2.

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONCRETE
Definition
 The word Concrete comes from the
Latin verb “Concretus” which means to
grow together.

 Concrete is a composite material that

literally forms the basis of our modern
society.
Introduction

 Cement
 Water
 Fine Aggregate
 Coarse Aggregate
 Admixtures etc
Introduction
 Concrete is the most widely used man-made
construction material in the world, and the
second only to water as the most utilized
substance on the planet.
 Introduction
 The Strength, Durability and other characteristics of
concrete mostly depend upon the properties of its
ingredients, on mix design, method of casting and curing.

 Advantages of concretes

 Economical compared to other materials

 High compressive strength

 Easley handled and molded in to any shape or size

 Durable, fire resistant

 Introduction
 Disadvantages of concrete

 Low tensile strength

 Impervious to water

 Lack of ductility (with respect to earthquake)

 Creep

 Shrinkages
 Introduction
Challenges
 Portland cement is the most energy –intensive
materials
 About 5% world CO2 Are attributed to Portland
cement
 Costly
 Workability

 That property of freshly mixed

concrete that determines its working
characteristics, i.e. the ease with which it can
be mixed, placed, compacted and finished.
 Factors Affecting Workability
 Method and duration of transportation
 Quantity and characteristics of cementing
materials
 Concrete consistency (slump)
 Aggregate grading, shape & surface texture
 % entrained air
 Water content
 Concrete & ambient air temperature
 Admixtures
Cross Section of Hardened Concrete

Concrete made with

siliceous rounded
gravel

Concrete made with

crushed limestone
Hydration Heat of Hydration

─ is the chemical ─ is the heat given

reaction between off during the
the cement and chemical reaction as
water in which new the cement
compounds with hydrates.
strength producing
properties are
formed.
 Curing
─ satisfactory moisture content and temperature
in concrete for a suitable period of time
immediately following placing & finishing so that
the desired properties may develop.
 Time
 Temperature
 Moisture
Effect of Curing on Strength
Development
Concrete Strength Gain Versus Time for
Concrete Exposed to Outdoor Conditions
 Compressive Strength

 Is defined as the measured maximum

resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to
an axial load, usually expressed in MPa (psi) at
an age of 28-days.
 Most general use concrete 20 to 40 MPa

 High-strength concrete by definition 70 MPa or

greater
Compressive Strength
Test Specimen Sizes

 Mortar — 50 mm cubes

 Concrete

- 150 x 300 mm cylinders

- 150x150mm cubes

- 200x200mm cubes
Strength, E and Density
Compressive strength ( ƒc′ )
7-day — 75% of 28-day
56 and 90-day — 10% - 15% > 28-day
Modulus of Elasticity ( E )
Normal concrete — 14,000 to 41,000 MPa
Density
 Normal concrete — 2200 to 2400 kg/m3
 Reinforced concrete — 2400 kg/m3
 Low density insulating concrete — as little as
240 kg/m3
 High density concrete — up to 6000 kg/m3
(radiation shielding, counterweights)
Ratios — W/CM and W/C

Water-cementing materials ratio (w/cm)

 is ratio of mass of water to mass of cementing
materials in a concrete mix expressed as a decimal.
The water is exclusive to that absorbed by the
aggregate.
Water-cement ratio (w/c)
 is ratio of mass of water to mass of cement
in a concrete mix expressed as a decimal.
Typical Relationships of Strength
to W/C-Ratio
Water tightness / Permeability
Water tightness
 The ability of concrete to hold back or retain
water without visible leakage.
Permeability
 Amount of water migration through concrete
when the water is under pressure or the ability
of concrete to resist penetration by water or
other substances (liquids, gas, ions, etc.)
2.1 Cement
 Important questions
 Why do we need cement?
 Can we live without it?
 How much cement do we need?
 What will be the future of cement as an
important building material?
 Issues such as: environment, energy, financial
burden, profitability of cement industries, …
Review of world cement production and
consumption, (2004)
Country Yearly production Cement per capita
(Million Tones) consumption (kg/person)
Luxembourg 0.55 1227
Spain 48.01 1087
Portugal 09.11 1041
Italy 45.77 709
Austria 4.62 570
Switzerland 4.19 554
China 704.72 548
 Review of world cement consumption,
2004 (contd.)
Country Yearly production Cement per capita
(Million Tones) consumption (kg/person)
United States 91.21 318
Egypt 23.00 315
United Kingdom 13.05 205
South Africa 8.53 194
India 100.00 96
Kenya 1.23 39
Ethiopia 1.67 15
Eritrea 0.045 11
Sudan 0.19 5
 Selected African countries cement per
capita consumption [2014]
25

