Chapter 2

BIOPSYCHOLOGY
 From Dichotomies to
Relations and Interactions
• There is a tendency to think in simple
dichotomies when explaining behavior:
– Is it physiological or psychological?
– Is it inherited or is it learned?

• Both questions are common, yet

misguided
 Is It Physiological or
Psychological?
• Cartesian dualism: Descartes argued that
the universe consists of two elements
– Physical matter
– Human mind (soul, self, or spirit)
• Cartesian dualism viewed the mind and
brain as separate entities
 Is It Inherited or Is It Learned?
• The “nature-nurture” issue
• Watson, a behaviorist, believed that all
behavior was the product of learning
(nurture)
• Ethology, the study of animal behavior in
the wild, focuses on instinctive (nature)
behaviors
 Problems of Traditional
Dichotomies: Mind-Brain Dualism
• Problem 1: Brain damage
has an impact on psycho-logical
functioning. Example: Oliver Sacks’s
case study of a man with asomatognosia
• Deficiency in awareness
of parts of one’s own body
• Due to damage to the
right parietal lobe
 FIGURE 2.1 Asomatognosia typically
involves damage to the right parietal
lobe.
 Problems of Traditional
Dichotomies: Mind-Brain Dualism
• Problem 2: Chimps show psychological
(i.e., “human”) abilities. For example:
Gallup’s research on chimp self-
awareness
– Chimps spontaneously groom themselves in
mirror
– Chimps examine and touch red mark on their
own face seen in mirror
 Problems of Traditional 

Dichotomies: Nature-or-Nurture
• Many factors have an impact on behavior other
than genetics (nature) or learning (nurture)
• “Nurture” now encompasses learning and
environment
• While it is generally accepted that behavior is a
product of nature and nurture, many still ask how
much is determined by each, but genetic and
experiential factors do not merely combine in an
additive fashion
– interactionism
A Model of the Biology of Behavior
All behavior is the product of
interactions among three factors:
(1) the organism’s genetic endowment,
which is a product of its evolution;
(2) its experience;
(3) its perception of the current situation.

Heredity (Evolution), Environment,

Experiences
 Human Evolution

• While Darwin was not the first to

propose that species evolve, he was the
first to compile supporting evidence
(and to suggest how evolution works)
• Darwin presented 3 kinds of evidence
• Darwin argued that evolution occurs
through natural selection
 Human Evolution: Evidence

for Evolution
• Darwin’s evidence
– Fossil evidence of evolution
– Structural similarities among living species
suggesting common ancestors
– Impact of selective breeding
• Direct observation of evolution in progress:
Grant (1991)
FIGURE 2.4 Four kinds of evidence
supporting the theory that species
evolve.
 Human Evolution
• Darwin argued that evolution occurs through natural selection:
nature creates fitter animals by selectively breeding the
fittest
• Survival of the fittest. Those that can reproduce more and
quicker than other have higher amounts of surviving.
• It only means that nature effectively selects. That organisms
that are better adapted to their environment tend to survive
longer and transmit more of their genetic characteristics to
succeeding generations than do those that are less well adapted.
 Human Evolution
• FITNESS.
– is the ability of an organism to survive and contribute its
genes to the next generation.

• Just as physical features can contribute to “fitness,” so do

behaviors
• Some are obvious—the ability to find food, avoid predation, etc.
• Some are less obvious—social dominance and courtship
displays
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Vertebrates
– About 600 million years ago; complex multicellular
water dwelling organisms first appeared
– About 150 million years later; the first CHORDATES
evolved.
• Chordates – animals with dorsal nerve cords
• They are 1 of the 20 or so large categories (Phyla) into
which zoologists group animal species
• The first chordate with Spinal Bones to protect their dorsal
nerve cords evolved about 25 million years ago
• Vertebrae - spinal cords
• Vertebrate – chordates that posses spinal bones
• Primitive Bony Fishes - first vertebrae
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Vertebrates
– Today, they are SEVEN CLASSES of VERTEBRATES:
1. 3 classes of fishes
2. Amphibians
3. Reptiles
4. Birds
5. Mammals
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Amphibians
– About 400 million years ago, the first bony
fishes started to venture out of the water
Advantages of fishes that could stay on land for
brief period of time :
– They could escape from stagnant pools to nearby fresh water;
– They could take advantage of terrestrial food sources
– The first amphibians evolved about 400 years ago
( when the fins and gills of the bony fishes were
transformed to legs and lungs) (frogs, toads and
salamanders)
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Reptiles
– About 300 million years ago, reptiles (lizards,
snakes and turtles) evolved from a branch of
amphibians

