UNIVERSITY OF UYO

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING

LECTURE NOTES
ON
BLD 321: CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY II

DISCLAIMER
The contents of this document are intended for practice and learning purposes at the undergraduate level. The materials are
from different sources including the internet and the contributors do not in any way claim authorship or ownership of them.
The materials are also not to be used for any commercial purpose.
 PART 1

WHAT IS SOCIAL SERVICE?

Simply put, social services is anything that provides services to assist the overall social well-being of
people. The social services network collaborates in helping all of its clients become self-sufficient in
multiple ways, from connecting them with resources to the acquisition of new skills.

WHY IS SOCIAL SERVICE SO IMPORTANT?

“Society is held together with the threads of social fabric. Each day, forces pull against the threads. While
some people are naturally resilient and able to regenerate the threads without external support, others
struggle.” Professionals working in social services help struggling individuals become independent and
self-sufficient. Now imagine a city or state—not just a small family—full of individuals whose life
situations are constantly pushing them over their capacity to manage stress. This community will fail
without the variety of support offered by the network of social services in the area. The importance of
social services is never overrated.

WHAT TYPES OF SOCIAL SERVICES EXIST?

Because social services is a large umbrella encompassing many different types of support, it is difficult
for a few sentences to adequately define it. The following examples will give you a more practical
understanding of what it looks like in action:

• Food Assistance: Provides monthly stipends to support people in need of food.

• Housing Assistance/Affordable Housing: Provides shelter for the homeless and supports those
who need rental assistance or help in purchasing a home.
• Disability Assistance: Ensures benefits for those unable to work due to medical conditions.
• Supplemental Income and Unemployment Assistance: Offers financial support to those who
are unable to work or who have lost their jobs.
• Education Assistance: Gives financial aid to students pursuing education after high school or
provides early childhood education at free or reduced costs.
• Tax Credit Assistance: Provides people with tax incentives depending on employment, family,
housing and education status.
• Mental Health Assistance: Offers counselling and psychologist services to those who are
struggling with various mental challenges.

While the type of support offered by social services is clearly diverse, the duration of each program is
also flexible based on client needs. Some forms of assistance provide brief interventions of weekly
support for a few months while others offer daily interventions that last for more than a year.

WHAT SOCIAL SERVICES CAREERS ARE OUT THERE?

Now that you understand the purpose of social services and have some specific examples of it in action,
you might be wondering what a career in this field actually entails.

There are actually many jobs available in social services depending on the type of support you’re hoping
to offer your clients. Take a look at some of these options:

• Human service assistants: Assists clients in identifying and obtaining social and community
services benefits.

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• Probation officers: Works with non-violent criminal offenders in preventing the recurrence of
crimes and making successful contributions to society.
• Rehabilitation counsellors: Collaborates with clients to help them live independently by
managing their physical, mental or emotional disabilities.
• School and career counsellors: Assists students in navigating the academic and social aspects of
school and provides resources and skill acquisition for future careers.
• Substance abuse and behavioural disorder counsellors: Helps individuals struggling with
addictions or behavioural disorders by providing them with various treatments.
• Health educators: Informs people about healthy living by assisting them in identifying personal
health goals and strategies to achieve them.
• Marriage and family therapists: Creates strategies for couples or families who are experiencing
various types of emotional, mental or physical struggles within their relationships.
• While the list above does not cover every job, it is a good place to start if you are considering
working in social services. You’ll have the ability to choose a career path based on your own
personal passions and career aspirations.

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 PART 2

PRODUCTION OF BUILDING FOR DIFFERENT SOCIAL SERVICES

Hospital Buildings
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA. for VA Office of Construction & Facilities Management (CFM)
Revised by the WBDG Health Care Subcommittee
OVERVIEW
"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-functional design
can impede activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise costs to intolerable levels." ...
Hardy and Lammers
`
Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide range of services
and functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions, such as clinical laboratories,
imaging, emergency rooms, and surgery; hospitality functions, such as food service and housekeeping;
and the fundamental inpatient care or bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and
specificity of regulations, codes, and oversight that govern hospital construction and operations. Each of
the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a hospital, including highly complicated
mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized knowledge and expertise.
No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge, which is why specialized consultants play an
important role in hospital planning and design. The functional units within the hospital can have
competing needs and priorities. Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be
balanced against mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to
other departments), and the financial status of the organization.

VA Medical Center, Bay Pines, Florida

In addition to the wide range of services that must be accommodated, hospitals must serve and support
many different users and stakeholders. Ideally, the design process incorporates direct input from the
owner and from key hospital staff early on in the process. The designer also has to be an advocate for the
patients, visitors, support staff, volunteers, and suppliers who do not generally have direct input into the
design. Good hospital design integrates functional requirements with the human needs of its varied users.
The basic form of a hospital is, ideally, based on its functions:
• bed-related inpatient functions
• outpatient-related functions
• diagnostic and treatment functions
• administrative functions
• service functions (food, supply)
• research and teaching functions
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Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the hospital. Certain
relationships between the various functions are required—as in the following flow diagrams.

These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and waste. Thus, the
physical configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic systems are inextricably
intertwined. The transportation systems are influenced by the building configuration, and the
configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation systems. The hospital configuration is also
influenced by site restraints and opportunities, climate, surrounding facilities, budget, and available
technology. New alternatives are generated by new medical needs and new technology.
In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many times, is a principal
element of the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be more compact shapes than the
elongated rectangles of the past. Compact rectangles, modified triangles, or even circles have been used
in an attempt to shorten the distance between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution
is heavily dependent on program issues such as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a
nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The trend, recently reinforced by HIPAA, is to all
private rooms.)

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Hospital Building Attributes
Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common attributes.

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

An efficient hospital layout should:

• Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between frequently used
spaces
• Allow easy visual supervision of patients by limited staff
• Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful pre-design programming.
• Provide an efficient logistics system, which might include elevators, pneumatic tubes, box
conveyors, manual or automated carts, and gravity or pneumatic chutes, for the efficient handling
of food and clean supplies and the removal of waste, recyclables, and soiled material
• Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may be shared by adjacent
functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi-purpose spaces
• Consolidate outpatient functions for more efficient operation—on first floor, if possible—for
direct access by outpatients
• Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements
• Provide optimal functional adjacencies, such as locating the surgical intensive care unit adjacent
to the operating suite. These adjacencies should be based on a detailed functional program which
describes the hospital's intended operations from the standpoint of patients, staff, and supplies.

Flexibility And Expandability

Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:

• Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout

• Use generic room sizes and plans as much as possible, rather than highly specific ones
• Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical and electrical systems
• Where size and program allow, be designed on a modular system basis, such as the VA Hospital
Building System. This system also uses walk-through interstitial space between occupied floors
for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing distribution. For large projects, this provides continuing
adaptability to changing programs and needs, with no first-cost premium, if properly planned,
designed, and bid. The VA Hospital Building System also allows vertical expansion without
disruptions to floors below.
• Be open-ended, with well planned directions for future expansion; for instance, positioning "soft
spaces" such as administrative departments, adjacent to "hard spaces" such as clinical laboratories.

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 Cross-section showing interstitial space with deck above an occupied floor.

Therapeutic Environment
Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery. Every effort
should be made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and stress-free as possible.
The interior designer plays a major role in this effort to create a therapeutic environment. A hospital's
interior design should be based on a comprehensive understanding of the facility's mission and its patient
profile. The characteristics of the patient profile will determine the degree to which the interior design
should address aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and mental disabilities, and abusiveness.
(See VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a therapeutic interior are:
• Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with sanitation and other
functional needs
• Using cheerful and varied colours and textures, keeping in mind that some colours are
inappropriate and can interfere with provider assessments of patients' pallor and skin tones,
disorient older or impaired patients, or agitate patients and staff, particularly some psychiatric
patients.
• Admitting ample natural light wherever feasible and using colour-corrected lighting in interior
spaces which closely approximates natural daylight
• Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed, and elsewhere wherever possible; photo
murals of nature scenes are helpful where outdoor views are not available
• Designing a "way-finding" process into every project. Patients, visitors, and staff all need to know
where they are, what their destination is, and how to get there and return. A patient's sense of
competence is encouraged by making spaces easy to find, identify, and use without asking for
help. Building elements, colour, texture, and pattern should all give cues, as well as artwork and
signage. (As an example, see VA Signage Design Guide.)

Cleanliness And Sanitation

Hospitals must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:
• Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space
• Careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions to avoid dirt-
catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints
• Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces
• Special materials, finishes, and details for spaces which are to be kept sterile, such as integral cove
base. The new antimicrobial surfaces might be considered for appropriate locations.
• Incorporating O&M practices that stress indoor environmental quality (IEQ)

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Accessibility

VA Medical Center, Albuquerque, NM

All areas, both inside and out, should:

• Comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disability Act (ADA) and, if
federally funded or owned, the GSA's ABA Accessibility Standards
• In addition to meeting minimum requirements of ADA and/or GSA's ABA Accessibility
Standards, be designed so as to be easy to use by the many patients with temporary or permanent
handicaps
• Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalks and corridors are wide
enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily
• Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with slower adaptation rates to
dark and light; marking glass walls and doors to make their presence obvious

Controlled Circulation
A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of people and
goods. Much of this circulation should be controlled.
• Outpatients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel through inpatient functional
areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients
• Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined
• Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit without penetrating
other functional areas
• Separate patients and visitors from industrial/logistical areas or floors
• Outflow of trash, recyclables, and soiled materials should be separated from movement of food
and clean supplies, and both should be separated from routes of patients and visitors
• Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients and visitors
• Dedicated service elevators for deliveries, food and building maintenance services

Aesthetics
Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.) It is important
in enhancing the hospital's public image and is thus an important marketing tool. A better environment
also contributes to better staff morale and patient care. Aesthetic considerations include:
• Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures
• Use of artwork
• Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail
• Bright, open, generously-scaled public spaces
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 • Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day rooms, consultation rooms, and offices
• Compatibility of exterior design with its physical surroundings

Security and Safety

In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several particular security
concerns:
• Protection of hospital property and assets, including drugs
• Protection of patients, including incapacitated patients, and staff
• Safe control of violent or unstable patients
• Vulnerability to damage from terrorism because of proximity to high-vulnerability targets, or
because they may be highly visible public buildings with an important role in the public health
system.
Sustainability
Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and economy of
the surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and produce large amounts of
waste. Because hospitals place such demands on community resources they are natural candidates
for sustainable design.
Section 1.2 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of health care facility energy conservation
standards that meet Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT) and Executive Order 13693 requirements.
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA) provides additional requirements for energy
conservation. Also see USGBC's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) for
Healthcare.

Related Issues
The HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act of 1996) regulations address security and
privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put emphasis on acoustic and visual
privacy, and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient
information, paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations."

EMERGING ISSUES
Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:
• The decreasing numbers of general practitioners along with the increased use of emergency
facilities for primary care
• The increasing introduction of highly sophisticated diagnostic and treatment technology
• Requirements to remain operational during and after disasters—see, for example, VA's Physical
Security Manuals
• State laws requiring earthquake resistance, both in designing new buildings and retrofitting
existing structures
• Preventative care versus sickness care; designing hospitals as all-inclusive "wellness centers"
• Use of hand-held computers and portable diagnostic equipment to allow more mobile,
decentralized patient care, and a general shift to computerized patient information of all kinds.
This might require computer alcoves and data ports in corridors outside patient bedrooms. For
more information, see WBDG Integrate Technological Tools
• Need to balance increasing attention to building security with openness to patients and visitors
• Emergence of palliative care as a specialty in many major medical centers

• A growing interest in more holistic, patient-centered treatment and environments such as

promoted by Planetree. This might include providing mini-medical libraries and computer
terminals so patients can research their conditions and treatments, and locating kitchens and dining
areas on inpatient units so family members can prepare food for patients and families to eat
together.
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HOSPITAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Dr. Salil Choudhary

A hospital and other health facilities shall be planned and designed to observe appropriate architectural
practices, to meet prescribed functional programs, and to conform to applicable codes as part of normal
professional practice.

Essential points which should be kept in mind while planning for healthcare facilities are:

1. Environment: A hospital and other health facilities shall be so located that it is readily accessible to
the community and reasonably free from undue noise, smoke, dust, foul odor, flood, and shall not be
located adjacent to railroads, freight yards, children's playgrounds, airports, industrial plants, disposal
plants.

2. Occupancy: A building designed for other purpose shall not be converted into a hospital. The
location of a hospital shall comply with all local zoning ordinances.

3. Safety: A hospital and other health facilities shall provide and maintain a safe environment for
patients, personnel and public. The building shall be of such construction so that no hazards to the life
and safety of patients, personnel and public exist. It shall be capable of withstanding weight and elements
to which they may be subjected.
• Exits shall be restricted to the following types: door leading directly outside the building, interior
stair, ramp, and exterior stair.
• A minimum of two (2) exits, remote from each other, shall be provided for each floor of the
building.
• Exits shall terminate directly at an open space to the outside of the building.

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4. Security: A hospital and other health facilities shall ensure the security of person and property within
the facility.

5. Patient Movement: Spaces shall be wide enough for free movement of patients, whether they are on
beds, stretchers, or wheelchairs. Circulation routes for transferring patients from one area to another shall
be available and free at all times.
• Corridors for access by patient and equipment shall have a minimum width of 2.44 meters.
• Corridors in areas not commonly used for bed, stretcher and equipment transport may be reduced
in width to 1.83 meters.
• A ramp or elevator shall be provided for ancillary, clinical and nursing areas located on the upper
floor.
• A ramp shall be provided as access to the entrance of the hospital not on the same level of the site.

6. Lighting: All areas in a hospital and other health facilities shall be provided with sufficient
illumination to promote comfort, healing and recovery of patients and to enable personnel in the
performance of work.

7. Ventilation: Adequate ventilation shall be provided to ensure comfort of patients, personnel and
public.

8. Auditory and Visual Privacy: A hospital and other health facilities shall observe acceptable sound
level and adequate visual seclusion to achieve the acoustical and privacy requirements in designated areas
allowing the unhampered conduct of activities.