Population (mil). Cement prod. (MT) Cement per capita

(kg/year/person)
Egypt 82.3 62 554
South Africa 51 12.6 222
Ethiopia 87 10 62
Sudan 33.5 6.4 117
Kenya 43 5.43 80
 Cement production in Ethiopia
26

 Cement is second most consumed material

on the planet next to water.
 World cement consumption in 2013 was
3.9billion tons
 Cement per capita consumption:
 World average is 500kg/person/year

 African average is ~175 - 200

 China ~1518 (58% of world cement is

consumed in China)
 Europe 700-1200

 Ethiopian cement consumption is 60-

80kg/person/year
 Still a long way to go!!
 Cement production and use in Ethiopia
27

 Cement production in  Cement cost in

Ethiopia Ethiopia
 Fivemajor factories and
11 smaller ones  On the high side

 Currentannual  Highly profitable

production ~12 million
Ton/year

 Productioncapacity and
outputs are different
Current cement specification: ES 1177 - 1
28

 The five main cement types:

 CEM I Portland cement
 CEM II Portland Composite cement
 CEM III Blast Furnace cement
 CEM IV Pozzolanic cement
 CEM V Composite cement

 Are we all familiar with the designation?

(OPC/PPC/PLC(portland limestone cement)
 The standard strength of cement
29

Remark
Designation 2 days early strength Standard strength
[MPa] [MPa]
32.5N -- ≥ 32.5 & ≤ 52.5 PLC/PPC/OPC?
32.5R ≥ 10
42.5N ≥10 ≥ 42.5 & ≤ 62.5 OPC
42.5R ≥20
52.5N ≥20 ≥52.5 OPC
52.5 R ≥30

R= Rapid, N= Normal
 Cement bags should provide correct and
simple information.
30

Do we check cement designation when we buy?

 COMMON TYPES of CEMENTS (IS- 456 SPECIFIED)
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2. Portland Pozzalana Cement (PPC)
3. Portland Slag Cement (PSC)
4. Low Heat Portland Cement (LHPC)
5. Sulfate Resisting Portland Cement (SRC)
6. Only OPC Graded as 33, 43, and 53
7. Other Cement not Strength Graded
8. Only OPC recommended for higher grades of concrete.
 ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC)

 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)= is the most common

cement used in general concrete construction when there is
no exposure to Sulphates in the soil or groundwater.
 Portland Cement Production:
Two Basic Raw Materials
1) Calcareous Matls : Calcium Oxide such as Limestone,
Chalk, or Oyster Shells
2) Algillaceous Matls: A combination of Silica & Alumina,
from Clay, Shale, & Blast Furnace Slags
 Temperature: Melted the raw matls at 1400°C– 1650°C
 Primary Components of Raw Materials
Necessary for Portland Cement
Manufacture

• Calcium
• Silica
• Alumina
• Iron
Quarry
Traditional Manufacture of
Portland Cement

1. Stone is first reduced to 125 mm size, then

to 20 mm, and stored.
2. Raw materials are ground to powder and blended.

or Raw materials are ground, mixed with water to

form slurry, and blended.
3. Burning changes raw mix chemically into cement
clinker.
4. Clinker with gypsum is ground into Portland cement
and shipped.
Inter grinding with gypsum

• Final step in cement manufacture

• Gypsum added as a set regulator (absence  flash set)

• Strict control on temperature required

• Done in ball mills

• Required fineness of cement produced

 Other issues

 Cement manufacture today is a highly controlled process

 However, there is lot of variation in quality of cements

(between brands, in batches produced on the same day)

 Quality control during cement manufacture  done at

every stage in the process
 Quality control
 Sampling and evaluation should be performed
 After excavation from the quarry,
 Before and after blending the feedstock,
 After formation of clinker,
 Inter grinding clinker with gypsum, finally before packaging in bags
Quality control parameters
 Lime saturation factor (LSF) = C/(2.8S + 1.2A + 0.65F), where C, S, A, and F are the
% amounts of CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, resp. LSF=75% to 85%
 Silica ratio (or modulus) = S/(A + F), the range is 1.5 to 2.0
 Alumina ratio (or modulus) = A/F > 0.64
 Potential C3S from Bogue formulation
 The LSF is particularly important because it dictates the amount of free lime that will
be present in the product. Too much free lime can cause unsoundness of the cement.
 Minimum cement content
Requirement for Durability
A function of atmospheric exposure.