Reptiles were the first vertebrates (a) to lay shell-

covered eggs and (b) to be covered by dry scales
(these two adaptations reduce their reliance on watery habitats)
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
– About 180 million years ago, during the height of the
age of dinosaurs, Mammals evolved from 1 line of small
reptiles.
Mammals – females of this class fed their young with
secretions from special glands called mammary glands
– they stop laying eggs
– Instead, they nurtured their young in the watery environment of
their bodies until the young were mature enough to be born
Trivia: Duck-billed platypus – one surviving mammalian
specie that lay eggs.
The watery environment of mammal’s body has proven to
have a considerable survival value – long term security
and environmental stability necessary for complex
organs of development to unfold.
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
– There are about 20 different orders of mammals.
– Primates – the order to which humans belong; came from
the latin term Primus which means first/foremost.
– There are 5 known families of primates
1. Apes – gibbons, orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees
- They have long arms and grasping hind feet that are
specialized for arboreal (treetop level) travel
- They have opposable thumbs that are not long enough to be of
much use for precise manipulation
- They have no tails
- They can walk upright for short distances
Trivia: Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives of humans.
Almost 99% genes are identical.
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
2. Old World Monkey - includes Hussar Monkey
- they have long arms and grasping hind feet that are
specialized for treetop level travel
- they have tails
- they can walk upright for short distances
3. New World Monkey - includes Squirrel Monkey
4. Prosimian- includes Tarsus Monkey
5. Hominins – primates of the family that includes humans.
- is composed of two Genera:
5.1 . Australopithecus
5.2. Homo
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
5.1. Australopithecus
– Evolved about 6 millions year ago in Africa from a
line of Apes
– Came from words Australo which means Southern
and Pithecus which mean Ape.
– They are thought to have roamed the African plains
for about 5 million years before becoming extinct
– They were only about 1.3 meters or 4 feet tall
– They had small brains
– Their posture was upright as humans
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
5.1. Homo
– Composed of 2 species:
» Homo Erectus – which is now extinct
» Homo Sapiens – Humans
– the first homo species are thought to have evolved
from one species of Australopithecus about 2 million
years ago.
– One distinctive feature of the early Homo was their
large b r a i n c a v i t y, l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f
Australopithecus but smaller than that of the humans.
– Early homo species used fire and tools
– Coexisted in Africa with various species of
Australopithecus for about half million years.
 Course of Human Evolution
Evolution of Mammals
5.1. Homo
– About 200, 000 years ago, they were replaced by
modern humans.
– Then, at about 50,000 years ago, Modern humans
began to migrate out of Africa.
3 Big Human Attributes
1. Large Brain
2. Upright posture
3. Free hands with opposable thumbs
 Thinking about Human Evolution
Continued
• Humans have only been around for a
brief period of time
• Rapid evolutionary changes do occur
• Fewer than 1% of all known species are
still in existence
 Thinking about Human Evolution
Continued
• Evolution does not necessarily result in
perfect design
• Not all existing behaviors or structures
are adaptive
– Spandrels—incidental nonadaptive by-
products (such as the human belly button)
 Thinking about Human Evolution
Continued
• Not all existing adaptive characteristics
evolved to perform their current
function
– Exaptations – evolved to do one thing, but
now do something else (such as bird wings
- they are limbs that first evolved for the
purpose of walking. )
• Similarities among species do not
necessarily mean that the species have
common origins
 Thinking about Human Evolution
Continued