9. Water Supply: A hospital and other health facilities shall use an approved public water supply
system whenever available. The water supply shall be potable, safe for drinking and adequate, and shall
be brought into the building free of cross connections.

10. Waste Disposal: Liquid waste shall be discharged into an approved public sewerage system
whenever available, and solid waste shall be collected, treated and disposed of in accordance with
applicable codes, laws or ordinances.

11. Sanitation: Utilities for the maintenance of sanitary system, including approved water supply and
sewerage system, shall be provided through the buildings and premises to ensure a clean and healthy
environment.

12. Housekeeping: A hospital and other health facilities shall provide and maintain a healthy and
aesthetic environment for patients, personnel and public.

13. Maintenance: There shall be an effective building maintenance program in place. The buildings and
equipment shall be kept in a state of good repair. Proper maintenance shall be provided to prevent
untimely breakdown of buildings and equipment.

14. Material Specification: Floors, walls and ceilings shall be of sturdy materials that shall allow
durability, ease of cleaning and fire resistance.

15. Segregation: Wards shall observe segregation of sexes. Separate toilet shall be maintained for
patients and personnel, male and female, with a ratio of one (1) toilet for every eight (8) patients or
personnel.

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 16. Fire Protection: There shall be measures for detecting fire such as fire alarms in walls, peepholes in
doors or smoke detectors in ceilings. There shall be devices for quenching fire such as fire extinguishers
or fire hoses that are easily visible and accessible in strategic areas.

17. Signage. There shall be an effective graphic system composed of a number of individual visual aids
and devices arranged to provide information, orientation, direction, identification, prohibition, warning
and official notice considered essential to the optimum operation of a hospital and other health facilities.

18. Parking. A hospital and other health facilities shall provide a minimum of one (1) parking space for
every twenty-five (25) beds.

19. Zoning: The different areas of a hospital shall be grouped according to zones as follows:
• Outer Zone – areas that are immediately accessible to the public: emergency service, outpatient
service, and administrative service. They shall be located near the entrance of the hospital.
• Second Zone – areas that receive workload from the outer zone: laboratory, pharmacy, and
radiology. They shall be located near the outer zone.
• Inner Zone – areas that provide nursing care and management of patients: nursing service. They
shall be located in private areas but accessible to guests.
• Deep Zone – areas that require asepsis to perform the prescribed services: surgical service,
delivery service, nursery, and intensive care. They shall be segregated from the public areas but
accessible to the outer, second and inner zones.
• Service Zone – areas that provide support to hospital activities: dietary service, housekeeping
service, maintenance and motor pool service, and mortuary. They shall be located in areas away
from normal traffic.

20. Function: The different areas of a hospital shall be functionally related with each other.
• The emergency service shall be located in the ground floor to ensure immediate access. A separate
entrance to the emergency room shall be provided.
• The administrative service, particularly admitting office and business office, shall be located near
the main entrance of the hospital. Offices for hospital management can be located in private areas.
• The surgical service shall be located and arranged to prevent non-related traffic. The operating
room shall be as remote as practicable from the entrance to provide asepsis. The dressing room
shall be located to avoid exposure to dirty areas after changing to surgical garments. The nurse
station shall be located to permit visual observation of patient movement.
• The delivery service shall be located and arranged to prevent non-related traffic. The delivery
room shall be as remote as practicable from the entrance to provide asepsis. The dressing room
shall be located to avoid exposure to dirty areas after changing to surgical garments. The nurse
station shall be located to permit visual observation of patient movement. The nursery shall be
separate but immediately accessible from the delivery room.
• The nursing service shall be segregated from public areas. The nurse station shall be located to
permit visual observation of patients. Nurse stations shall be provided in all inpatient units of the
hospital with a ratio of at least one (1) nurse station for every thirty-five (35) beds. Rooms and
wards shall be of sufficient size to allow for work flow and patient movement. Toilets shall be
immediately accessible from rooms and wards.
• The dietary service shall be away from morgue with at least 25-meter distance.
21. Space: Adequate area shall be provided for the people, activity, furniture, equipment and utility.

All these considerations should be part of the drawing board when hospital planning is initiated. We at
Hosconnn Consulting Services ensures all the points are considered while we plan for your establishment.

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 EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS
Planning Educational Facilities
“The success of our whole system depends as much on a thorough reform in the construction and care of
school-houses as upon any other single circumstance whatever.”

Long-range planning for educational needs is a vital part of a community’s orderly growth and
development. The educational climate provided by a community determines to a large extent its outlook
for the future. A school building provides a general environment in which learning is to take place and
must be the end result of a careful process of preparation and development. The 1998 National
Symposium on School Design established six design principles for schools in the 21st century. We must
design learning environments that:
1. Enhance teaching and learning and accommodate the needs of all learners.
2. Serve as centers of the community.
3. Result from a planning and design process involving all stakeholders.
4. Provide for health, safety, and security.
5. Make effective use of all available resources.
6. Allow for flexibility and adaptability to changing needs.
Schools should be planned by a representative group of the people who will use them, including educators,
parents, students, citizens, senior citizens, and members of civic and business organizations. Participation
and active involvement of school board members, citizens, professionals, teachers and students are
essential to the success of any school building program. With changes being made in building design and
building materials, today’s school buildings have more flexibility than in past years. Schools are being
designed to enable inclusion of many activities and can no longer be isolated from maximum use.
Increasing construction and operating costs make it essential that schools be constructed economically
and efficiently if the building is to serve its occupants and at the same time be a wise investment for the
community. It is obvious that the total building process is not a short-term experience.
Accelerated building schedules for meeting arbitrary opening dates can short-circuit the planning process
and produce schools that do not meet the needs of teachers, students, or the community. Much emphasis
is currently being placed on the creation of high-performance buildings which are safe, healthy, energy
efficient, and which have the least possible impact on the natural environment. Such schools should not
be thought of as special. It should be the goal of every project to construct such facilities; however, a
strong commitment is required from all those involved at the very beginning of the planning process.
Good planning, design, and construction practices should lead to the construction of schools which meet
high performance goals and standards.
Planning takes time, but the time is well spent. By taking time to plan properly, the school board and
administration can consider various alternatives to arrive at the best or optimal solution. A plan helps
provide focus to use resources wisely and will help establish credibility with the public. On the other
hand, you must not plan forever and never make a decision to move forward.

Participants in the Planning Process

State Board of Education – This board, made up of seven citizens appointed by the Governor and the
Executive Council, is the highest policymaking body in the state educational system. The board
establishes the standards for all school building construction in the state (RSA 21-N:9).
State Department of Education – The Department of Education carries out the policies of the State
Board of Education and provides services for the school districts. By law, the department is responsible
for the examination, review, and approval of all building programs for which School Building Aid
application is made (RSA 198:15-c). With reference to school building programs, the department:
1. Works with local districts and officials to develop effective educational programmes.
2. Assists in surveying school building needs at the local level.
3. Assists in the selection of school sites.
4. Provides information on construction methods, materials and costs.

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 5. Assists local districts in establishing educational specifications to assure functional adequacy in the
program.
6. Reviews preliminary and final drawings and specifications for evaluation and approval.

Local School Board – The district board of education is the corner stone of school organization at the
local level. It establishes educational policies pertaining to the local district and is the agency to initiate
long range planning for school needs, as one of its responsibilities is continual evaluation of the
educational process of the community. The board performs the following functions with regard to school
construction:
1. Initiates the process after evaluation of the district’s needs.
2. May appoint a building committee (see below).
3. Works with the administrative and instructional staff and students, as well as members of the
community, in establishing educational specifications for the project.
4. Keeps the public informed of school needs and the progress made on construction. The educational
specifications may be developed by a curriculum committee under the general supervision of the
Superintendent of Schools acting as the board’s executive officer
5. Engages professionals, such as an educational consultant, early in the building program to aid in
long-range planning, and an architect at a later stage to prepare drawings and contracts.
6. Approves school sites, plans and drawings; evaluates and awards bids; signs the necessary
contracts; supervises the entire process; and approves the completed project.

Superintendent of Schools and Staff – The Superintendent of Schools is the executive officer of the
school board. In a building program it is his or her duty to provide and coordinate capable assistance
and services to the school board. The Superintendent and his staff will:
1. Utilize the principals, teachers, students, and other staff members in the total building program.
2. Provide the school board with facts to assist its members in the multiple decisions a building
program entails.
3. Convey to the architect a clear, concise statement of the educational specifications to be fulfilled
in the building.
4. Assist the school board in presenting the program to the public.
5. Develop a financial plan for costs of construction, preparing bond issues, operational costs, etc.

School Building Committee – In New Hampshire it is a commonly accepted practice to appoint a

building committee to work with the local school board in a building project. In a school building
program, the building committee assists the school board in making long-range plans and assures that
these plans are translated into a building program. The committee size is determined by the scope and
complexity of the project. It is usually composed of one or more school board members and citizens from
various segments of the community. Do not be afraid to invite members of tax payer groups to participate.
It should be emphasized that the building committee, except in cities, works in an advisory role and all
plans and specifications for school building must be approved by the school board. Construction in cities
with school departments is done under the direction of a joint building committee (RSA 199:3), chosen
in equal numbers by the city council and school board. Selection of school sites must also be approved
by the school board.
In general, the building committee performs the following functions:
1. Reviews existing school facilities, reports, and enrolment projections to determine facility
shortcomings.
1. Assists in the formulation of educational specifications.
2. Develops and analyzes alternatives.
3. Assists in the selection of school site and architect.
4. Makes recommendations to the school board on a course of action.
5. Assists the school board in keeping the public informed of the project’s progress.

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 6. Boards and Councils may choose to delegate authority to the committee for general oversight of
the
7. project including supervision of the clerk of the works and approval of change orders, but
responsibility ultimately remains with the school board.

Local Fire Chief, Health Officer, and Code Enforcement Officer.

Under New Hampshire laws, the local fire chief, health officer, and building inspector or code
enforcement officer are charged with enforcing the state fire code, building code, and health rules. A
building permit is required by RSA 155-A:4. These officials should be consulted early in the design
process and throughout all phases of the project. It would be helpful to include them on the building
committee if they are available to participate.

Planning and Zoning Boards

The multiplicity of problems that beset today’s urban or rural community has resulted in widespread
acceptance of the necessity for long-range planning in all areas. Planning boards and commissions have
been formed for orderly municipal development. Such groups should be involved in planning school
building programs. Most importantly, planning for schools cannot be carried on in a vacuum; educational
services must be integrated with the full range of public services, with regard to cost and total
development of the community. Under RSA 674:54 school districts are required to give written
notification to the local planning boards of their intent to undertake a construction project. Planning
boards may hold public hearings on the project and may issue nonbinding written comments. Although
school districts are not required to follow the recommendations of planning boards, it is a wise practice
to take the concerns of the planning boards into account and to maintain good working relations with
them. Local conservation commissions should also be consulted when planning a school project. The
planning board, the regional planning commission, and the State Office of Energy and Planning can
provide a wealth of information and technical assistance. Planning boards and agencies are formed to deal
with the following, each of which affects the educational system:
1. Renewal of urban centers.
2. Population growth and movement.
3. Industrialization of the community – potential for fiscal support.
4. Development of highway systems (local, state, and interstate).
5. Availability of land and sizes.
6. Building codes and zoning regulations.
7. Community relations.

The School Staff – Teachers, administrators, counsellors, students, nurses, food service directors,
custodians, and other non-instructional personnel should be consulted regarding the following aspects of
a building program.
1. Establishment of educational specifications.
2. Survey of present and future needs of the district.
3. Formulation of long-range educational goals.
4. Advice on features to be included in the building in accordance with latest trends and special
needs.
5. Evaluation of present methods of instruction and recommendations for possible improvements.
6. Liaison between school and community.

The Community At Large – The community should be kept informed at every stage of the project.
Articles in the press, direct mailings, availability of school board members and administrative personnel
to inform interested citizens, and public information sharing sessions are ways to maintain two-way
communication throughout the planning and construction process. Suggestions from the public should
always be given consideration by those in charge of planning, and the community should be informed of
the attention given these suggestions.

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It may seem an almost impossible task to bring together the ideas of the numerous agencies, committees,
and individuals listed above into a cohesive program that will achieve the desired goals. This is the
function of the design professionals. They are selected and placed under a contract by the school board
for the sole purpose of bringing the project to fruition.