1) Mild, moderate exposure 300 kg/m3

2) Severe exposure 320 kg/m3
3) Very severe exposure 340 kg/m3
4) Extreme exposure 360 kg/m3

Same for all Grades of Concrete

Cement content in IS 456 is irrespective of grade of
cement of concrete
Assignment 1
1. Critically identify the differences and similarities between
“dry process” and “wet process” in cement production
including: environmental issues, production cost, outputs
2. a) Determine the cement demand of Ethiopia in the
current years
b) Calculate the expected local cement production
capacity and comment on whether we will have
enough cement supply from the local market at the
end of 2022?
c) Do you have any recommendation to make along this line ?
3. Do you have confidence or concern on the cement
quality produced in Ethiopia? Discuss!
2.2 AGGREGATES FOR CONCRETE
Fine Aggregate

• Sand and/or crushed

stone
• < 4.75 mm
• F.A. content usually
35% to 45% by mass or
volume of total
aggregate
Coarse Aggregate

 Gravel and crushed

stone
  4.75mm
 typically between 9.5
and 37.5 mm )
Rock and Mineral Constituents in
Aggregates

1. Minerals
2. Igneous rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
4. Sedimentary rocks
 1. Minerals

 Sulfate
 Gypsum, Anhydrite
 Iron sulfide
 Pyrite, Marcasite

 Iron oxide
 Magnetite, Hematite
Rock and Mineral Constituents in
Aggregates (contd.)
2. Igneous rocks
 Granite

 Syenite

 Diorite

 Gabbro

 Peridotite

 Pegmatite

 Volcanic glass

 Felsite

 Basalt
Rock and Mineral Constituents in
Aggregates (contd.)
3. Sedimentary rocks
• Conglomerate
• Sandstone
• Claystone, siltstone, argillite, and shale
• Carbonates
• Chert
Rock and Mineral Constituents in
Aggregates (contd.)
4. Metamorphic rocks
 Marble
 Metaquartzite
 Slate
 Phyllite
 Schist
 Amphibolite
 Hornfels
 Gneiss
 Serpentinite
 Normal-Weight Aggregate
ASTM C 33
 Most common aggregates
 Sand

 Gravel

 Crushed stone

 Normal-weight concrete 2200 to 2400 kg/m3

 Lightweight Aggregate (1)
ASTM C 330

Expanded
• Shale
• Clay
• Slate
• Slag

Produce structural lightweight concrete 1350 to 1850 kg/m3

Lightweight Aggregate (2)
 Pumice
 Scoria
 Perlite
 Vermiculite
 Diatomite

Produce lightweight insulating concrete

250 to 1450 kg/m3
Heavy weight Aggregate
ASTM C 637, C 638 (Radiation Shielding)
 Barite
 Limonite
 Magnetite
 Ilmenite
 Hematite
 Iron
 Steel punchings or shot

Produce high-density concrete up to 6400 kg/m3

Aggregate Characteristics and Tests (1)

Characteristic Test
ASTM C 131 (AASHTO T 96), ASTM C 535,
Abrasion resistance
ASTM C 779
Freeze-thaw ASTM C 666 (AASHTO T 161), ASTM C
resistance 682, AASHTO T 103
Sulfate resistance ASTM C 88 (AASHTO T 104)
Particle shape and
ASTM C 295, ASTM D 3398
surface texture
ASTM C 117 (AASHTO T 11), ASTM C 136
Grading
(AASHTO T 27)
Fine aggregate
ASTM C 1137
degradation
Void content ASTM C 1252 (AASHTO T 304)
Bulk density ASTM C 29 (AASHTO T 19)
 Aggregate Characteristics and Tests (2)
Characteristic Test
ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85)—fine aggregate
Relative density
ASTM C 128 (AASHTO T 84)—coarse aggregate

Absorption and surface ASTM C 70, ASTM C 127 (AASHTO T 85), ASTM C
moisture 128 (AASHTO T 84), ASTM C 566 (AASHTO T 255)

ASTM C 39 (AASHTO T 22), ASTM C 78 (AASHTO

Strength
T 97)
Definition of constituents ASTM C 125, ASTM C 294
ASTM C 40 (AASHTO T 21), ASTM C 87 (AASHTO
T 71), ASTM C 117 (AASHTO T 11), ASTM C 123
Aggregate constituents
(AASHTO T 113), ASTM C 142 (AASHTO T 112),
ASTM C 295
ASTM C 227, ASTM C 289, ASTM C 295, ASTM C
Alkali Resistance 342, ASTM C 586, ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303),
ASTM C 1293
 Grading of Aggregate
Grading is the particle-size distribution of an
aggregate as determined by a sieve analysis
using wire mesh sieves with square openings.
ASTM C 33

• Fine aggregate―7 standard sieves with openings

from 150 μm to 9.5 mm (No. 100 to 3/8 in.)
• Coarse aggregate―13 sieves with openings from 1.18
mm to 100 mm (0.046 in. to 4 in.)
Range of Particle Sizes
Fine-Aggregate Grading Limits

Sieve size Percent passing by mass

9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 100

4.75 mm (No. 4) 95 to 100
2.36 mm (No. 8) 80 to 100
1.18 mm (No. 16) 50 to 85
600 µm (No. 30) 25 to 60
300 µm (No. 50) 5 to 30 (AASHTO 10 to 30)
150 µm (No. 100) 0 to 10 (AASHTO 2 to 10)
 Maximum Size vs. Nominal Maximum
Size of Aggregate

 Maximum size ― is the smallest sieve that all

of a particular aggregate must pass through.