• Homologous structures – similar

structures due to a common
evolutionary origin
• Analogous structures – similar
structures without a common origin
 Evolution of the Human Brain
• There is no relationship between brain
size and intelligence
• Brain weight as a measure of
intellectual capacity
• Evolution of the different brain regions
(brain stem)
– Brains stem : regulates reflex activities that are critical for
survival.
FIGURE 2.13 The brains of animals
of different evolutionary ages.
Cerebrums are shown in yellow;
brainstems are shown in purple.
 Understanding Mate Bonding
● Most species mate promiscuously
● Most mammals form polygynous mating
bonds
● Humans generally form monogamous bonds
● May be adaptive in allowing more attention to
survival of children
Understanding Mate Bonding
● Promiscuity - a mating arrangement in which the
members of both sexes indiscriminately copulate
with many different partners during each mating
period.
● Insdiscriminate copulation – predominant mode of
reproduction
● Mating bonds – an enduring mating relationships that
is formed by males and females of same species with
members of the other sex.
 Understanding Mate Bonding
● Most mammals tend to form mating
bonds.
● This was supported by Trivers’ Theory

Kinds of Mating Bonds

1. Polygyny - most prevalent in mammals; an
arrangement in which one male forms mating bonds
with more than one female. Ex. Horses
2. Polyandry – one female forms mating bonds with
more than one male; does not occur in mammals.
Ex. Seahorse
3. Monogamy – (4 % of mammalian species); enduring
bonds are formed between one male and one
Thinking about Evolutionary Psycholog
● Current aspects of mate bonding in humans
appear to be predicted by evolutionary
theory. Examples:
● Men tend to value indications of fertility (youth &
attractiveness)
● Women tend to value power and earning capacity
● Physical attractiveness predicts which women bond
with men of high status
● Mate attraction strategies: for women, physical
attraction; for men, displaying power and resources
● Men are more likely than women to commit
adultery
Thinking about Evolutionary Psycholog
● Note: It is important to appreciate that
behavioral tendencies shaped by evolution
exist in humans without any need for our
awareness of them or their evolutionary
origins.
● It’s also important to remember that all
inherited tendencies are modulated by
experience.
Questions:
1. Why conspecifics differ from one
another?
2. How are anatomical,
physiological,and behavioral
characteristics passed from parent
to offspring?

Conspecific:
members of the same
specie
 Genetics
Who is Gregor Mendel?
“Father of Genetics”
 Traits
• Genetics – study of how traits are passed from
parent to offspring
• Traits are determined by the genes on the
chromosomes. A gene is a segment of DNA that
determines a trait.
• Chromosomes come in homologous pairs, thus
genes come in pairs.
Homologous pairs – matching genes – one from
female parent and one from male parent
• Example: Humans have 46 chromosomes or 23
pairs.
One set from dad – 23 in sperm
One set from mom – 23 in egg
• One pair of Homologous
Chromosomes:
Gene for eye
color (blue eyes)

Homologous
pair of
chromosomes

Gene for eye color

(brown eyes)

Alleles – different genes (possibilities) for the same

trait –
ex: blue eyes or brown eyes
Dominant and Recessive Genes
• Gene that prevents the other gene from “showing”
– dominant
• Gene that does NOT “show” even though it is
present – recessive

Recessive
Dominant color
color
 Genetics and Inheritance

• Psychologists agree that genetics play a role in our

basic makeup including our temperament, tendency
for fears and certain behavior patterns.

• Our genetic inheritance is broken into two

categories: genotype and phenotype.
 Genotype and Phenotype
• Genotype: An organism’s genetic makeup.
– The blueprint for what an organism is.

• Phenotype: An organism’s physical characteristics.