FUNDING THE PLANNING PROCESS

In a world of shrinking resources and growing demands for public accountability, getting the necessary
funding for a facility planning process can be extremely difficult. While much can be done by volunteers,
at some point there will be a need to pay for the necessary professional technical services to analyze
existing buildings, to prepare preliminary programming and design studies, to conduct environmental and
geological investigations of possible building sites, and to develop accurate cost estimates for the
alternatives under consideration. Many districts are understandably reluctant to commit funds prior to a
bond vote, but presenting a proposal to the voters without adequate study and accurate cost estimates can
be a formula for disaster. Conceptual drawings and a rough cost estimate are not sufficient. It is unwise
and very risky to promise the public that a building can be constructed on a particular site for a given cost
without having conducted geotechnical site investigations and using only gross estimating techniques for
the construction cost. When projects are proposed without adequate planning, the result can be significant
cost overruns or major reductions in the scope of the project to fit within the budget. Worse, without
adequately researching and analyzing all feasible alternatives, the district cannot be sure that the proposed
project is the best solution.
Possible sources of funding include a direct appropriation specifically for planning and design work,
funds from a capital reserve account, and funds from impact fees. Many districts appropriate planning
and design funds in one year with the expectation that a project will be proposed in the following year.
Sufficient funding should be provided to thoroughly analyze alternatives, to conduct geotechnical
investigations and environmental studies of proposed building sites, and to complete at least 50 percent
of the design work for any proposed construction.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR A SCHOOL BUILDING PROGRAM

Prior to the study, educators primarily thought of school buildings as places to house the educational
programs, without regard to how the facilities influenced those programs. Designers tended to focus on
the mechanical aspects of school buildings, also without regard to how the buildings affected the
educational programs beyond an attempt to keep the occupants reasonably comfortable. After studying
schools in the United States and Japan, Dr. Hawkins and his team developed the Interface Profile which
concluded that student learning is enhanced when the facility:
1. Is an integral part of the community reflecting
• Community pride
• Community involvement
• Broad utilization
2. Is adaptable to the user’s needs through
• A controllable physical environment
• Provision for varied and ample storage
• Flexible instructional space for teaching and learning styles
• Walls, floor, fenestration serving the learning process
3. Permits teachers to function as professionals with
• Reasonable control of the learning environment
• Space which permits work related dialogue
• Appropriate space for preparation for instruction
• Motivational environment conducive to professionalism
4. Fosters communication
• Through the appropriate use of technology
• Through the use of “learning surfaces”
• About the school at points of entry

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 • That emphasizes student achievement
• That is demonstrated as important to students
5. Creates an appropriate behavioral setting
• With an emphasis on aesthetics
• Which encourages student interaction
• Which provides a stimulating atmosphere for learning
• That is a comprehensive laboratory for learning
6. Accommodates a variety of learning styles
• Through hands-on experiences resulting from building design
• Which fosters fine arts appreciation
• Resulting from student interaction
• Through well designed and equipped space
• Related to individual needs and interest

In the years since the Texas A&M study, more has been learned about how the building interacts with the
educational programs and in some cases how it constraints or prevents future program changes. Most
schools are planned and designed for use over many years. To provide long term usefulness to the district
and to justify the expensive investment in a school plant, the following principles are suggested as
guidelines to the building committee:
1. Flexibility – Modern technology makes available a wide choice of versatile construction materials
and methods so that a building will be adaptable to future changes in curriculum and teaching
methods.
2. Durability – Buildings and equipment should be constructed of durable materials that need not be
necessarily expensive. On the other hand, an initial higher cost of good sound materials may be
offset by lower operational or maintenance expense.
3. Maintainability – Materials, system components, and structural features should be chosen with
consideration given to ease of maintenance. Mechanical systems should provide plenty of access
and room to work for the technicians who will service and repair the equipment in the future.
4. Health and Safety - Schools should be designed, built, and maintained in ways to minimize and
control sources of pollution, provide adequate exhaust and outdoor air ventilation by natural and
mechanical means, maintain proper temperature and humidity conditions, and be responsive to
students and staff with particular sensitivities, such as persons with allergies or asthma. Natural
light and fresh air help provide a healthy environment that enhances learning.
5. Security – The threat of physical violence from sources inside or outside the school must be
considered. To the extent possible the design should include elements that seek to contain,
channel, or otherwise minimize the exposure of students and staff to such threats.
6. Expansibility – The building design should provide for possible future expansion and additions.
Original construction should not be so permanent that it precludes changes in the structure.
7. Accessibility – Buildings should be designed to allow easy flow of traffic. This principle applies
not only to vehicular traffic (accessibility to public thoroughfares and ample provision for
parking), but also to the establishment of good pedestrian traffic patterns within the school. When
choosing a location, preference should be given to sites which encourage walking or biking from
home to school.
8. Environment – In order to provide the best possible learning environment, surroundings must be
comfortable, pleasing, and safe. As much as possible, the school should be designed and built to
have the minimum impact on the environment. Maximum use should be made of materials made
from renewable resources, products produced locally, and those produced by low impact
manufacturing processes.

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GETTING STARTED
In most school districts, many years elapse between major construction projects. The school board and
building committee may not include a single member who worked on the district’s most recent project.
The Department of Education strongly recommends that districts request training and assistance from the
Bureau of School Approval and Facility Management at the very beginning of the planning process. The
Bureau of School Approval and Facility Management can provide the most up to date information on
state requirements as well as current practices in design, construction, contracting, and financing for
school projects.

The five key elements to a school construction project are:

Set Goals. Goals must be established at the beginning of the project. Every subsequent decision should
be made with regard to the manner in which it will satisfy one or more of the project goals. Goals may
include things like improvement of student performance, staff satisfaction, economy of operation, energy
efficiency, healthy environment, and similar ideas.
Communicate Goals to Design Team. Goals must be clearly stated in the Educational Specifications
and in the solicitation of design professionals.
Pursue Integrated Design. Integrated design can help develop a project which meets the district goals
while providing the greatest value. It will identify cost trade-offs that can be made to achieve the optimum
level of performance from all building systems.
Monitor Design and Construction. Districts have every right to expect the highest level of professional
performance from their design and construction teams, but in the end, the facility will belong to the school
district. There are a myriad of design and construction choices that will have to be made (Chapter 7) and
the district should be the ultimate decision maker, albeit with the professional advice of the designers and
builders. When the work is complete, there should be no surprises.
Verify Goals. Employ a commissioning agent throughout the design and construction phases to ensure
that the district’s goals are met.

The first step in a school construction project is to analyze the reason(s) for the project. This may seem
obvious, but before proceeding it is essential that the parties involved have a clear, agreed upon,
understanding of the situation that needs to be addressed. Care must be taken to understand the causes of
the situation, not just the symptoms. There are a variety of situations that may lead to a school construction
project. These include, but are not limited to:
a) Overcrowding
b) Anticipated change in enrolment
c) Condition of existing facilities
d) Changes in educational programs
e) Changes in the method of delivering educational programs
f) Combination of above or other factors
Once the situation requiring resolution has been identified, all feasible alternatives should be analyzed to
determine which alternative best suits the community needs in meeting educational requirements within
reasonable costs. Construction may not be the best answer. There will almost always be at least three
alternatives and there may be many more. Granted, some alternatives may not be popular, but all should
be analyzed. In most cases the following options will be available and should be considered:
a) Renovate an existing building and construct an addition if necessary
b) Construct a completely new building
c) Send some or all of the students to another school in or out of the district
d) Redistrict
e) Adjust schedules
f) Variations or combinations of the above alternatives
Each alternative should be evaluated on an economic basis and on the basis of how well it meets the
educational requirements. The analysis should be based on the life-cycle of the alternative, not simply the
initial costs to implement the particular option. There are many tools available to help conduct a life cycle

18
analysis, but common sense is one of the best. Life Cycle Cost Analysis is explained in the next section.
There are many intangible factors that need to be considered in evaluating alternatives. Some of these
may even be more important than the financial aspects. Community pride and attachment to an existing
building can be very important. Uncertainty about future population patterns may influence a decision to
send students to another district on a tuition basis. The lack of suitable land for a new building might
eliminate that alternative. Each situation will have its own unique factors that will influence the process
The alternative selected must meet the State’s minimum standards for public school approval.
Construction projects must meet the standards of the Administrative Rules. Local districts may have other
requirements or concerns that need to be met. The alternative selected should offer flexibility for growth
and other changes that may occur in the future.

ELEMENTS OF THE SCHOOL CONSTRUCTION PLANNING PROCESS

To ensure orderly progression of the planning process, school boards or building committees may find
the following useful:
1. Basic analysis of needs.
a. Evaluation of existing plant facilities.
b. Pupil enrolment projection.
c. Determination of the educational philosophy of district, evaluation of the instructional program
d. Analysis of financial status.
Note: If an educational consultant is to be engaged, selection should be made at this stage.
2. Dissemination of information at the local level through a coordinated public information program
3. Development of detailed written educational specifications (Chapter 3).
4. Acquisition of funds for planning purposes (Chapter 14).
5. Selection of architect (Chapter 4).
6. Selection of school site with the assistance of the architect and other specialists (Chapter 5).
7. Development of preliminary drawings by architect in accordance with educational specifications
8. Review of preliminary drawings with State Department of Education following approval of local
school board (Chapter 16).
9. Complete detailed specifications drawn up for furnishings and equipment for use in the building.
10. Securing of local authorization of funds.
11. Preparation of working drawings to be submitted to the State Department of Education and other
state agencies as necessary for final approval.
12. Completion of necessary forms and applications prior to submission of plans for bid.
13. Advertisement of construction documents for bid, receipt and evaluation of bids, award of contract
14. Ground breaking Ceremony.
15. Completion of site development and building construction, including furniture and equipment.
16. Commissioning of the building and all building systems (Chapter 13).
17. Dedication and presentation of building to public and other officials.

INDICATORS OF A GOOD PLANNING PROCESS

1. The district has a detailed, comprehensive plan for programs, demographics, and facilities for at
least 5 years into the future.
2. The district compiles annual reports for each building that detail space utilization, maintenance
costs, energy costs, age of major system components, major component failures and major repairs
or replacements performed in the past year.
3. Plant operations budgets are developed for each building.
4. There is a space utilization audit which shows the current use of every room in every building for
every period of every school day as well as use after hours.
5. Facilities planning involves administrators, maintenance directors and representatives of the entire
staff.

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6. The district has demographic maps showing where each student lives and the attendance
boundaries for each school.
7. Equipment such as furniture, computers and software are not purchased as part of long-term
construction bond issues when this equipment will be obsolete long before the final payment is
made.
8. Five-year enrolment projections are maintained for each school.
9. The district does not rush completion of major construction projects to meet an arbitrary
completion date. It is nice to be ready for the first day of the school year, but the school will be in
operation long after that one day. It is better to be sure that it is built right before opening.
10. The district’s long range construction plan is based on careful analysis of population trends,
educational requirements, and facility conditions.
11. The district maintains a standing facilities committee.
12. The consultant for long range planning does not automatically become the architect for individual
construction projects. This may not be a problem, but planners with no expectation of additional
financial gain are likely to be more objective.
13. Discussions about proposed construction projects do not begin with the amount of money to be
included in the project budget.
14. Equivalent facilities for all students in the district is a planning objective.
15. Capital improvements are a continuous ongoing process in the district.
16. The district does not build additions to old schools again and again without a long-range schematic
plan for the final build-out of the old school.
17. The district makes appropriate, economically wise use of buildings that are no longer used as
schools. Old buildings are not retained simply because, “We own them.”
18. The district renovates buildings according to a plan and does not attempt to give something to
everyone and never bring any one building up to current requirements.
19. The district has a written policy for use of its facilities by outside groups, requires outside groups
to sign a use agreement, and knows the cost of operating the facility for outside groups even if
there is no charge for such use.

THE PROJECT BUDGET

The project budget will consist of most, if not all, of the following cost items:
Studies
Planning and Programming
Architect and Engineering Design Fees
Consultants
Geo-technical Testing
Environmental Studies and Testing
Legal reviews
Permits
Site Acquisition (May have happened many years earlier, but is still eligible for School Building
Aid)
Site Development
Construction Costs
Utilities
Furniture, Fixtures, and Equipment
Clerk of the Works
Commissioning
Contingency
Financing costs
As a general rule of thumb, the hard costs, which include site development and construction, should
total about 80 to 85 percent of the total project cost. If hard costs amount to less than 80 percent of
the total, the design and administrative costs may be excessive and should be reviewed.

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 AFFORDABLE HOUSING
We know that access to quality affordable housing is a worldwide issue and a crucial aspect in the
development of sustainable communities. As housing prices rise, families and individuals in our
communities struggle to find and keep places to live, and access to health care, education, and
employment is put at risk.
Affordable housing is a generic term used to describe housing that is affordable to lower- or middle-
income households. In the UK it has taken on a particular meaning defined in the National Planning Policy
Framework (NPPF) in a way which implies that state intervention is necessary to make housing
affordable.
There are a wide range of measures under the banner ‘Affordable Homes Programme

Affordable Rent - rented homes made available to tenants at up to a maximum of 80% of market rent
and allocated in the same way as social housing.
Affordable Home Ownership - a range of home ownership products that enable people to join or move
up the housing ladder, through the Help to Buy programme (Help to Buy equity loan, Help to Buy shared
ownership and Armed Forces Home Ownership Scheme).
Empty Homes – intended to bring the 3% of total housing stock which remains empty back into use.
Mortgage Rescue Scheme - to support vulnerable owner-occupiers at risk of repossession.
Affordable Homes Guarantees Programme - guaranteeing debt to help housing providers expand the
provision of purpose-built private rented and affordable housing.
The National Planning Policy Framework (NPPF) suggests that affordable housing includes:
1. Social rented housing (owned by local authorities and private registered providers or owned by
other persons and provided under equivalent rental arrangements).
2. Affordable rented housing (let by local authorities or private registered providers of social housing
to households who are eligible for social rented housing. Affordable rent is subject to rent controls
that require a rent of no more than 80% of the local market rent).
3. Intermediate housing (homes for sale and rent provided at a cost above social rent, but below
market levels. These can include shared equity, other low-cost homes for sale and intermediate
rent, but not affordable rented housing).
4. Households or for the subsidy to be recycled for alternative affordable housing provision.

WHY SHOULD AFFORDABLE HOUSING BE A CONCERN?

There are several reasons to be concerned about affordable housing. First of all, every person should be
able to afford a decent place to live. In times of prosperity, and when the income gap between rich and
poor appears to be increasing, low-income individuals are particularly at risk. Greater wealth for the
majority unavoidably puts upward pressure on housing prices, squeezing those with less income. So when
affordable housing no longer exists we may feel some moral responsibility to help create it. A community,
government, or other organization can take steps to stimulate or mandate affordable housing. Without
affordable housing, our communities will become less diverse. We may lose the opportunity to interact
with people who may be in different economic or cultural circumstances, to learn from them and to enjoy
their company. The community can become richer, and community life ultimately more satisfying when
affordable housing is integrated into a community, bringing people of various socio-economic
backgrounds together. Data also links the lack of affordable housing to a variety of negative social
outcomes. Substandard housing contributes to childhood health problems, such as asthma, anemia, viral
infections, stunted growth, and other health problems, sometimes leading to expensive hospitalizations.
Poorly-housed children in these situations are significantly more likely to have behavioral problems and
to fall behind housing-stable students in school. When children are forced to move from school to school
their academic success is at risk.

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WHAT TYPES OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING EXIST?
People live in a very wide range of housing settings; virtually all these settings can be made affordable.
Without going into great detail, some types of affordable housing include:
• Newly built housing developments, in which the entire development is specifically planned to be
affordable. (One variety of this type, but not the only one, is government -assisted public housing.)
These developments can range from individual houses to apartments to single-room-occupancy
facilities.
• Newly built affordable housing units, as part of a mixed-income development. These units can
also take the form of individual houses or apartments.
• Existing housing units, renovated or converted from their previous use, so as to become
affordable.
• Existing and already-affordable housing units, neither renovated nor converted, but which are
intentionally maintained and conserved so that they will remain affordable.