 Nominal maximum size ― is the standard sieve

opening immediately smaller than the smallest
through which all of the aggregate must pass.
 The nominal maximum-size sieve may retain 5% to
15%
 Coarse Aggregate Grading
The aggregate meeting the specification limits shown
below would have a maximum size of 37.5 mm and a
nominal maximum size of 25.0 mm

Percent passing
Sieve size
by mass
37.5 mm (1½ in.) 100
25.0 mm (1 in.) 95 to 100
12.5 mm (½ in.) 25 to 60
4.75 mm (No. 4) 0 to 10
2.36 mm (No. 8) 0 to 5
 Fineness Modulus (FM)
 Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative
percentages by mass of a sample aggregate
retained on each of a specified series of sieves
and dividing the sum by 100.
 The specified sieves are: 150 µm (No. 100), 300
µm (No. 50), 600 µm (No. 30), 1.18 mm (No. 16),
2.36 mm (No. 8), 4.75 mm (No. 4), 9.5 mm (3/8
in.), 19.0 mm (3/4 in.), 37.5 mm (1½ in.), 75 mm
(3 in.), and 150 mm (6 in.).
Sieve Analysis and FM of Sand

Percentage of Percentage Cumulative

individual fraction passing, percentage re-
Sieve size retained, by mass by mass tained, by mass
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 0 100 0
4.75 mm (No. 4) 2 98 2
2.36 mm (No. 8) 13 85 15
1.18 mm (No. 16) 20 65 35
600 µm (No. 30) 20 45 55
300 µm (No. 50) 24 21 79
150 µm (No. 100) 18 3 97
Pan 3 0 —
Total 100 283

Fineness modulus = 283 ÷ 100 = 2.83

Moisture Conditions
 Harmful Materials (1)
Substances Effect on concrete Test designation
Affects setting and ASTM C 40
(AASHTO T 21)
Organic impurities hardening, may cause
deterioration ASTM C 87 (AASHTO T 71)

Materials finer Affects bond,

than the 75-µm increases water ASTM C 117 (AASHTOT11)
(No. 200) sieve requirement
Coal, lignite, or Affects durability,
other lightweight may cause stains and ASTM C 123 (AASHTOT11)
materials popouts
Soft particles Affects durability ASTM C 235
 Harmful Materials (2)
Substances Effect on concrete Test designation

Clay lumps and Affects workability

friable and durability, may ASTM C 142 (AASHTOT 112)
particles cause popouts

Chert of less ASTM C 123 (AASHTOT 113)

Affects durability,
than 2.40
may cause popouts ASTM C 295
relative density

Causes abnormal ASTM C 227,

Alkali-reactive expansion, map C 289, C 295,
aggregates cracking, and C 342, C 586
popouts C 1260, (AASHTO
C 1293 T303)
 2.3 Water
 The quality of water should be checked for the
requirements as specified in respective standard.

 Chemical analysis shall be conducted for approval

 In case of suspended impurities, it is necessary to store

water for some time to allow them to settle down.
 2.3 Water
 In case of doubt concrete cubes made with this water

are tested and average 28 days compressive strength

of at least three cubes or cylinders or specified size,

prepared with water proposed to be used shall not be

less than 90% of the average strength of three similar

concrete cubes prepared with distilled water.

2.4 Mix Design

 It is a process of selecting suitable ingredients and determining

their relative proportions with the objective of producing concrete
of having certain minimum workability, strength and durability as
economically as possible.

 The objective of proportioning concrete mixes is to arrive at the

most economical and practical combinations of different
ingredients to produce concrete that will satisfy the performance
requirements under specified conditions of use.
 Mix design
 Consists of two interrelated steps:
 Selection of the suitable ingredients(Cement, aggregate,
and water of concrete)
 Determining their relative quantities (proportioning)
 Common method of expression is parts of cement, fine
aggregate and coarse aggregate (1:2:3, 1:2:4, etc.).
 The amount of water, entrained air and admixtures, if
any, are usually expressed separately.
The design of concrete mix should be based on the
following factors:
I. Graded designation C25, C30, C60,
II. Type of cement OPC,PPC, Rapid hardening
III. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
 Based on the available size
 Based on spacing of reinforcement and other cases
IV. Grading of combined aggregate
 Several analytical and graphical methods are
suggested for grading of Aggregate based on various
code of practices.
72
Methods of concrete mix design for
medium strength concrete

Some of the commonly used mix design methods for

medium strength concrete are:
I. Trial and adjustment method of mix design
II. Road Note No. 4 Method of mix design
III. DoE (British ) mix design method
IV. ACI mix design method

73
 Statistical Interpretation Of Cube Results

 Cube test result is influenced by number of factors like

material, their proportions, various processes like mixing,
compaction, curing and finally the testing procedure of
cubes.