– This includes the chemistry and “wiring” in our brains.
Genotype and Phenotype
• Combination of genes an organism has (actual
gene makeup) – genotype – genetic material

• Physical appearance resulting from gene make-up

– phenotype. Phenotype refer organisms’
observable traits
 Sex Determination


• People – 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs
• 22 pairs are homologous (look alike) – called autosomes –
determine body traits
1 pair is the sex chromosomes – determines sex (male or
female)
• Females – sex chromosomes are homologous (look alike) –
label XX
Males – sex chromosomes are different – label XY
• What is the probability of a couple having a boy? Or a
girl?
Chance of having female baby?
50%
male baby?
50%
X X
X XX XX

Y XY XY

Who determines the sex of the child? father

Sex – linked Traits

• Traits that are influenced by

genes on the sex-chromosomes.
• All sex-linked traits are
controlled by genes on the X
Chromosome because the Y
chromosome is small and carries
few genes.
• Traits that are controlled by the
gene on the X chromosome occur
more frequently in one sex than
the other.
• Females have twice the chance of
inheriting the dominant gene
because they have twice the
number of X chromosomes.
• In contrast, recessive sex-linked
traits occur more frequently in
males because they have only 1 x


• Example: A female that has normal vision but is a
carrier for colorblindness marries a male with
normal vision. Give the expected phenotypes of
their children.
N = normal vision
n = colorblindness XN Xn X XN
Y
XN Xn
XN XNXN XNXn

Y XNY XnY
Phenotype: 2 normal vision
females
1 normal vision male
1 colorblind male
• 3 or more alleles of the same gene that code for a
single trait
• In humans, blood type is determined by 3 alleles – A, B,
and O
BUT each human can only inherit 2
alleles
1. Dominant – A and B (codominance)
Recessive – O
2. Blood type – A = AA or AO
B = BB or BO
AB = AB
O = OO
Example: What would be the possible blood types of
children born to a female with type AB blood and
a male with type O blood?

AB X OO
A B
O AO BO

O AO BO

Children would be type A or B

only
Meiosis
• The process of cell division that produces
gametes.
• Gametes are egg cells and sperm cells.
• In Meiosis, the chromosomes divide and one
chromosome of each pair goes to each of the 2
gametes that result from the cell division. As a
result each gamete has only half the usual
number of chromosomes (23 in humans); and
when a sperm and an egg cell combine during
fertilization, a zygote (fertilized egg cell) with
the full complement of chromosomes is
produced.
Mitosis
• The regular cell division in our body.
- Involves Chromosomal replication
- However, chromosomal replication does
not always go according to plan, there may
be hormones.
- Error in duplication takes form of
mutations
Mutations
• Mutation – sudden genetic change (change in base
pair sequence of DNA) . It is the accidental
alterations in individual genes
• Can be :
Harmful mutations – organism less able to survive:
genetic disorders, cancer, death
Beneficial mutations – allows organism to better
survive: provides genetic variation
Neutral mutations – neither
harmful nor helpful to
organism
• Mutations can occur in 2
ways: chromosomal
mutation or gene/point
Chromosomal mutation:
• less common than a gene mutation
• more drastic – affects entire chromosome, so
affects many genes rather than just one
• caused by failure of the homologous chromosomes
to separate normally during meiosis
• chromosome pairs no longer look the same – too
few or too many genes, different shape
• Examples:
Down’s syndrome – (Trisomy 21) 47 chromosomes,
extra chromosome at pair #21
Turner’s syndrome – only 45 chromosomes, missing
a sex chromosome (X)
Girls affected – short, slow growth, heart
problems
Klinefelter’s syndrome – 47 chromosomes, extra X
chromosomes (XXY)
Boys affected – low testosterone levels,
underdeveloped muscles, sparse facial hair
• Having an extra set of chromosomes is fatal in
animals, but in plants it makes them larger and
hardier.

Hardier
Gene or Point Mutation
• most common and least drastic
• only one gene is altered
Phenylketonuria (PKU) –
transmitted by a single gene
mutation (gene is recessive). It is
a disorder characterized with
symptoms such as mental
retardation, vomiting, seizures,
hyperactivity, hyperirritability
and brain damage.
Dominant gene mutations:
Huntington’s disease – gradual
deterioration of brain tissue,
shows up in middle age and is
fatal

Dwarfism – variety of skeletal

abnormalities