SPECIALIZED TYPES OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING

• Co-housing, or congregate housing: where residents have separate bedrooms, but share common
areas such as kitchens or yard spaces.
• Transitional housing: designed for temporary use by people who are recovering from physical
or emotional problems. This type of housing, which may also involve shared space, is often
accompanied by support services nearby or on site.
• Categorical housing: that is, housing for members of certain social groups. Seniors are one of
the most common of these groups, but specialized housing has also been constructed for the
disabled, for victims of domestic violence, for people living with AIDS, for grandparents serving
as parents, and college students. If a specific group has particular housing needs, customized
housing can be created to meet them.
The financial arrangements for affordable housing can vary as much as the physical housing itself. The
financing to build the housing can come from federal, state, or local government, from quasi-public
housing corporations or partnerships, from social agencies, or from purely private developers. Banks can
supply loans on varied terms. On the other side, residents of affordable housing units may be partly or
fully subsidized by direct government or private subsidies, vouchers, or loans. They may also contribute
their own labour or services in return for a reduction in rent.

HOW DO AFFORDABLE HOUSING PROGRAMMES TAKE SHAPE IN PRACTICE?

(1) Cooperative Housing
Cooperative here usually means cooperation between residents and a larger housing organization. An
example of a nonprofit cooperative housing development is the Homestead Housing Center (HHC) in St.
Paul, Minnesota. HHC develops housing cooperatives for seniors. HHC started 12 new senior housing
co-ops in the rural, upper Midwest, often in towns with less than 10,000 people. The co-ops allow seniors
to retain the advantages of home ownership (tax deductions and equity accumulation) as well as control
over budget and monthly living costs. HHC provides development, design, and organizational services
and offers partnering opportunities with local sponsors who provide matching funds for community
development. Another cooperative housing example is the Qumbya Cooperative in the Hyde Park
neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois. Qumbya maintains two houses: Bowers House (houses 22 people) and
Haymarket House (houses 13 people). Members buy a share in the organization, which is returned to
them upon leaving the cooperative. Members work on assigned chores, take turns cooking for the house,
attend weekly house meetings, and participate in quarterly maintenance chores.
(2) Community Land Trust (CLT)
Community land trusts are nonprofit organizations that purchase or otherwise protect land and make it
available for community purposes. A successful affordable housing example is the Burlington
Community Land Trust (BCLT) in Vermont. This project involved the Sarah Cole House in the "Hill"
section of the city, which includes many large 19th century homes built by lumber barons and merchants.
The Hill had changed dramatically over the past two decades as old homes were converted to college

22
offices, dorms, fraternity houses, apartments, and rooming houses. The changes brought noise, traffic,
lack of parking, and poor maintenance to many of the homes. The local Community and Economic
Development Office encouraged the BCLT to develop and manage a single-room occupancy project to
serve homeless, low-income, and single women (women at risk of losing their housing). The Sarah Cole
House was chosen for the project because of its history as an owner-occupied rooming house. Despite
having resident owners, the building had fallen into disrepair. Neighbors first objected to the development
as another assault on the neighborhood and protested to the local zoning board. BCLT responded with an
appropriate site plan, staffing plan, and house rules. Opposition was dropped and the zoning was
approved. After BCLT rehabilitated the house and grounds, area residents expressed satisfaction with the
neighborhood improvement.
(3) Community Development Corporation (CDC)
Community development corporations are nonprofit multi-purpose economic development organizations
which serve primarily low-to-moderate-income people and which commonly become involved in local
housing issues. One good example is Tenants to Homeowners, Inc. in Lawrence, Kansas. This CDC
promotes low-income housing by providing home ownership programs and credit counseling to help
people qualify for mortgages. The organization acquires properties to sell to moderate and low-income
people and renovate or build homes to sell to people not qualifying for traditional loans. Tenants become
homeowners through education, communication, home improvement, and creative financing. An example
of a faith-based nonprofit CDC is Habitat for Humanity International. Founded in 1976 in Americus,
Georgia, Habitat has built or rehabilitated more than 80,000 affordable homes for more than 400,000
people around the world through volunteer labor and donations of money and materials. There are nearly
1,900 Habitat affiliates in 64 countries, including the U.S. Habitat builds and rehabilitates houses with
the help of homeowner partner families. The houses are sold to families at no profit and financed with
no-interest loans. The families provide a down payment and monthly mortgage payments and invest
hundreds of hours of their own labor, "sweat equity," in building their and other Habitat houses. Habitat
doesn't get government funding, but involves government through gifts of land, houses for rehabilitation,
and infrastructure for streets, utilities, and administrative expenses.

CHALLENGES OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING

• Creating affordable housing goes beyond the communication, organizational, and
interpersonal skills: Those skills may be relevant here, but so are others. Affordable housing
frequently means that new homes are going to be built. So while the affordable housing advocate
may need to be excellent at human relations, that advocate may sometimes also need to have at
least a passing familiarity with zoning, building code, sewage systems, energy codes, rebates and
incentives, and material costs.
• Creating affordable housing often involves multiple constituencies and multiple social
institutions: More is required than simply persuading or satisfying a few people or groups, or
even the public at large. Affordable housing activities may need advocates to set the process in
motion; developers to acquire the land; architects to design the homes; banks to finance them;
local governments to approve the plans; businesses to sell the building materials; construction
workers to do the actual building; building inspectors to monitor the construction; agents to sell
the homes; and buyers to buy them. In fact, creation of actual affordable housing units takes more
than the efforts of a citizen or single group of citizens; it requires highly skilled coordination
among many people.
• Many of these constituencies have financial as well as ideological interests: The developers,
landlords, bankers, businesses, and construction workers all need some income from their work,
enough income to justify their time spent. While community workers can sometimes serve without
pay, builders and bankers rarely do. Their legitimate financial needs must be satisfied, just as the
needs of the buyer or renter of the finished home.
So, creating affordable housing is challenging indeed. It is a complex and multilevel problem. But the
advantage of multilevel problems is that there are multilevel solutions. The flip side of the challenge is

23
that there are many entry points into the problem, many actions to create affordable housing that one can
take.
The following actions help to create affordable housing that can be taken on different levels and by
different groups. They represent a variety of ideas that have been successful in other communities, and
could be successful in yours too.
Many of these actions, especially those on a citizen level, can be taken by people without specific expertise
in the housing field. Expertise helps, but an essential co-requisite is caring about creating affordable
housing in one's community, and being willing to put in the effort to help make it happen.
The actions below are arranged by category (citizen, local government, social agency, etc.), depending
upon who might be most likely to be the primary initiator. Certain actions might be most appropriate for
a citizen to take, others for local government or nongovernmental organizations. Many of the actions
below can be taken by many different kinds of actors.

Design Consideration of Affordable Housing

Design considerations are areas that may affect the requirements, design, or operational concept
of a system and should be part of the systems engineering process throughout the acquisition life cycle.
The design considerations listed below should be assessed for applicability to the system at hand.
This list is not all inclusive and does not include any additional design considerations levied by the
Service, Center, platform, or domain. Not all design considerations are equally important or critical to a
given program, but all should be examined for relevancy.
Design consideration is as follows
1. PARKING:
a. Security b. Access and Surveillance c. Vehicle/Pedestrian Interaction,
d. Parking Podiums.

2. PUBLIC OPEN SPACE:

a. Outdoor Rooms b. Boundaries c. Access d. Nighttime Lighting. etc

3. PRIVATE OPEN SPACE:

a. Private Outdoor Space for All Dwelling Units b. Adequate Size
c. Storage and Balconies d. Fencing. Etc

4. BUILDING LOCATION:
a. Site Entry and Circulation b. Setbacks c. Climate Considerations. Etc

5. BUILDING SHAPE:
a. Building Height b. Building Scale c. Building Form. Etc

6. BUILDING APPEARANCE:
a. Materials and Colour b. Image and Visual Complexity c. Windows and doors
d. Roof Shape and Size. etc
7. BUILDING LAYOUT:
a. Entries b. Central Facilities and Common Rooms c. Support and
Service Areas d. Stairs e. Elevators f. Access Corridors and Security.
8. UNIT LAYOUT:
a. Entry b. Light and Ventilation c. Room Design d. Dining Rooms
e. Window Views f. Bathrooms and Storage Space
g. Materials, Appliances and Mechanical Systems

Affordable housing is more than just a housing complex. It’s a place that creates community and
enhances lives. Costs are always going to be a driving factor so using thoughtful design to find big and
small ways to increase quality and decrease costs is a challenge we enjoy facing every day.

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Affordable Housing Demand
Africa’s housing sector has witnessed remarkable and significant developments over the past few years.
Thanks to the multiple reforms brought about by stakeholders of the sector. However, there is still a vast
scope of possibilities to bridge the gap between the affordable housing demand and supply through
multiple approaches, which when brought together will lead to a future where everyone has a place to call
home.
Factors Enhancing Collaboration for Affordable Housing
We have encompassed some of the influencing factors that would allow more collaboration and thus pose
the African affordable housing as a lucrative sector to invest in a meaningful future.
1. Investment & Financing
The key to a good return is based on a bankable investment structure, optimal project management and
predictable returns. Multiple channels of securing & boosting returns and alternate financing options help
re-instil the investor/financier faith in affordable housing projects.
2. Public Private Partnerships:
PPP models are now taking the centre stage as governments turn to PPPs for long-term commitments;
risk-sharing and large-scale investments. This model is not only cost-efficient, but also time-efficient
and objective. Yet, multiple concerns arise with the model with respect to the accountability, control
and rigidity of contracts.
3. Design & Construction efficiency:
A whopping 70% or more of the entire cost is directed towards construction. This is one of the major
challenges that affect affordability. Innovative construction methods such as the use of reclaimed
material, new planning and cost management systems, design innovations, account for construction
efficiency of homes. `
4. Legal & policy framework:
While these exist to protect the interests of the end users, there is no denying that, many a times legal
structures & policies could be an impediment for investors to venture into projects as a result of
implications which could impact the entire value chain of the sector. The issue is how to address priorities
and various conflicts of interests in order to ease financing and supply of affordable houses.
5. Technological advancements:
The rapidly evolving landscape of technology, offers numerous ways to not only expedite the initiation
and delivery of houses but also streamlines, the whole process, increases transparency and thus reassure
that the residential units are fast, affordable and reach the rightful buyer.
6. Infrastructure and community facilities:
Homes that are well within the proximity of workplaces, educational institutions and other recreational
areas are always a win with the community. This not only attracts more investment but also the buyers,
providing them with low-cost homes and facilities that are basic to present-day living.
7. Sustainable Homes are the Future
Last but certainly not the least, is the concept of Green Homes, where people and the planet can thrive.
Green building practices and sustainable designs contribute to efficient utilization of resources, while
creating healthier and more productive environments for people and communities.
The Affordable Housing Investment Summit attempts to open avenues to have honest and fruitful
dialogues, on the 26th & 27th of June 2019 in Nairobi-Kenya, along the factors above and more, among
the key stakeholders including the government representatives, financiers and project developers who
delve into the ideas that can convert challenges into opportunities to make affordable homes a reality for
all.
25
 SENIOR CITIZEN HOUSING
The senior housing in this study fulfilled its promise of providing a good example of a physical
and social environment which encourages residents to be independent, enables them to continue life in
the manner they've been accustomed to, yet which at the same time provides a new social network and
activities that they can take up should they so choose. In this respect, the senior housing complex offered
an environment which supports well-being and healthy aging. However, the analysis showed that the
residents' interpretations of what the senior housing complex represented varied to such an extent that it
was clearly not the same place for them all.

Challenges Associated with Senior Citizen Housing

Older populations face numerous housing challenges, including those related to affordability, physical
accessibility, and access to medical and other services inside and outside the home. Seniors in rural areas
encounter additional challenges related to their relative isolation from neighbors, services, and amenities.
These are:
1. Affordability: Most seniors own their homes, but the percentage of older adults who rent is
expected to increase slightly from 21 percent in 2015 to 23 percent. Both owners and renters face
affordability pressures. Since 1989, the percentage of homeowners carrying mortgage debt has nearly
doubled for those age 65 to 74 and almost tripled for those older than 75. Even homeowners who have
paid off their mortgages have ongoing maintenance costs and taxes that they may struggle to pay.
Incomes in retirement typically decline and become fixed, susceptible to erosion by inflation
generally and by increased costs for health care and housing specifically. According to the Bipartisan
Policy Center, households 80 and older have a median income of $25,000 annually, and nearly 1 in 4 has
an income of $15,000 or less.
Housing cost burdens — households paying more than 30 percent of their income on housing —
are a growing problem, affecting renters as well as homeowners. According to one projection, as many
as 6.4 million renters and 11 million homeowners will be cost burdened by 2035, and of these, 8.6 million
will be severely cost burdened, spending more than half of their household income on housing expenses.
In addition to cost burdens, declining incomes can prevent households from making necessary
home repairs or modifications for aging in place and can make paying for needed health services more
difficult. These economic pressures are compounded by the increasing number of seniors carrying debt
into retirement, including mortgage debt.
Seniors with substantial retirement savings and household wealth will be best able to afford the
rent, mortgages, property taxes, home repairs, and modifications needed to safely age in place.
2. Accessibility: As the population of seniors increases, the number of people with disabilities is
also likely to increase, especially among groups with a higher incidence of disabilities than the general
population: low-income, minority, and renter households. These individuals will need accessibility
modifications to age safely and comfortably in their homes. JCHS projects that by 2035, in 31.2 million
households, at least one member will have a disability affecting mobility, the ability to engage in self-
care, or the ability to complete basic household activities. Cases of dementia are also likely to increase,
even if the rate of incidence falls.
3. Isolation: Many older individuals, particularly those who are no longer able to drive, become
socially isolated and have difficulty accessing health providers, services, and community amenities. An
estimated 22 percent of non-driving seniors age 85 and older live in a household with no drivers. Routine
activities such as grocery shopping and getting a haircut can become daunting. Seniors are also likely to
need more health services as they age, and many may find that their transportation options to visit doctors
or pick up medications are inadequate or unaffordable.
To accommodate an aging population, many more units at all affordability levels will need to be
made accessible to people with disabilities, both through new construction and retrofitting of the existing
housing stock. New construction can be designed for accessibility at the outset or in ways that make future
accessibility modifications easy to complete. One way to promote accessibility would be through the
broader adoption of universal design principles. Universal design incorporates features intended to benefit
people of all ages and abilities such as wide doorways, step-free entryways, and lever faucets. Many of
26
these features are not usually found in existing housing; therefore, modifications will be needed not only
to make housing more accessible but also more safe, comfortable, and user friendly. Such modifications
range widely in cost, and many households would need assistance to afford the more expensive
modifications. The residences of long-tenured homeowners may also need repairs beyond aging-friendly
modifications, which can increase affordability pressures. Tax credits and public loans and grants may
help lower-income households make their homes more habitable and more suitable for aging in place.