 Even the results of different cubes, cast from the same

concrete at the same time, cured and tested in similar
way may also show different results.

 Therefore for evaluation of the test results, the help of

statistical approach is required.
(Histogram/Normal distribution curve)
 Target Mean Strength
 From the experiments, ‘Normal distribution curve’ follows certain
behavior such that area covered within a distance equal to one S.D.
on either side from mean will be equal to 34.1% of total area.
 Similarly 2nd & 3rd S.D. will cover additional area of 13.6% & 2.2%
respectively. Approximately 99.9% area will be covered within
distance equal to (3 x S.D) on each side from mean value.
 From this it is clear that if we require the strength equal to mean
value, probability is that only 50% cubes will have strength equal to
or more than the required strength.
 If we want to increase the % of cubes having strength equal or more
than the required strength, we will have to target for higher strength.
Target Mean Strength
 Number of Specimens in interval

Compressive Strength in MPa

Standard Deviation for Concrete and Strength

1. Assumed Standard Deviation

 The minimum number of cube test samples required to derive the
standard deviation is 30.
 In the case, where sufficient test results for a particular grade of

concrete are not available, the value of standard deviation is

assumed as per the ISO standard
 Standard Deviation for Concrete and Strength

Standard deviation (S.D.) :

S.D. (S) = ∑ (x- µ)²

n-1
Where S = Standard deviation of the group
x = Individual test result
n = no. of test results considered
µ = Average of n test results considered
S.D. will be less if the quality control at site is better.
 Standard Deviation for Concrete and Strength

 So instead of placing the desired strength (fck) at mean value, it is placed on left
side of mean value by a distance equal to (k x S.D), where k will depend upon the
% of cubes we want to have strength equal or more than the desired strength.
As per IS 456-2000, this % is 95% and therefore desired strength has to be
placed at 1.65 times S.D. left of mean.
f ’ck = fck + 1.65 S
OR f ’ck = fck + X Whichever is higher
Here, fck - Characteristic compressive strength at 28 days in N/mm²
f’ck - Target mean compressive strength at 28 days in N/mm²
S - Standard Deviation in N/mm²
X - Factor based on the grade of concrete, as per Table 1.
The value of 1.65 is based upon the provision that 5% of the test results can be
accepted having lower than the required strength.
 Value of X Table 1 of IS-10262

Grade Of Concrete Value of X

i) M-10, M-15 5.0

ii) M-20, M-25 5.5
iii) M-30, M-35, M-40, M-45, M-50, M-55, M-60 6.5
iv) M-65 and above 8.0
NOTES
1. The above values correspond to good degree of site control having proper
storage of cement; weigh batching of all materials; controlled addition of
water; regular checking of all materials; aggregate grading and moisture
content; and regular checking of workability and strength. Where there are
deviations from the above, the site control shall be designated as fair and the
values given in the above table shall be increased by 1 N/mm2.
2. For grades M65 and above, the standard deviation may also be established
by actual trials based on assumed proportions, before finalizing the mix.
 While designing the mix, it should be targeted for higher strength
called ‘Target mean strength’ (f’ck) so that not more than 5% test
results fall below a desired strength ‘fck’ i.e. Characteristics strength
(CS).
E.g.

Specified Mean of the group of 4 non overlapping Individual test

Grade consecutive test results in N/mm2 results in N/mm2
M-15 and ≥ fck +0.825 x established S.D. ≥ fck - 3 N/mm2
above or
fck + 3 N/mm2, whichever is greater.
 Example
 Using the ACI mix design methods, design a concrete mix for an
application requiring a characteristic strength of 40MPa at 28 days
and a slump of 3-10 cm. The materials available are:
 Uncrushed fine and coarse aggregate
 S.G. of aggregate=2.68
 Max. nominal size of C. aggregate =10mm
 F. aggregate confirms to grading Zone III.
 Concrete is likely to be exposed to moderate climate.
 Standard deviation = 6.3, defective rate = 5%, probability factor
k=1.65
 Appropriate assumption for any missing and applied charts is
required
Step 1:
Computing required average compressive strength from the
given characteristic strength of 40MPa.
According to ACI-318
Specified characteristic compressive Required average compressive
strength (f’c, MPa) strength in (f’cr, MPa)
<21 f’c + 7
21-35 f’c + 8.5
>35 1.1*f’c + 5
Hence, by referring the above table our average compressive strength
become:
f’cr =1.1* f’c + 5
f’cr = 1.1*40MPa + 5 = 49MPa
 Step 2.
 Specifying minimum cement content

