Lecture 24: Mammals II

1. Primates
2. Hominid Evolution (from primates to humans)
3. Central Nervous System

1. Primates
• Have an Arboreal ancestor Primates developed most of their traits initially while living in trees.
• 230 - 270 species
• Grasping limbs with opposable thumb
• Forward-facing eyes that enhances Depth perception
• Big Cerebrum (part of the brain that is responsible for language, memory storage…) and
humans have
• Highly social
o Reduced brood size and extended parental care (produce a little number to take
care of them)

Primates  all have eyes in front of the face and grasping hand
Two major groups:
• Prosimians
• Anthropoids  larger brain size
48% of primate species are in danger of extinction within the next decade

Prosimians (e.g. Galago, lemur, oris)

 Mostly arboreal & nocturnal
 Once found on all continents, but now mostly restricted to areas like Madagascar, Africa
and south east Africa (e.g. lemurs are only found in Madagascar)
 Lemurs in Madagascar have radiated (in the absence of other primates). Therefore, they
are no more arboreal or nocturnal, not all found in trees and some are diurnal
Many species are threatened or endangered (habitat loss, activity of humans…)
 Species was thought to be extinct since 1939, but has recently seen

Tarsier (big eyes): Are among the smallest primates

they are the only entirely carnivorous primate
fossils found in Asia, Europe, and North America

New World vs Old World Monkeys

• Prehensile tail = tail used to grasp/hold objects (branches)
o not present in Old world monkeys)
o Present in most New world monkeys
• New World monkeys also have flat noses

Gibbons, Orangutangs and African Apes

Lack tails
Gibbons: smaller than other apes, mostly arboreal. They have long arms which enable them to
move from tree to tree
Orangutans: too large to cross from one tree to another by the branches and must go down to
the ground and walk between them
African Apes (such as gorillas (rarer, from Eastern Africa and Uganda), chimpanzees, and
hominids) (note: we are more closely related to chimpanzee than gorillas)

 Oldest hominids fossils: A Ramidus “Ardipithecus”

In 2009, fossils of Ardipithicine ancestor uncovered dating back 4.4 mya
•Important fossil since it suggests it walked upright and didn't use its arms for walking, as
chimps do, yet it retains a primitive big toe that could grasp a tree like an ape

 “Australopithecus” fossils (A.afarensis & A africanus )

Australopithecus (all extinct)
• Brains ~35% size of modern human brain (large exaggeration of the brain)
–Australopithecus afarensis
• “Lucy” that existed 3.5 MYA in Ethiopia, almost complete skeleton.
- provided evidence that bipedalism evolved before brains fully evolved since it was an upright
walker but had a small brain.

 Early homo (H habilis, H erectus, H ergaster) had a flatter face and larger brain
respective to the whole-body size
Early Homo species
•Homo habilis “handy/skillful” (used tools)
– in Africa, 2.5-1.5 MYA
– first tool use 2 MYA
– Shorter jaw, bigger brain
•Homo erectus “standing”
– Believe to be first hominid to leave Africa (spread to Eurasia)  all hominid were believe to
be in Africa
– 1.6 MYA – 250,000 YA
– first evidence of fire use
– As large as modern humans, but
smaller brain, thick skull

 More recent homo species: (increasing flatness of the face and larger brain) Homo
neanderthalensis
Homo neanderthalensis
• discovered in Neander valley, Germany
•coexisted with H. sapiens (us) (but not in Africa)
• disappeared ~30,000 YA, possibly due to extermination by H. sapiens
• short, stalky • brains larger than H. sapiens Homo sapiens
• ~0.2 MYA also arose in Africa• also spread out of Africa across Eurasia and to rest of world
 • Larger brains than earlier Homospecies, favoring increasingly complex social life
(improved language and communication skills)

Did Homo sapiens interbreed with Neanderthals?

 Molecular data and DNA analysis shows that: 1.5-2.1% of DNA in non-Africans humans
(our DNA) is estimated to be from Neanderthals so we did interbreed with
Neanderthals while they spread out of Africa.
Also, 4-6% of DNA in Melanesians (in Australia and new Guinea) is estimated to be from
Denisovans (another extinct human group)

Neanderthal DNA is decreasing in modern history through time:

Human bones from different time frame in Ice Aged Europe shows that the DNA of Neanderthal
is decreasing. (because of some of the genetic disorder of humans)

 Homo floresiensis (another species that coexisted with Homo sapiens)

• Found on Flores, Indonesia
•small brain size to body
• survived until 17,000 YA
• volcanic eruption likely caused its extinction

Mammalian Nervous System is divided into 2 components:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) (consist of the brain and the spinal chord)
 dorsal, hollow tube of nervous tissue
large cephalic ganglion (brain)
long tube inferior to it (spinal cord)
Both brain and spinal cord protected by bone

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) (nerve coming from that nervous system)
 system of lateral nerves
cranial nerves from the brain
spinal nerves from the spinal cord

we can divide the nerves into receiving informationneural afferents

and sending information out of the brain  neural efferent
and also divide into things we are conscious about and things we are unconscious.

The brain is divided into regions

 Cerebrum which is responsible for conscious, thought and memory
 Diencephalon: information relay and help control homeostasis
 Cerebellum: coordination of motor patterns
 Brain stem: information relay and autonomic control of the heart, lung and digestive
system
The cerebrum
  Have 4 lobes:
1. The frontal lobe
2. The parietal lobe
3. The occipital lobe
4. The temporal lobe
They are each formed of two hemispheres: the left and the right
 Enlarged in primates
– intellect, learning, memory, language & consciousness
 Divided into 2 hemispheres
Top layer = cerebral cortex, rich in cell bodies
-grooves & ridges, increases surface area

The frontal lobe: has a lot to do with the personality and communication
The temporal lobe: responsible for recognition (e.g. of faces)

Limbic system:
 Include amygdala, hippocampus and nucleus accumbens
 Responsible for basic physiological drives like hunger, thirst, emotions, long-term
memory
 “pleasure and pain centres” are located there

Hippocampus: responsible for spatial memory (region enlarged in taxi drivers)

Amygdala: process for sound and code whether we like the sound or not (perception of that
sound)