Senior Housing as a Social Environment

The physical and social environments were of equal importance and intertwined in residents'
accounts, for some the social environment was more prominent in their accounts of day-to-day life. Social
environment refers here to social contacts and activities provided by other people but also services.
Services are made possible by decisions and actions of human actors and they entail activities of humans
as service providers and users, and thus services are included in social environment in the analysis. In the
following extracts, different aspects of social environment that relate to the well-being of residents will
be addressed.
The senior housing complex was a special place for some residents and they felt they were very
much part of it. At the same time, there were those who kept their distance and participated either very
little or not at all in communal activities. For these residents, the housing complex was a generic living
environment suitable for older people; a space which served its purpose but could be swapped with any
other senior housing. This does not mean that attempts to create communal senior housing which
encourages social contact is futile, but is simply a reminder of the fact that seniors are as heterogenous a
group as any other in our society, and the people in this group have their own interests, preferences and
aims in life. The residents chose to relocate to an environment which they anticipated as being supportive
for older people, but they also chose the level of participation in activities within the housing complex.
This reminds us that older people are agents in their environments, and not all of them want to grow old
in old homes but are keen to actively shape their own living environment in later life.

Design Consideration of Senior Citizen Housing

Here are tips on building an assisted living community:
1. Realize location can make all the difference.
2. Design unique amenities.
3. Create options when it comes to eating.
4. Provide memory care services.
5. Connect with the community.
6. Acclimate supplementary services.
7. Activities, hobbies, and recreation matter to today's seniors

New models of senior housing have appeared to fill the gap of so called “in-between” housing.
These new models have the potential to offer an age-friendly environment where independent living is
possible even with an age-related deterioration in functional abilities. The rapid growth of different senior
housing models signals the need for a variety of in-between housing options for older people, and housing
policy is the key to deciding if these exist, and if so, it also decides their location and tenure. It can thus
be argued that housing policy is an important tool for improving the well-being of elderly people.
THE NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE SENIOR HOUSING
1. Creating Good Living Environment for the Survival and the Development of Humans is
Imperative, especially for the Elderly.
Because of their age, physiological functions decline, adaptability of the surrounding environment
decreases, and the need for more public love and affection increases. Therefore, senior housing should
not only meet the basic requirements of the elderly necessities, but also meet the spiritual and cultural
needs for the elderly to provide appropriate leisure and entertainment and promote elderly exchanges.
However, there are still many problems in the elderly apartments, such as unsuitable site planning, single
function, backward facilities and lack of multi-level communication space.
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2. Indoor Functions and Environment
When analysing senior housing interiors, we understand that some senior citizens want to live
alone while others need additional services such as meals, rest or nursing care. Drawing rooms and
bedrooms important areas of concern for these seniors. Kitchens and bathrooms are areas which require
specialized features for these seniors and a balcony offers a transition from the inside to outside. Public
space is an important contribution to those residents living in nursing homes. The function of public space
usually includes a game room, reading room, fitness room, painting room and classrooms. Interior air
quality is particularly important for frail seniors, who spend long periods of the day indoors. Avoiding
toxic material and efficient ventilation is necessary.
We need to recognize the loss of the physiological capacity in all design considerations. Specific
requirements can be summarized as the following:
a. Privacy: The elderly needs a space of their own. In the design of senior housing, we must respect
resident living habits, preferences, and privacy. Even in most household types, track curtains can
serve as needed privacy partitions.
b. Social Interaction: a lonely life is very harmful to the physical and mental health of the elderly
as they themselves have the need for social interaction. Therefore, when considering the residents
there should be space for social interaction space and exchanges between residents.
c. Clear Direction and Logo System: the elderly, because of identification problems and memory
recession, require that their environment offers clear direction and a legible marking system
guiding them to event locations.
d. Security and Comfort: all designs for the elderly need to provide a safe indoor environment
which provides a sense of security and meets their physical and psychological comfort
requirements.
e. Disability Design: indoor spaces for elderly activities require good accessibility.
f. Familiarity and Continuity: the design of senior housing should contain certain local tradition
and offer the residents self-decoration spaces for the placement of familiar personal items, such
as photos, which serve as reminders of earlier days.

3. Outdoor Environment
The principles of the outdoor environment are as follows
1. The sense of control and access to privacy.
2. Social support.
3. Physical movement and exercise.
4. Access to nature and other positive distractions.
5. Building communities should remain accessible and offer viable walking spaces: sidewalks and
parking lots should be designed and sloped not to exceed 5° so that residents either walking or in
wheelchairs can explore the entire building.

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 SOCIAL HOUSING
Social housing is the term given to accommodation which is provided at affordable rates, on a
secure basis to people on low incomes or with particular needs. Social housing properties are usually
owned by the state, in the form of councils, or by non-profit organisations such as housing associations.
The principle of social housing is that where the private sector is unable to provide the required
level of affordable accommodation for all those who need it, the state must intervene to ensure that those
on low incomes are provided for. The provision of social housing is seen as a key remedy to housing
inequality, as rent increases are limited so they remain affordable to those most in need.
In the private rental sector, tenancies are offered by landlords to whoever agrees to pay the rent
according to the terms of the contract. By contrast, local councils allocate housing according to the
availability in the particular area at the time, and who is or isn’t eligible for their waiting list.
Local authorities must give certain groups ‘reasonable preference’ on their waiting lists. These are
likely to include those who are:
a. Have disabilities or specific medical needs.
b. Elderly.
c. A single parent.
d. Living in unsanitary or overcrowded housing.
e. A large or young family with dependent children.
f. A migrant, refugee or asylum seeker.
g. Legally classed as homeless (or threatened with homelessness).
Individuals may be classified as ineligible who: are subject to immigration controls, have not lived in the
particular area for a long enough period of time, are believed by the local authority to be guilty of
unacceptable behaviour. Although they are obliged to make a proportion of lettings available to those
applicants approved by local authorities, housing associations are free to operate their own waiting lists
and lettings policies.
Social housing is designed not only to contribute to private order of family members but also to
effectiveness of the family members in public order.
Social prestige from houses may be sought as an expression of business or professional success. But today
that right is being denied to millions of people across the country whose lives are blighted by
homelessness, bad housing conditions, sky-high private rents, insecurity and the threat of eviction.
Our housing market relies on different types of homes to buy and rent. Social housing has
historically been a key part of this, so failing to build these homes has caused problems throughout the
system.

These problems include: A reliance on private house building, which can never solely provide all the
homes we need declining rates of home ownership, as high rents leave most private renters unable to save.
Many providers struggle to maintain and improve homes adequately in the face of shrinking rent revenues
strained communities and local labour markets, as more young people and families find themselves priced
out of many areas entirely.

Functions of a Social Housing

House as environment for family living, fulfills various functions like effective use of resources,
protection, social and emotional bondage among family members, cultural influence in way of living,
religious mindset and social status.
1. Economic Function:
a. Through group living family resources are economically managed among its members.
b. Productive activities are carried out to supplement family income.
c. House is a consumption unit as a group; family consumes its utility in total.
d. Each member shares space in kitchen, dining, bed, living, bathroom in order to and saves money
and increases utility value.

2. Protective Function:
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a. Protection is most needed at the two ends of life span – childhood and old age.
b. House provides protection to all inmates from various changes in weather i.e., sun, wind, heat,
cold, rain etc.
c. Health would be protected and well – being would be safe guarded during the hours of work, rest
and relaxation that we spend in the home.

3. Emotional Function:
a. The love and affection enjoyed by family, contributes to mental, emotional, physical and spiritual
attachment between one other.
b. House may affect this aspect of family life by influencing directly the reactions of the members
of the group.
c. The social living may limit or heighten depending on provisions made in the house for rest and
privacy or quietness that gives sense of peace and inner strength.
4. Social and Cultural Function:
a. House should be planned to enjoy private living and social living to entertain members like aunts,
parents and grand-parents.
b. Proper living conditions should promote cultural feelings and provide scope for the unique
interests of all members like hobby, seclusion and privacy.
c. Family member’s success in private life and public life is totally influenced by this function
d. House life of individual affords quiet a different satisfaction from those gained in professional/
occupational activities.
e. Recreational and social activities of the family centered on the family life satisfy the need for
social life and family member’s desire for love and affection. This satisfaction has a profound
influence on the person’s involvement in world of work outside the home.

5. Religious Functions:
a. House provides a place for children learn and observe the religious rituals and ceremonies
performed by the adult members of the family.
b. House promotes spirituality and inner peace to every individual by providing secluded space for
performing prayer, meditation and religious congregations.

6. Self-Expressive Function:
a. Provide for a degree of freedom to facilitate self – expression of all the individuals. Ex. Space
may be provided for creative efforts, without affecting other members piece of living.
b. The special provisions made in the home promote hobbies and collections not only afford shelter
but also adequate background for desirable activities.
c. House may affect family life either favorably or adversely depending on the provisions.
d. If house is too big and with scattered and unorganized work–center, home maker’s total time is
spent on orderliness of house which effects social life
e. If too small, it hinders involvement of other members in sharing the work or learning new skills.
f. If unorganized to fulfill common functions cause tiredness, cause traffic confusion i.e., between
work area and social area.
g. If unplanned for specific activities like sewing, laundering, drying clothes, grains lead to crowding
and disorder.

Benefits of Social Housing

a. Economic Benefits
1. Having an ample supply of affordable places to live fosters a host of economic benefits for
communities and also serves to heighten civic participation, increase public safety and create a
greater sense of community pride
2. The economic impact of housing affordability can start a ripple effect for an entire community.
When families spend less on housing, they have more to spend on goods and services. These

30
 transactions fuel community-wide economic growth by bolstering local businesses and the local
workforce.
3. But to keep people working in these positions, to keep businesses open and the neighborhood
humming, affordable housing options based on income levels must be made available, she
explains. “Vibrant communities have lots of different types of people in them,” says Carter. “But
if we don’t secure affordability for some, that vibrancy can fade very quickly.”

What Is Social Housing Disadvantage

There were a range of definitions of housing disadvantage in all the studies that were reviewed.
Things like overcrowding, poor housing - like the condition and quality of the house - insecure housing
tenure, moving around often or falling behind on rent are just some examples of what were considered
disadvantages.
There are obvious connections between poor housing and health. Living in cold houses has been
shown to physically impact the health of occupants, as has living in a damp house or one with mould.
Regardless of how housing disadvantaged was defined in each study, there was an overall
correlation with poor mental health.
Poorer people experience the worst mental health issues as a result of inadequate or poor housing.
Insecure housing also affects overall stability in life, especially in children.
Design consideration of Social Housing
1. Accessibility: Designing things so that they can be accessed by people with disability.
2. Colour: Use of colour techniques such as colour harmony and colour temperate.
3. Design Constraints: Constraint such as cost, time, and politics.
4. Durability: Design built to last
5. Efficiency: Design that make efficient use of energy and resources
6. Features: A collection of related functionalities
7. Extensibility: Design that can be extended with future designs or components such as accessories
8. Human factors: Designing things to suit human physical, psychological and social
characteristics.
9. Layout and Composition: The arrangement of elements of a design.
10. Lightness: Elements that get outs of the way so as to appear almost non-existent.
11. Production: How the design will be produced. For example, a design that can be produces by the
equipment at a particular factory.
12. Quality: A general term for any quality that makes a design more valuable such as ambiance,
character and consistency.
13. Security: Physical and information securities.
14. Usability: Ease of use
15. Values: Your values as a designer or the values of your organization.

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 PART 3
GUIDELINES FOR SAFETY & HEALTH ON CONSTRUCTION SITES
This guideline has been prepared with a view to providing essential information to job
contractors/employers to ensure safety and health on construction sites.

1.0 MANAGING SAFETY AND HEALTH ON CONSTRUCTION SITES

1.1 Safety policy
Every employer of 50 employees or more shall make a written statement of his policy with respect to the
safety and health of his employees and make arrangements to give effect to the policy.
1.2 Risk assessment
The employer should make a suitable and sufficient assessment of: -
(a) Any risk to the safety and health to which any employee is exposed whilst he is at work.
(b) Any risk to the safety and health of any person not in his employment arising out of or in connection
with the conduct by him of his undertaking.