From durability considerations cement content should not be

reduced below 300Kg/m3 for RCC. Higher cement contents
for more severe conditions of exposure of weathering
agents to the concrete.
 Minimum cement content = 300 kg/m3
 Step 3. Choice of slump

 The slump size is (3 – 10) cm, from the given data

Step 4. Selecting the maximum size of Aggregate

 Thus the ACI method is based on the principle that the maximum size

of aggregate should be the largest available so long it is consistent

with the dimensions of the structure. In practice the dimensions of the
forms or the spacing of the re-bars controls the maximum CA size.
 When high strength concrete is desired, best results may be

obtained with reduced maximum sizes of aggregate since these

produce higher strengths at a given w/c ratio In our case the
maximum size of Aggregate = 10mm (from the given data)

 Step 5. Estimate mixing water, and air content
 The quantity of water per unit volume of concrete

required to produce a given slump is dependent on:

 nominal maximum size
 particle shape
 grading of the aggregates
 concrete temperature
 amount of entrained air
 Use of chemical admixtures.
 From ACI mix design method table 4 (Approximate
mixing water requirements for different slumps and
maximum sizes of aggregates).
Water content and air content from the given data of slump size (10-30 mm),
aggregate size (10mm) and by assuming concrete is non-air entrained.

Water content = 205 kg/m3

Air content = 3% or 30 liter
 Step 6. Computing water cement ratio (W/C ratio)

 The water–cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of water to the

weight of cement used in a concrete mix.
 A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make
the mix difficult to work with and form.
 As a thumb rule every 1% increase in quantity of water added,
reduces the strength of concrete by 5%. Workability can be resolved
with the use of plasticizers or super-plasticizers.
 From ACI table 1.

Average compressive strength = 49 MPa

We will take minimum water cement ratio from table 1=0.38
Step 7. Determining the mix cement content

 Once the water content and the w/c ratio is determined,

the amount of cement per unit volume of concrete is found
by dividing the estimated water content by the w/c ratio.
Cement content = water content/ water cement ratio
Cement content = 205 kg/m3/0.38
Cement content = 539.4736kg/m3 ~540 kg/m3
Step 8. Estimating the bulk volume of dry rodded as per unit volume of
concrete

Let: assume our fineness Modulus (2.6-3.0) = 2.6, and

The given maximum size of aggregate = 10mm

 From ACI concrete mix design method table 6

 The volume of dry rodded aggregate per unit volume of concrete
becomes = 0.5
Step 9. Calculating the weight of coarse aggregate (WCA) per m3 of
concrete
WCA = bulk volume of dry rodded agg. per unit volume of concrete *
bulk density C.A
Where; volume of dry rodded agg. = 0.5
Assume bulk density C.A = 1700 kg/m3
WCA= bulk volume*bulk density
WCA = 0.5 m3 * 1700 Kg/m3
WCA = 850kg
Step 10. Determining the solid volume of the coarse aggregate
Solid volume of C.A. = WCA /1000. Sp. gravity
Solid volume of C.A. = 850 kg / 2.68, =317.164liter/m3
where; Specific gravity of C.A.: 2.68(given)
Step 11. Calculating the solid volume of cement, water and volume of
air.
Volume of cement = weight of cement / unit weight of cement
Volume of cement = 540 / 3.15 =171.0liter/m3
Volume of water = 205 liter/ m3
Volume of air = 3% or 30 liter/ m3
 Step 12. Determining solid volume of sand (Solid volume
of sand is then calculated by subtracting from the data
volume of concrete).
From table 7
 Solid volume of sand =

1000 – (317.16(VCA)+171(VC)+205(VW)+30(VA))
Solid volume of sand = 276.84 liter or 0.27684 m3
Solid weight of sand = 0.27684* 2.68 * 1000
 Weight of sand = 741.93 kg/ m3
Step 13. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregate.
 Since the moisture level of the fine aggregate in our storage vary, we
will apply a simple rule to adjust the water required.
 Decrease the amount of water required by surface moisture content of
the weight of the fine aggregate.
 Increase the amount of aggregate by the amount equal to the surface
moisture.
Let: assume
3% of moisture absorption by coarse aggregate.
5% of moisture adsorption by fine aggregate.
The amount of water absorbed by coarse aggregate
850kg/m3 * 0.03 = 25.5 kg/m3
The amount of water supplied by fine aggregate
742 kg/m3 * 0.05 = 37.10kg/m3
Therefore, the estimated amount of water needed for the mix is;
(205 kg/m3 + 25.5 kg/m3) – 37.10 kg/m3 = 193.40kg/m3
Therefore, the estimated batch wt. for cubic meter of concrete are;
Concrete Mix Design

