires NAD+ to function
§ lack of Oxygen leads to NADH build
up that causes a shortage of NAD+
Summary of Transition
INPUT OUTPUT
2 Pyruvate 2 Acetyl CoA
2 CO2
2 NAD 2 NADH
Kreb’s Cycle
Summary of Kreb’s Cycle
INPUT OUTPUT
2 Acetyl CoA 4CO2
2 ADP 2 ATP
6 NAD+ 6 NADH
2 FAD 2 FADH2
§ Citric Acid Cycle
§ occurs in the matrix of Mitochondria
 Summary of Electron Transport Chain

INPUT OUTPUT
2 NADH (from Glycolysis) 4 or 6 ATP
2 NADH (from Transition) 6 ATP
6 NADH (from Kreb’s Cycle) 16 ATP
2 FADH2(from Kreb’s Cycle) 4 ATP
6 O2 6 H2O
Chloroplast
• Chloroplasts are highly dynamic organelles that continuously
regulate their size, shape, and numbers (Pyke, 2013). These
dynamic processes play a critical role in cell physiology.
• Apart from being responsible for photosynthesis, chloroplasts
provide a multifunction platform to the plant cell, contributing to
the synthesis of lipids, amino acids, nucleotides, and various
hormones, and to nitrogen and sulphur assimilation (Ohlrogge and
Browse, 1995; Neuhaus and Emes, 2000; Lopez-Juez and Pyke,
2005). Because of their semi-autonomous nature (Timmis et al.,
2004), all of these diverse functions are tightly regulated by both
interchloroplastic crosstalk and communication with other cell
organelles (Raghavendra and Padmasree, 2003; Nott et al., 2006;
Jarvis and Lopez-Juez, 2013; Bulychev and Komarova, 2015).
Chloroplast continuity during cell division and their accumulation to
high numbers in photosynthetic tissues are maintained by division
of pre-existing chloroplasts (Osteryoung and Pyke, 2014).
https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/68/13/3541/3883924
Retrieved on Nov 18, 2017
Retrieved from http://www.flickr.com/photos/59094351@N02/favorites/
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
2 REACTIONS INPUT OUTPUT Site where
the process
occurs
LIGHT REACTIONS/ Light energy Thylakoid/
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS/ Granum/
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
12 H2O 6 O2
Grana
ADP + P 18 ATP of Chloroplast

NADP 12 NADPH

DARK REACTIONS/ 6 CO2 1 Glucose Stroma of

BIOCHEMICAL REACTIONS/ Chloroplast
LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS/
CALVIN-BENSON CYCLE 18 ATP 18 ADP
18 Phosphates

12 NADPH 12 NADP+
12 H+

6H2O
 Photosystem
• A photosystem is an assemblage of 200-400
pigment molecules together with a primary
electron acceptor & a series of electron
carriers.
• Located within the thylakoid membrane, its
function is to capture light energy for
photosynthesis
 Photosystem I Photosystem II
Kinds of Chlorophyll a (most Chlorophyll a
Pigments abundant) Chlorophyll b (more abundant
, Chlorophyll b, than a) Carotenoids
Carotenoids
Reaction P 700 P680
Center (absorbs wavelengths (absorbs wavelengths that are
that are 700 nm (red) & 680 nm (red) & less
less
Primary FeS Substance Q
electron
acceptor

Schaum’s 3000 solved problems in Biology

 Light Dependent Reaction
CYCLIC NONCYCLIC
Occurs in Thylakoid membrane Thylakoid membrane

Input Light Light & water

Product/S ATP NADPH, ATP, & *Oxygen

*Oxygen produced comes from
water
Photosystem/s Photosystem I Photosystem II & I
involved
Accomplished Captured energy in the form of Captured energy in the form of
ATP ATP, NADPH; transfers H (as
NADPH) to the dark reactions
• First to evolve Main way in which plants harvest
•Cannot lead to the synthesis of light
sugar because it provides no
NADPH for reducing carbon
dioxide
•Inefficient way of harvesting light Efficient way of harvesting light
 Calvin-Benson Cycle
Reactants & products per glucose molecule produced

Used Produced
6 CO2 12 PGAL (two become 1 glucose)

6 RuBP 18 phosphates (return to light reactions)

18 ATP (from light reactions) 18 ADP (return to light reactions)

12 NADPH 12 NADP (return to light reactions)
(from light reactions)
12 H+ (return to light reactions)

6 H2O

Schaum’s 3000 Solved Problems in Biology (1989)

 Light Light
Dependent Independent
CYCLIC NONCYCLIC
Occurs in Thylakoid Thylakoid Stroma of chloroplast
membrane of membrane of
chloroplast chloroplast
Input Light Light & water NADPH, ATP, & CO2
*More ATP is used than
NADPH, which creates the
need for the cyclic light
reaction
Product/S ATP NADPH, ATP, & Sugar, NADP, ADP
*Oxygen
*Oxygen produced
comes from water
Photosystem/s Photosystem I Photosystem II & I
involved
3 PATHWAYS OF
CO2 FIXATION
1) 3-Carbon Pathway
„ first stable product is a
3-carbon sugar called
3-phosphoglycerate (PGA)
The Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages: carboxylation, reduction, and regeneration

Carboxylation of the CO2 acceptor,

ribulose-1, 5-biphosphate, forming two
molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate.

Rubisco – the enzyme ribulose

biphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase

Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate to
form glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
which can be used in formation of
carbon compounds that are
translocated.

Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor

ribulose-1, 5-biphosphate from
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
Calvin Cycle
2) 4-Carbon Pathway
„ first stable product is a
4-carbon sugar called
oxaloacetate (OOA)
„ occurs mostly in monocots
 C4 Pathway

Retrieved from http://www..learning.uonbi.ac.ke/courses/SBT306/scormPackages/path_2L6image22.JPG

Retrieved from http://www..hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology
 3) Crassulacean Acid
Metabolism
„ first studied in plants of Crassulacean
plants
„ fix CO2 at night into a 4-carbon acid (Malic Acid)
that is stored in the vacuole until daylight when
acid is split and the CO2 is used in the Calvin cycle

„ pathway that maximizes water use efficiency

CAM Pathway

Retrieved from http://www..cambiodesign.org

 C3, majority of C4, e.g., sugar CAM,
species cane, corn e.g., cacti

Leaf structure Bundle sheath Bundle sheath Mesophyll cells

cells lack cells have have large
chloroplasts chloroplasts vacuoles

Efficiency in Can be sun Ineffective CO2 capture

light or shade plants in shade at night

Typical habitat Requires Arid or Arid

characteristics relatively tropical environments
moist habitats regions

Productivity Moderate High Low

Optimum 30-40oC
15-25oC 35oC
Temperature
The heavens declare the glory of God.

Psalm 19:1 NIV