2.0 ORGANISING THE SITE

2.1 Planning the work
Make a good planning by gathering as much information about the project and the project site before
works begin to ensure safety during construction phase. Information that could be sought should be: -
(a) Underground services.
(b) Presence of live bare electrical conductors, underground/overhead insulated cables. Advice from the
authority concerned should be sought prior to start of work.
(c) Ground conditions.
(d) Contract documents.
(e) Nearby schools, footpaths and roads.
(f) Other activities going on the site.
2.2 Organising the work
Responsibilities regarding safety and health between different stakeholders should be clearly allocated: -
(a) Between client/main contractor/subcontractor.
(b) By appointment of competent supervisors/safety and health officers.
(c) By proper coordination on site between parties.
2.3 Common facilities to be provided
Ensure provision of basic facilities to ensure safety, health and welfare of employees.
2.3.1 Site access
Adequate, safe and separate pedestrian and vehicular traffic routes should be provided on and around the
site.
2.3.2 Site boundaries
Fence the construction site to prevent the entry of unauthorised persons on construction sites, which are
located in built-up areas and alongside vehicular and pedestrian traffic routes.
2.3.3 Public safety
Ensure public safety through appropriate fencing of site or by other means.
2.3.4 Lighting
Ensure adequate lighting of all worksite through natural and/or artificial lighting.
2.3.5 Site tidiness
(a) The site should be kept tidy.
(b) Walkways and stairs should be kept free of slipping and tripping hazards.
(c) Ensure there are no protruding nails on loose or fixed materials.
2.3.6 Storage areas
(a) Set up storage areas for plants, materials, flammable substances (e.g. flammable liquids and gases)
and hazardous substances (e.g. chemicals).
(b) Store flammable materials away from other materials and protected from accidental ignition.
32
(c) Prevent obstruction of access routes/emergency escapes by proper storage of materials.
(d) Materials to be properly stacked to prevent falls.
2.3.7 Fire Safety
Ensure fire safety on the construction site by: -
(a) Providing adequate means for fighting fire.
(b) Training of personnel in the use of these fire-fighting equipments.

3.0 EXCAVATIONS
(a) Locate and identify all utility services, such as electrical, water and sewer in the area before beginning
to excavate.
(b) Don’t use pointed tools to probe for underground electrical cables.
(c) Remove or secure trees, utility poles, rocks or similar objects near the edge of an excavation to prevent
workers from being injured.
(d) Support the sides of excavations by sheet piling, shoring and bracing to guard against danger to
workers from fall or dislodgement of earth, rock or other material.
(e) Inspect excavation slopes and/or supporting systems daily for erosion or deterioration.
(f) Keep excavated materials back at least 600 mm (2 ft.) from the edge of any trench excavation and 1.2
m (4 ft.) from any other excavation.
(g) Erect substantial guardrails or barriers around excavations to prevent workers or other persons from
falling into them.
(h) Provide a ladder when workers are required to enter excavations over 1.5 m (5 ft) in depth.
(i) Do not place or move load, plant or equipment near the edge of any excavation where it is likely to
cause its collapse and thereby endanger any person unless precautions such as the provision of shoring or
piling are taken to prevent the sides from collapsing.
(j) Provide anchored stop blocks and barriers to prevent vehicles being driven into the excavation.
(k) Do not allow heavy vehicles near the excavation unless the support work has been specially designed
to permit it.
(l) If an excavation is likely to affect the security of a structure on which persons are working, precautions
should be taken to protect the structure from collapse by providing shoring.

4.0 WORKING AT HEIGHT

4.1 General provisions
(a) Ensure that working platform is secure and check that it: -
(i) will support the weight of workers using it and any materials and equipment they are likely to use or
store on it.
(ii) is stable and will not overturn.
(iii) is footed on stable ground or on a stable support or structure.
(b) Provide guard rails, barriers, etc. at open edges, including edges of floors, floor openings, edges of
roofs and edges of working platforms.
4.2 Guard rails
Guard rails should: -
(a) be made from any material, provided they are strong and rigid enough to prevent people from falling
and be able to withstand other loads likely to be placed on them.
(b) Be fixed to a structure, or part of a structure capable of supporting them.
(c) Include: -
(i) a main guard rail at least 900 mm above any edge from which people are liable to fall.
(ii) a toe board at least 150 mm high.
(iii) a sufficient number of intermediate guard rails or suitable alternatives.
(d) Risks of falls through openings or fragile material (e.g. roof-lights), to be reduced by providing
appropriate and adequate guard rails or barriers to cover the opening or material.

33
4.3 Safe working platforms
All working platforms should be: -
(a) Fully boarded and securely fixed to prevent displacement.
(b) Strong enough to support the load usually placed on it (workers and materials).
(c) Provided with toe-boards so as to prevent materials and tools from falling over the
edges.
4.4 General access to scaffolds
All scaffolds should be: -
(a) Properly designed, constructed, erected and maintained so as to prevent collapse or accidental
displacement.
(b) Based on a firm and level foundation.
(c) Erected on a firm ground capable of supporting the weight of the scaffold and any load likely to be
placed on it.
(d) Braced and tied into a permanent structure or otherwise stabilized.
(e) Provided with platforms that are fully boarded and wide enough for the work and for access.
(f) Provided with scaffold boards that are properly supported and rest on at least three supports.
(g) Have a safe ladder or other access onto the work platforms.
4.5 Safe use of access ladders
(a) Any ladder should be properly fixed to prevent slipping.
(b) A good handhold should be provided to the ladder.
(c) The ladder should be leaned at the proper angle to minimize the risk of slipping outwards, that is,
about 1 m out at the base for every 4 m in height.
(d) The top of the ladder should rest against a solid surface and not on fragile or other insecure materials
such as cement or plastic guttering.
(e) Both feet of the ladder should rest on a firm footing and cannot slip.
(f) If the ladder is more than 3 m long, or used as a way to and from a workplace, it should be secured
from falling by fixing it at the top or sometimes at base.
(g) If the ladder cannot be fixed a second person should secure the ladder at the base while it is being
used.
(h) The ladder should extend a sufficient height (about 1 m) above any landing place where workers will
get on and off it unless some other adequate handhold is available.
4.6 Stepladders
(a) Stepladders should be fully opened and both spreader bars should be locked.
(b) Stepladders should not be used on top of scaffolds, platforms, or other surfaces above the ground.
(c) Unattended tools, such as hammers, should not be left on top of stepladder.
(d) Stepladder should be dismounted before being moved.
(e) Top most rung of a stepladder should not be used.
4.7 Care of ladders
(a) Ladders should be inspected regularly by a competent person and damaged ladders should be removed
from service.
(b) Ladders should be properly stored on racks under cover and above ground.
(c) Ladders should not be hung from its rungs.
4.8 Roof works
(a) All roof-work operations should be pre-planned and properly supervised.
(b) Roof work should only be undertaken by workers who are physically and psychologically fit and have
the necessary knowledge and experience for such work.
(c) Work on roofs should not be carried on in weather conditions that threaten the safety of workers.

4.8.1 Flat roofs

(a) All the edges and openings on a roof from or through which there is a risk of fall should be protected
with suitable guardrails and toe boards.
(b) All covers for openings in roofs should be of substantial construction and be secured in position.

34
4.8.2 Sloping roofs
(a) When work is being carried out on sloping roofs, sufficient and suitable crawling boards or roof
ladders should be provided and firmly secured in position as soon as practicable.
(b) During extensive work on sloping roofs, edge protection in the form of barriers or guardrails high
enough and strong enough should be provided to stop worker from falling off the roof.
4.8.3 Fragile Roofs
Where workers are required to work on or near roofs or other places covered with fragile material, through
which they are liable to fall, they should be provided with sufficient suitable roof ladders or crawling
boards strong enough, when spanning across the supports for the roof covering, to support those workers.

5.0 MOVING, LIFTING AND HANDLING LOADS

5.1 Manual handling
(a) Work site and storage of materials should be planned so that manual handling is reduced to a minimum.
(b) Manual handling should be done by the kinetic lifting technique and the person involved should be
properly trained.
5.2 Hoists
(a) Select a hoist, which is suitable for the site and capable of lifting the loads required.
(b) To prevent people being struck by the platform or other moving parts: -
(i) Enclose the hoistway at places where people might be struck, e.g., working platforms or window/door
openings.
(ii) Provide gates at all landings and at ground level
(c) Prevent falling down the hoistway by making sure: -
(i) the hoistway is fenced where people could fall down it.
(ii) the gates at landings are kept closed except during loading and unloading.
(iii) the edge of the hoist platform is close to the edge of the landing so that there is no gap to fall through.
(d) Prevent being hit by falling materials by: -
(i) stopping loads falling from the platform, e.g., make sure wheelbarrows are not overfilled.
(ii) not carrying loose loads. Put loose loads in proper container or use a hoist with an enclosed platform.
(iii) not overloading the platform.
(iv) enclosing the hoistway.
(v) hoist should be used to carry materials only.
5.3 Lifts
Lifts for the carriage of persons need to be especially constructed and installed for the purpose, with such
features as mechanical and electrical interlocking devices on the cage and landing gates.
5.4 Mobile cranes
(a) The crane should be able to lift the load on a site.
(b) It should be of such a size so that it can be used safely on a site.
(c) Crane’s inspection certificates should be up-to-date.
(d) The crane should be fitted with an automatic Safe Load Indicator, which should be in good working
order.
(e) The employer should ensure that the driver is trained and experienced in the operation of the type of
crane being used.
(f) The crane should be sited in a safe place, so that;
• The driver has a clear view of the site.
• It is well away from excavations and overhead powerlines.
• It is on level ground which can take its full weight and together with its maximum load.

6.0 SITE VEHICLES AND MOBILE PLANT

(a) Provide safe site entry and exit points with adequate turning room and good visibility for vehicle
drivers.
(b) Keep pedestrians separate from vehicles, e.g., by providing separate site entry and exit points.
(c) Consider a one-way system and avoid needs for vehicles to reverse wherever possible.
35
(d) Consider fitting reversing alarms to vehicles.
(e) Make use of signalers to control high-risk situations, e.g., where visibility is restricted.
(f) Prepare the running surface of temporary roads. Where the site is muddy, use hardcore or other fill to
overcome the problem of skidding and repair potholes
(g) Protect any temporary structures, such as scaffolds or falseworks, which might be damaged and made
unsafe if struck by a vehicle.
(h) Protect any excavations and alongside any areas of water if vehicles must pass close by.
(i) Take precautions, such as stop blocks, where vehicles tip materials into excavations.
(j) Make sure that vehicles are not overloaded as they may become unstable, difficult to steer or have their
braking efficiency impaired.
(k) Make sure loads are securely attached to vehicles and that loose materials cannot fall from lorries or
site dumpers and strike workers.
(l) Take special precautions with blind corners.

7.0 CHEMICALS
(a) Follow the instructions provided on the labels when working with glues, paints, and solvents.
(b) Work with glue, paint, or solvents in well-ventilated areas so as to prevent build-up of hazardous
environment to chemical vapours.
(c) Use appropriate personal protective equipment and clothing to employees working with chemicals
based on labels and Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).

8.0 PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Employers on construction sites need specific Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) to ensure their safety
and health. e.g.: -
8.1 Safety helmet
(a) Employees should be provided with safety helmets to protect the head from injury due to falling or
flying objects or due to striking against objects or structures.
(b) Employers should ensure that the safety helmets are worn.
(c) When working at height, a strap should additionally be used to prevent the safety helmets from falling.
8.2 Footwear
(a) Protective footwear should be provided to workers who are exposed to the risk of injury of materials
being dropped on their feet or nail or other sharp objects penetrating their sole.
(b) Where it is likely that employees will be working in water or wet concrete, appropriate boots should
be provided.
8.3 Goggles and safety spectacles
The employer should provide goggles or other suitable protective device when likely to be exposed to eye
or face injury from airborne dust or flying particles, dangerous substances, harmful heat, light or other
radiation, and in particular during welding, flame cutting, rock drilling, concrete mixing or other
hazardous work;
8.4 Gloves and protective clothing
Protective gloves and suitable protective clothing to protect hands or the whole body as required when
exposed to heat radiation or while handling hot, hazardous or other substances which might cause injury
to the skin should be provided by the employer.
8.5 Other protective equipments
Where necessary, workers should be provided with and required to wear the following personal protective
equipment: -
(a) Ear protection when exposed to noise.
(b) Dust masks when exposed to excessive dust.
(c) Waterproof clothing and head coverings when working in adverse weather conditions.
(d) Safety harnesses with independently secured lifelines where protection against falls cannot be
provided by other appropriate means.
(e) Life vests and life preservers where there is a danger of falling into water.

36
(f) Distinguishing clothing or reflective devices or otherwise conspicuously visible material when there
is regular exposure to danger from moving vehicles.
Note: All protective equipments should be properly maintained and stored after use.

9.0 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

9.1 Transport
(a) Where an employee has suffered injury or illness at work necessitating his removal to his home or to
a hospital or other similar institution, the employer shall promptly and at his own expense provide an
appropriate means of conveyance for the employee.
(b) The appointed person or first-aider shall accompany the injured or ill employee to a hospital or other
similar institution whenever the circumstances so justify.

On-site Safety Requirements

General basics and responsibilities
The responsibility for the building site, including work safety, lies with the owner of the real estate, as
long as he or she has not delegated that responsibility to another organisation through a contract of
services or an authorisation agreement.
The owner of the construction site is required to ensure:
• the maintenance of the construction and its land units and the safety of the surrounding
environment during the construction and exploitation of the building. This includes preventing
access to buildings with a danger of collapse or signs of deterioration until they have been
demolished or renovated. This has to be done with warning signs unless a contract of services says
otherwise;
• delivery of the proper notice of construction to the local government (except for small
construction) at least three working days prior to the construction (unless a contract of services
says otherwise) if:
➢ the expected duration of the construction exceeds 30 working days and at the same time
there are >20 labourers on the construction site, or
➢ the expected volume of work exceeds 500 staff-days;
• the opportunity/access for control to be exercised by national and local authority oversight
organisations and building inspections;
If the owner uses a contractor or a professional management company, then the responsibility for work
safety lies with them.
For the manufacturing operations on the construction site, a work environment that does not damage the
surrounding environment nor endanger the lives, health or property of the labourers or a third party must
be created. If construction is in an area of heightened danger, the physical, chemical and other hazard
parameters of the work environment cannot surpass the set maximum levels. A maximum level is the
average hazard parameter per time unit that does not damage the health of a worker in an 8-h working
day (a 40-h working week). The company handling the supervision of the owner of the construction is
required to check:
• that work safety and healthcare regulations are met, that the contractor is not polluting the
surrounding environment and keeping the construction site properly maintained, and, if need be,
making proper entries in the site diary;
• that entries in the site diary are actioned.