 In order to make a concrete

mix design that works, you
should master:
 concrete theories and
 Experiences of concreting
at work.
 Concrete Mix Design

 A. What do you need to know before designing

concrete?
1. What are the strength requirements?
– Compressive (on cube or cylinder specimen) strength
– Flexural strength
– Tensile strength
 Concrete Mix Design
CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
M =fck +k* S

 M =Target Mean Compressive Strength at 28 days in Mpa

 fck =Characteristic Compressive Strength at 28 days in Mpa
 S =Standard Deviation in Mpa
 k =A Statistic, depending on accepted proportion of low results.
1.64 for 5 % accepted proportion of low results
Concrete Mix Design
 3. How far is the job site from the batching plant?
Concrete Mix Design
4. What is the structure for casting? Pavement, Gravity
Dam, elevated slab, etc.
5. What are the projects specification?
– Maximum or minimum cement contents
– Maximum water/cement ratio
– Slump or consistency limit
– Minimum Strength requirement @28 days
– Material specifications (what is the maximum size of
aggregate?)
6. Latest testing results of materials is needed in the
preliminary selection of materials and design calculation
Concrete Mix Design
 B. What are Design Precautions and Things to
Remember when design concrete mixes?
1. Increasing the sand/total aggregate ratio, increases
the water requirement at the same consistency.
2. Increasing the water/cement ratio decreases the
strength of concrete at the same cement content.
3. Remember that adding 5 liters of water per cubic
meter increases the slump by 2.5cm.
4. Remember that adding 5 liters of water per cubic
meter decreases strength by approximately 4%.
5. Always follow recommended admixture dosage.
Concrete Mix Design
6. Always have “control” when performing trial
mixes, always perform trial mixes with another
mix using the same materials. This data can be
useful in diagnostics if a problem occurs.
7. Always adjust batching quantities to the actual
moisture condition of the aggregates.
Concrete Mix Design

 Goals:
 Maximize strength
= minimize water
= control bleeding & segregation
 Reduce Cost
= use largest gravel possible for the job
= minimize paste requirement
 Provide good durability
= use well graded aggregates
= maximize void packing
= reduced segregation
 The ACI Standard 211.1 is a “Recommended Practice for Selecting
Proportions for Concrete". The procedure is as follows:

Step 1. Choice of slump

Step 2. Choice of maximum size of aggregate

Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and air content

Step 4. Selection of water/cement ratio

Step 5. Calculation of cement content

Step 6. Estimation of coarse aggregate content

Step 7. calculation of Fine Aggregate Content

Step 8. Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture

Step 9. Trial Batch Adjustments

107
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps:
Step 1. Choice of slump
If slump is not specified, a value appropriate for the work
can be selected from the below (note that the table
numbers are given from the text book rather than the ACI
standard).
Slump
Type of Construction
(mm)
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 25 - 75

Plain footings, caissons and substructure walls 25 - 75

Beams and reinforced walls 25 - 100

Building columns 25 - 100
Pavements and slabs 25 - 75
108 Mass concrete 25 - 50
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)
Step 2. Choice of maximum size of aggregate.
 Large maximum sizes of aggregates produce less voids than
smaller sizes.
 Hence, concretes with the larger-sized aggregates require less
mortar per unit volume of concrete, and of coarse it is the
mortar which contains the most expensive ingredient, cement.
 Thus the ACI method is based on the principle that
 Maximum size of aggregate should be the largest
available so long it is consistent with the
dimensions of the structure.

109
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)
Step 2. Choice of maximum size of aggregate.

In practice the dimensions of the forms or the spacing of the

reinforcement bars controls the maximum CA size.
ACI 211.1 states that the maximum CA size should not exceed:

Special Note: When high

strength concrete is desired,
best results may be obtained
with reduced maximum sizes
of aggregate since these
produce higher strengths at a
110 given w/c ratio.
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)
Step 3. Estimation of mixing water and air content.

 The ACI Method uses past experience to give a first

estimate for the quantity of water per unit volume of
concrete required to produce a given slump.
 In general the quantity of water per unit volume of
concrete required to produce a given slump is
dependent on the maximum CA size, the grading of
both CA and FA, as well as the amount of entrained
air.
 The approximate amount of water required for
111 average aggregates is given in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2: Approximate Mixing Water and Air Content Requirements for Different
Slumps and Maximum Aggregate Sizes.
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum Aggregate Size

9.5 mm 12.5 19 mm 37.5

25 mm 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm
Slump (0.375 mm (0.75
(1 in.)
mm
(2 in.) (3 in.) (4 in.)
in.) (0.5 in.) in.) (1.5 in.)

Non-Air-Entrained

25 - 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113

(1 - 2) (350) (335) (315) (300) (275) (260) (220) (190)
75 - 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
(3 - 4) (385) (365) (340) (325) (300) (285) (245) (210)
150 - 175 243 228 216 202 190 178 160
-
(6 - 7) (410) (385) (360) (340) (315) (300) (270)
Typical entrapped air
(percentage) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
Air-Entrained

25 - 50 181 175 168 160 148 142 122 107

(1 - 2) (305) (295) (280) (270) (250) (240) (205) (180)
75 - 100 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
(3 - 4) (340) (325) (305) (295) (275) (265) (225) (200)
150 - 175 216 205 197 184 174 166 154
-
(6 - 7) (365) (345) (325) (310) (290) (280) (260)
Recommended Air Content (percent)
Mild Exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate Exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
112 Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)
Step 4. Selection of water/cement ratio.
The required water/cement ratio is determined by strength,
durability and finish ability. The appropriate value is chosen
from prior testing of a given system of cement and aggregate or
a value is chosen from Table 10.3 and/or Table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Maximum Permissible Water/Cemen
Table 10.3: Water-Cement Ratio and
Ratio for Concrete in Several Exposures
Compressive Strength Relationship

28-Day Water-cement ratio by

Compressive weight
Strength in MPa Non-Air- Air-
(psi) Entrained Entrained

41.4 (6000) 0.41 -

34.5 (5000) 0.48 0.40
27.6 (4000) 0.57 0.48
20.7 (3000) 0.68 0.59
13.8 (2000) 0.82 0.74
113
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)
Step 5. Calculation of cement content.
The amount of cement is fixed by the determinations made in Steps 3
and 4 above

Fine Aggregate Fineness Modulus

Step 6. Estimation of Nominal Maximum
Aggregate Size 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
coarse aggregate 9.5 mm (0.375 inches) 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44

content. 12.5 mm (0.5 inches) 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53

19 mm (0.75 inches) 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
The most economical
25 mm (1 inches) 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
concrete will have as 37.5 mm (1.5 inches) 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
much as possible space 50 mm (2 inches) 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75 mm (3 inches) 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
occupied by CA since it
150 mm (6 inches) 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81
will require no cement in
Notes:
the space filled by CA. These values can be increased by up to about 10
114 percentage for pavement applications.
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)

Step 7. Estimation of Fine Aggregate Content.

At the completion of Step 6, all ingredients of the
concrete have been estimated except the fine
aggregate. Its quantity can be determined by
difference if the “absolute volume” displaced by the
known ingredients-, (i.e., water, air, cement, and
coarse aggregate), is subtracted from the unit volume
of concrete to obtain the required volume of fine
aggregate.
Then once the volumes are know the weights of each
ingredient can be calculated from the specific
gravities.
115
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)

Step 8. Adjustments for Aggregate Moisture.

Aggregate weights. Aggregate volumes are calculated based on
oven dry unit weights, but aggregate is typically batched based
on actual weight. Therefore, any moisture in the aggregate will
increase its weight and stockpiled aggregates almost always
contain some moisture. Without correcting for this, the batched
aggregate volumes will be incorrect.
Amount of mixing water. If the batched aggregate is anything
but saturated surface dry it will absorb water (if oven dry or air
dry) or give up water (if wet) to the cement paste. This causes a
net change in the amount of water available in the mix and must
be compensated for by adjusting the amount of mixing water
added.

116
 ACI Mix Design Method Steps: (Cont.)

Step 9. Trial Batch Adjustments.

The ACI method is written on the basis that a trial

batch of concrete will be prepared in the laboratory,

and adjusted to give the desired slump, freedom from

segregation, finish ability, unit weight, air content and

strength.

117
 Example Mix Design: (ACI Method)

118
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

119
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

120
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

121
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

122
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

123
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

124
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

125
 Example Mix Design: Cont. (ACI Method)

126
Concrete Curing

Curing requires adequate —

 Moisture
 Temperature
 Time

If any of these factors

are neglected, the
desired properties will
not develop
Concrete Curing

Effect of Adequate Curing on Hardened Concrete

Increased
 Strength

 Water tightness

 Abrasion resistance

 Freeze-thaw resistance

 Volume stability
Curing Methods

1. Supply additional water with:

 Ponding or immersion

 Spraying or fogging

 Saturated wet coverings

Curing of Concrete by Supplying Water

Evaporation from water

surface

Water supplied from

external source

Saturated

Concrete