37
If construction has a main contractor, prior notice of construction has to be delivered by the main
contractor. If there is no main contractor, the owner of the construction must appoint a contractor to be
responsible for health and safety on the site and inform other contractors of this fact.
The main contractor has to prepare a list of dangerous operations on the site, guided by the following list
of the foremost dangerous operations on a construction site:
1) operations that can cause a landslide or engulfment, and where the danger might be increased
by the work methods used or the environment where the construction site is located;
2) operations in which labourer health can be compromised by biological risk factors and
dangerous chemicals, including asbestos;
3) operations that are located in an environment with ionising radiation;
4) operations that are in close proximity to uninsulated low/high-voltage lines or a transformer
substation;
5) operations that include the danger of drowning;
6) underground operations such as work in trenches, wells and tunnels;
7) operations in water/underwater or in a caisson requiring an air supply system;
8) operations using explosive gases or liquids (gas tanks, etc.);
9) operations using explosive substances;
10) operations related to lifting, rigging or dismantling heavy construction details (equipment);
11) operations that include the danger of falling from heights;
12) operations that require the checking of labourer health status.
To ensure safety and prevent health risks on the construction site, any employer who has labourers on site
must abide by the nation’s laws and regulations. This requires special attention when working abroad.
The employer must ensure proper use of work and protective equipment, ensure that restrictions on the
use of materials are followed and obey the orders of the work safety coordinator, if there is one appointed
on the site.

The Duties of Building Contractors

The contractor is obliged to:
• follow the requirements and preventive principles of work healthcare and work safety laws and
devise a construction site management project during the period of preparation for construction;
• prohibit work for labourers who:
➢ lack the knowledge and skills of their speciality and the relevant knowledge of healthcare
and work safety, and
➢ who are intoxicated with either alcohol or narcotics;
• inform the technical supervision organisation of a work accident that was caused by a non-
conformity to restrictions on the construction or the building as soon as possible;
• give any relevant information to the technical supervision organisations representative or any
other authorised personnel in order to find the cause of a work accident, in the meantime
preserving the scene and outcome of the accident;

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• enforce systematic internal control of the work environment, during which he or she organises,
plans and monitors the company’s healthcare and safety situation according to the law or
restrictions made by enacted legislation. The internal control of the work environment is an
inseparable part of the operations of the company. This control will involve the labourers and will
involve the work environment risk assessment. The risk assessment clarifies the work
environment’s hazards, if need be measures their parameters and assesses the risks to labourers’
health and safety, taking into account gender and age discrepancies;
• annually review the status of the work environment’s internal control and analyse the results. If
required, proper adjustments must be made according to any variations discovered. The results of
the risk assessment will be documented and preserved for 55 years;
• devise a policy (and allocate funds) for the work environment risk assessment in which there are:
operations to reduce or avoid health risks, a time schedule and enforcement mechanisms. This
policy is to be enforced in every field of activity and at every management level throughout the
company;
• organise a new risk assessment if working conditions change, if work equipment or technologies
are modified or upgraded, if there is new information on a hazard posing a risk to human health,
if, because of an accident or a dangerous situation, the risk level has risen or the work healthcare
doctor has identified an illness linked to the labourers’ work through a health check;
• ensure that the labourers working in a danger zone have had special training or special guidance
or are being supervised by a labourer who has;
• inform an underage labourer, or that person’s legal guardian, of the risks and precautions taken to
ensure his or her safety;
• inform labourers of risks, the results of the risk assessment and the precautions being taken to
avoid bodily injury through work environment proxies, members of the work environment council
and the labourers’ trustees.
• implement measures from contracts of employment and collective agreements to avoid physical
harm and to neutralise the effects of the risk hazards mentioned earlier. Organise work healthcare
and cover the costs;
• organise health checks on labourers who might be affected by hazards because of the nature of
their work, as defined here or in any other legal act involving the matter, and cover the costs;
• appoint labourers fit to give first-aid within the company, bearing in mind the size of the company
and its division to sub-units, and organise first-aid training and cover the costs. If the company’s
sub-units are in different territories or work in shifts, then there must be at least one labourer at all
times in the sub-unit or work shift who has first-aid training;
• ensure the availability of first-aid kits to every labourer. The first-aid kits must be properly labelled
and easily accessible;
• transfer a labourer to another field of work or temporarily ease his or her work conditions,
according to the laws of employment, if he or she demands it and has a doctor’s recommendation;
• provide personal protective equipment, work clothing and means of cleaning, if the nature of the
work demands it, and organise special training in the use of personal protective equipment;
• introduce work healthcare and work safety regulations to the labourers and enforce them;
• organise proper training for work a labourer is either starting or being moved to, according to
work healthcare and work safety guidelines. Guidance or special training must be repeated if the
work equipment and technology is either replaced or upgraded;
• devise and authenticate a safety manual for the work being done and the work equipment being
used, and inform labourers of how to refrain from polluting the environment;
• inform the local Labour Inspectorate of the start, or change, of operations in the field of work of
the contractor’s company;
39
Note: The employer has the right to enforce more stringent work healthcare and work safety regulations
within the company than are present in the enacted legislation.

The Obligations and Rights of the Labourer

The labourer is obligated to:
• be a part of the creation of a safer working environment, according to the work healthcare and
work safety regulations;
• follow the work and rest periods announced by the employer;
• go through health checks, according to the enforced policy;
• use the prescribed personal protective equipment as required and keep them in working order;
• ensure that his or her work does not endanger his or her own life or health, or that of a co-worker’s,
and that he or she does not pollute the environment, according to the employer’s instructions and
special training;
• inform the employer or his or her representative and the work environment proxy immediately of
an accident or the threat of one, or a health disorder disrupting work duties or deficiencies in safety
protocols;
• comply with instructions from the employer, the work environment specialist, the work healthcare
doctor, the labour inspector and the work environment proxy, according to the work healthcare
and work safety orders;
• use the work equipment and dangerous chemicals as directed;
• refrain from dismantling, changing or removing safety devices of work equipment or construction
without authorisation; use same as required.
The labourer is prohibited from working under the effects of alcohol, narcotics, toxins or psychotropic
substances.
The labourer has the right to:
• demand proper personal and collective protective equipment from the employer, according to the
work healthcare and work safety regulations;
• receive information about hazards, the results of the risk assessment, the precautions being taken
to avoid bodily injury, the results of health checks and the labour inspector’s precepts to the
employer in the work environment;
• stop working or leave his or her workplace or the danger zone in case of a serious and unavoidable
risk of accident; refuse work or stop work that endangers his or her health or that of a co-worker,
or does not comply with the requirements of environmental safety, in which case he or she should
notify the employer or a representative of the employer and the work environment proxy
immediately;
• demand a temporary or permanent transfer to another line of work or the easing of working
conditions, with a doctor’s recommendation;
• inform the work environment proxy, the members of the work environment council, labourer’s
trustee and the construction site’s labour inspector if he or she believes that the measures being
taken to prevent pollution of the environment are insufficient.

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Ensuring Safety on the Construction Site
General
A safety coordinator must be appointed to the construction site by the main contractor or the owner for
the duration of construction. Appointing a coordinator does not relieve the contractor or owner of their
responsibilities. For the duration of construction, the safety coordinator must:
• organise and coordinate work safety activities on the construction site;
• ensure the introduction of the work safety plan to the labourers working on site and their
employers, including subcontractors, sole proprietors, etc.;
• check the work safety plan, construction project and adherence to the safety requirements made
by technological maps, scheduling them appropriately if there are any amendments to work
operations;
• make sure that all underground and ground cables, pipes and other installations, including danger
zones, are labelled with the proper warning signs, and that the appropriate precautions are being
taken;
• make sure that the labourers working on the construction site and any other authorised personnel
are equipped with appropriate personal protective equipment;
• organise regular general inspections on the construction site.
Safety requirements in a work zone
The buildings and workplaces have to have the strength to sustain the work load for the duration of the
construction.
Workplaces have to have enough height and square footage to allow labourers to do their work without
damaging their health. For every labourer in a workplace, there has to be at least 10 m3 of air space (when
calculating air space, the height of a room will be considered to be 3.5 m):
• See-through walls in close proximity of workplaces and walking routes have to be made of safe
materials or protected from shattering and appropriately labelled.
• Outside workplaces and walking routes that labourers use must be properly organised so that
personnel are not endangered and traffic not disrupted.
• Materials, devices and objects that pose a threat to labourers’ health and life must be appropriately
and safely stored, and if required, fixed into position.
• Access to spaces built of materials with insufficient strength must be prevented if there are not
measures being taken to make the work there safe.
• Labourers must be protected from falling objects, preferably with collective protective equipment.
If need be, walkway routes must be covered or access to danger zone prevented.
• Every workplace must have appropriate protective, lifesaving and first-aid equipment in order to
prevent or reduce health risks.
• If the workplace has danger zones where there are threats of accident or bodily injury because of
the nature of the work, then those zones must be properly labelled and measures must be taken to
prevent the access of personnel without special training or guidance.
• The territory, the staircases, the walking routes, and the work and non-work rooms of the
workplace must be properly lit. Lights must be placed so that they do not harm the labourers.
Lighting must ensure the good visibility of danger signs and emergency shut-down devices.
• The employer must implement measures to prevent or reduce physical health risks from noise,
vibration, ionizing radiation, etc.

41
 • Labourers doing heavy physical work, working in forced positions for long periods or doing
monotonous work have the right to have breaks included in their working time.
• Employers must provide suitable working and non-working conditions to ensure safety for
underage and disabled labourers by enforcing restrictions according to the enacted legislation.
Special Requirements for Assembly Works
Assembly works must be handled in work zones where other work operations are prohibited and
unauthorised personnel are forbidden to enter. During construction, personnel are forbidden from
occupying sections on top of which assembling operations are taking place or loads are being moved.
When slinging handleable and installable elements, inventory slings and other cargo capturing devices
must be used. These must be made according to an authenticated method, checked and certified. The
available slinging manner must prevent the cargo from falling or sliding when lifted and must provide the
opportunity of unhooking it from a distance, if the work level from where it is lifted exceeds 2 m.
Swinging or revolving of a lifted construction element must be prevented by binding it with rope.
Openings in ceilings for devices, elevators, staircases, etc., which can be accessed by personnel, must be
covered with strong, heavy and immovable shields or be surrounded by railings.
Openings in walls that are bordered by ceilings or work levels/stages, but also borders of ceilings on top
of exterior walls (that are built later) – be equipped with railings.
If the assemblers have to cross from one construction to another, they must have ladders with handrails,
overpasses or supports at their disposal.
The assembled element can be unslung only if it has been temporarily or permanently secured in its
intended position, according to the project plan. Assembly is not allowed if the wind is ≥15 m/s, when
there is ice, during thunder storms or thick fog or when the visibility across the work place is limited.
Vertical panels and other details that have large sail areas must not be lifted if the wind is ≥10 m/s.

Special requirements for work in pits, wells, in tunnels and earthworks and underground
For operations in pits, wells, tunnels and underground, the following precautions must be taken:
• The soil has to be properly supported (embankments).
• Dangers that may cause workers objects or materials to fall, or that may allow the intrusion of
water, must be forestalled.
• Every work place must be equipped with a durable ventilation device to provide adequate fresh
air.
• Labourers must have the means to take refuge safely in case of fire, deluge or fall of materials or
collapse of structures.
Before digging operations can commence, the dangers from underground cables and other transmission
systems must be identified and brought to a minimum danger level.
Pits, wells and tunnels must have safe exits and entrances. Piles of soil, materials and vehicles must be
kept away from the digging site and, if need be, barriers must be erected around the digging site.

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Special requirements for working at height and on roofs
If, while working or moving, there is a threat of falling from a height of >2 m, special safety measures,
like railings, safety nets and other such measures, must be used. If using such measures is impossible,
because of the nature of the work, then the labourer must be given a safety belt or body harness and be
attached to safety cables or ropes. Other methods to ensure worker safety may also be used.
Where the nature of the work poses a serious threat of falling, or the work is being done on top of materials
that pose a serious threat if fallen onto, such safety measures must be used even if the height is <2 m.
Railings being used to prevent falling must have a handrail at a height of at least 1 m, a footrail and a rail
in the middle at a height of 0.5 m. The rail in the middle can be replaced with appropriate plates or nets.
Railings must be placed on the sides of gangways and work stages that have a height of at least 2 m.
Scaffolding must have railings if the height of the fall is above 2 m.
If the angle of the roof is <15° and the eaves are higher than 3.5 m, then there must be a barrier with three
rails on the edge of the roof. If the work is carried out in good weather conditions and the roof is slip-
proof, then the railing must be attached if the edge of the roof is higher than 5 m.
If the angle of the roof is >15° and the eaves are higher than 2 m, then railings or safety nets must be
installed, and in the case of a slippery roof, the work area has to be covered with foot supports 30 cm
apart.
If the angle of the roof is >35°, then in addition to the aforementioned, a railing or a safety net must be
installed no further than 5 m from the work area.
If the angle of the roof is >60°, then the railings or safety nets mentioned should not be farther than 2 m
from the work area.
If work on the roof is short term and the labourer is using a safety belt or a harness, the stipulations
mentioned earlier are unnecessary.
The means of installing and removing safety apparatus onto a roof must themselves be made safe for the
labourer.

Special requirements for demolition work

A construction site organisation project must be formed for demolition work that is especially attentive
to the work order and the temporary supports of other structures.
The demolition work must be supervised by a qualified person, ensuring that:
• before demolition the object being demolished is not connected to any electricity line, nor to gas
or water pipes, and that it has no other connections;
• when demolishing constructions with asbestos, the standing special requirements are met;
• waste and materials liable to cause dust can be lowered from the construction by chute; such loads
must be covered during transportation.
Simultaneous demolition work on several floors is forbidden. In addition, it is forbidden to collapse
materials on sub- ceilings. Labourers must be protected from falling objects. Areas where such
possibilities exist must be defined as danger zones. If need be, covered gangways must be built, or access
to the danger zone prohibited.

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Ventilation in the workplace
The workplace must be supplied with fresh air. The level of fresh air required is calculated by taking into
account the nature of the work, the work methods being used and the physical strain the labourers are
under.
Dangerous substances or dust that can damage health, and which is created during the work process, must
be removed from the workplace.
The ventilation system being used must be properly maintained and not cause unhealthy drafts.
The ventilation system must be equipped with an automatic control system that notifies personnel in case
of malfunction, which could damage labourers’ health.
Emergency exits from the workplace
Emergency exits must be clear at all times and allow direct access to a safe zone. The number and
locations of emergency exits is calculated by taking into account the size of the construction site, its
location, the work equipment being used and the maximum number of workers on the construction site.
Emergency exits must be properly labelled and equipped with emergency lights to protect labourers
coming into danger through a malfunction in the lighting system.

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 PART 4

FIRE PROTECTION
Introduction
The systems required to meet the needs of tackling small fires, evacuation and major fire-fighting both
by the occupants and then the Fire Service are outlined. Building management systems under computer
monitoring and control will incorporate such systems, together with security functions. Integration of
such equipment with the architecture, decor and other services is planned from the earliest design stage.
Fire classification
A building’s fire risk is classified according to its occupancy and use. A fire is supported by three essential
ingredients: fuel, heat and oxygen. The absence of any one of these causes an established fire to be
extinguished. The fire-fighting system must be appropriate to the location of the fire and preferably
limited to that area in order to minimize damage to materials, plant and the building structure. Radiation
from a fire may provoke damage or combustion of materials at a distance. Structural fire protection can
include water sprays onto steelwork to avoid collapse, as used in the Concorde aircraft production hangar.
The system of fire-fighting employed depends upon the total combustible content of the building (fire
load), the type of fire risk classification and the degree of involvement by the occupants. Fire escape
design where children, the elderly or infirm are present needs particular care so that sufficient time is
provided in the fire resistance of doors and partitions for the slower evacuation encountered. Smoke
contains hot and unpleasant fumes, which can be lethal when produced from certain chemicals and
plastics. Visual obstruction makes escape hazardous and familiar routes become confused. Packaging
materials, timber, plastics, liquefied petroleum gas cylinders and liquid chemicals must not be stacked in
passageways or near fire exits in completed or partially completed buildings. Each working site or
building needs a safety officer responsible for general oversight.

Table 1: Classification of Occupancies

Table 2: Fire Classifications

Regular fire drills are conducted by the safety officer and employees are clearly notified of their
responsibilities in an emergency. Staff duties will be to shepherd the public, patients or students out of
the building to the rendezvous, while maintenance personnel may be required to operate fire-fighting
equipment while awaiting the fire brigade.

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Portable Extinguishers
Portable extinguishers are manually operated first-aid appliances to stop or limit the growth of small fires.
Staff are trained in their use and the appliances are regularly maintained by the suppliers. Table 3
summarizes their types and applications. Fire blankets are provided in kitchens where burning pans of oil
or fat need to be covered or personnel need to be wrapped to smother ignited clothing.

Water
A 9 l water extinguisher is installed for each 210 m2 floor area, with a minimum of two extinguishers per
floor. A high-pressure CO2 cartridge is punctured upon use and a 10 m jet of water is produced for 80 s.
Water must not be used on petroleum, burning liquids or in kitchens as it could spread the fire.

Dry powder
Dry powder extinguishers contain from 1 to 11 kg of treated bicarbonate of soda powder pressurized with
CO2, nitrogen or dried air. A spray of 2–7 m is produced for 10–24 s depending on size. The powder
interrupts the chemical reactions within the flame, producing rapid flame knockdown. The powder is non-
conducting and does little damage to electric motors or appliances. A deposit of powder is left on the
equipment.

Foam
Portable foam extinguishers may contain foaming chemicals that react upon mixing or a CO2 pressure-
driven foam. They cool the combustion, exclude oxygen and can be applied to wood, paper, textile or
liquid fires. Garages are a particular application. Sizes range from 4.5 to 45 litres. A 7metres jet is
produced for 70 seconds with a 9 litres capacity model.

Vaporizing liquid
Vaporizing liquid extinguishers use bromochlorodifluoromethane (BCF) or bromotrifluoromethane
(BTM). These are 1–7 kg extinguishers containing a nitrogen-pressurized liquefied halogen gas, which is
highly efficient at interrupting the flames of chemical reactions and producing rapid knockdown without
leaving any deposit. They are more powerful than CO2 extinguishers and are used on electrical, electronic
and liquid fires. Halogen is used for outdoor fires and motor vehicles, where the toxic vapour given off is
adequately ventilated. They are not suitable for enclosed areas because of the danger to occupants. These
are CFCs and are part of the international agreement to cease their use. A suitable replacement for fire-
fighting is being sought.

Carbon dioxide
Pressurized CO2 extinguishers leave no deposit and are used on small fires involving solids, liquids or
electricity. They are recommended for use on delicate equipment such as electronic components and
computers. The CO2 vapour displaces air around the fire and combustion ceases. There is minimal cooling
effect, and the fire may restart if high temperatures have become established. Water-cooling backup is
used where appropriate.
Table 3: Type of Portable Fire Extinguisher

FIXED FIRE-FIGHTING INSTALLATIONS

Various fire-fighting systems are employed in a building so that an appropriate response will minimize
damage from the fire and the fire-fighting system itself. Backup support for portable extinguishers may

46
be provided by a hose reel installation and this can be used by the staff while the fire brigade is called.
Some public buildings, shops and factories are protected by a sprinkler system, which only operates
directly over the source of fire. This localizes the fire to allow evacuation. Where petroleum products are
present, a mixture of foam and water is used. The Fire Officers’ Committee (FOC) rules should be
consulted for further information.

Hose Reels
Hose reels are a rapid and easy to use first-aid method, complementary to other systems and used by the
building’s occupants. They are located in clearly visible recesses in corridors so that no part of the floor
is further than 6 m from a nozzle when the 25 mm bore flexible hose is fully extended. The protected
floor area is an arc 18–30 m from the reel, depending on the length of the hose. A minimum water pressure
of 200 kPa is available with the 6 mm diameter nozzle. This produces a jet 8 m horizontally or 5 m
vertically. Minimum water flow rate at each nozzle is 0.4 l/s, and the installation should be designed to
provide not less than three hose reels in simultaneous use: a flow rate of 1.2 l/s. The local water supply
authority might allow direct connection to the water main, and there may be sufficient main pressure to
eliminate the need for pressure boosting. Pump flow capacity must be at least 2.5 l/s. The standby pump
can be diesel-driven. Flow switches detect the operation of a hose and switch on the pump.

Figure 1: Hose Reel installation.

Dry Hydrant Riser
A dry hydrant riser is a hydrant installation for buildings 18–40 m high where prompt attendance by the
fire brigade is guaranteed. A dry riser pipe 100 or 150 mm in diameter is sited within a staircase enclosure

47
with a 65 mm instantaneous valved outlet terminal at each landing. All parts of the building floor are to
be within 60 m of the hydrant, measured along the line on which a hose would be laid. A test hydrant is
fitted at roof level, and also a 25 mm automatic air vent.
A double inlet breeching piece with two 65 mm instantaneous terminals is located in a red-wired glass
box in an external wall, 760 mm above ground level and not more than 12 m from the riser. The inlet
point is within 18mof an access road suitable for the fire brigade pumping appliance. A brass blank cap
and chain is fitted to each landing valve. The riser is electrically earthed. Landing valves are 1 m above
floor level and are used by the fire brigade for their own hoses.
Wet Hydrant Riser
A permanently charged rising pipe 100mmin diameter or greater supplies a 65mm instantaneous valved
outlet terminal at each floor at a pressure of between 410 and 520 kPa. The upper pressure limit is to
protect the fire brigade hoses from bursting and is achieved by fitting an orifice plate restriction before
the landing valve on the lower floors of a tall building. The maximum static pressure in the system when
all the landing valves are shut is limited to 690 kPa by recirculating water to the supply tanks through a
75 mm return pipe. Each hydrant valve is strapped and padlocked in the closed position. They are 1 m
above floor level and are only used by the fire brigade for buildings over 60 m high which extend out of
the reach of turntable ladders. The maximum normally permitted height is 60 m for a low-level break tank
and booster set. Higher buildings have separate supply tank and pump sets for each 60 m height.
Pressure boosting of the water supply is provided by a duplicate pump installation capable of delivering
at least 23 l/s. Pumps are started automatically on fall of water pressure or water flow commencement.
Audible and visual alarms are triggered to indicate booster plant operation. A break tank capacity of 11.4–
45.5 m3 is required and mains water make-up rate is 27 or 8 l/s for the larger tank. Additionally, four 65
mm instantaneous fire brigade inlet valved terminals are provided at a 150 mm breeching fitting in a red
wired-glass box in an external wall, as described for the dry hydrant riser. The box is clearly labeled. A
nearby river, canal or lake may also be used as a water source with a permanently connected pipe from a
jack well and duplicate pumps. The standby pump may be driven by a diesel engine fed from a 3–6 h
capacity fuel storage tank providing a gravity feed to the engine.

Foam Inlets
Oil-fired boiler plant rooms and storage tank chambers in basements or parts of buildings have fixed foam
inlet pipe work from a red wired-glass foam inlet box in an outside wall as for the dry hydrant riser. A 65
or 75 mm pipe runs for up to 18 m from the inlet box into the plant room. The fire brigade connects their
foam-making branch pipe to the fixed inlet and pump high-expansion foam onto the fire. The foam inlet
pipe terminates above the protected plant with a spreader plate. A short metal duct may be used as a foam
inlet to a plant room close to the roadway. Vertical pipes cannot be used and the service is electrically
bonded to earth. On-site foam-generation equipment is available and may be used for oil-filled electrical
transformer stations. In the event of a fire, the electricity supply is automatically shut off, a CO2 cylinder
pressurizes a foam and water solution and foam spreaders cover the protected equipment.

AutomaticSprinkler
High-fire-risk public and manufacturing buildings are protected by automatic sprinklers. These may be a
statutory requirement if the building exceeds a volume of 7000 m3. Loss of life is very unlikely in a
sprinkler-protected building. Sprinkler water outlets are located at about 3mcentres, usually at ceiling
level, and spray water in a circular pattern. A deflector plate directs the water jet over the hazard or onto
walls or the structure. Each sprinkler has a frame containing a friable heat-sensing quartz bulb, containing
a coloured liquid for leak detection, which seals the water inlet. Upon local overheating, the quartz
expands and fractures, releasing the spray. Water flow is detected and starts an alarm, pressure boosting
set and automatic link to the fire brigade monitoring station.
Acceptable Sources of Water for a Sprinkler System are as Follows:
1. a water main fed by a source of 1000 m3 capacity where the correct pressure and flow rate can be
guaranteed;
2. an elevated private reservoir of 500 m3 or more depending on the fire risk category;
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3. a gravity tank on site, which can be refilled in 6 h, with a capacity of 9–875 m3 depending on the fire
risk category;
4. an automatic pump arranged to draw water from the main or a break tank of 9–875 m3 capacity;
5. a pressure tank: a pneumatic pressure tank source can be used for certain light fire risk categories or as
a backup facility to some other system.

Sprinkler Installations are Classified under Four Principal Types.

1. Water-filled pipes are permanently charged with water.
2. Dry pipework: pipes are filled with compressed air and used where pipework is exposed to air
temperatures below 5◦C or above 70◦C.
3. Alternate system: pipes are filled with water during the summer and air in the winter.
4. A pre-action system is a dry pipe installation but has additional heat detectors which preempt the
opening of sprinkler heads and admit water into the pipework, converting it to wet-pipe operation.
Different types of sprinkler head are used depending on the hazard protected, their object
being to produce a uniform density of spray. Fusible link: a soldered link in a system of levers holds the
water outlet shut. At a predetermined temperature of 68◦C or greater, the solder melts and water flow
starts. Chemical: similar to the fusible link but using a block of chemical, which melts at 71◦C or greater,
depending on the application. Glass bulb: a quartz bulb containing a coloured fluid with a high coefficient
of expansion, which fractures at 57◦C or more.
Open sprinkler heads (deluge system): these are used to combat high-intensity fires and protect storage
tanks or structural steelwork. They are controlled by a quick-opening valve actuated from a heat detector
or a conventional sprinkler arrangement. A drencher system provides a discharge of water over the
external openings of a building to prevent the spread of fire.

Each Sprinkler Installation must be provided with the following:

1. main stop valve, which is strapped and padlocked in the open position to enable the water flow to be
stopped after the fire is extinguished;
2. alarm valve: differential pressure caused by water flow through the valve opens a branch pipe to the
alarm gong motor;
3. water motor alarm and gong: water flow through a turbine motor drives a rotary ball clapper within a
domed gong to give audible warning of sprinkler operation and commence evacuation of the building.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is used in fixed installations protecting electrical equipment such as computer rooms,
transformers and switchgear. Heat or smoke detectors sound alarms and CO2 gas floods the room from
high-pressure storage cylinders. Pipe work transfers the CO2 to ceiling and under floor distributors.
System initiation can be manual or automatic but complete personnel evacuation is essential before CO2
flooding is allowed.

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 Figure 2: Water Supply to Hose Reel and Sprinkler Installation
Fixed BCF, BTM and Dry Powder
Extinguishers are installed within rooms or false ceilings and are operated from a manual pushbutton or
automatic fire detector. Personnel evacuation is followed by the release of halogen gas to flood the room
with a 5% concentration in air, which is sufficient to inhibit fire.

FIRE DETECTORS AND ALARMS

Detection of a potentially dangerous rise in air temperature or pressure or the presence of smoke is
required at the earliest possible moment to start an alarm. Evacuation of the building and manual or
automatic contact with the fire brigade monitoring switchboard should take place before people are at
risk. Means of detection can be combined with security surveillance. Fire detection takes the following
forms:

Hazard Detectors
Hazard detectors give an early warning of the risk of a fire or explosion.
Temperature rise: a local rise in temperature leads to the melting of a fusible link in a wire holding open
a valve on a fuel pipe to a burner, thermal expansion of a fluid-filled bellows or capillary tube or
movement of a bimetallic strip to make an alarm circuit.
Flammable vapour detector: gas, oil, petrol or chemical vapour presence is detected by a catalytic
chemical reaction. Diffusion: butane and propane vapour diffusion through membrane is detected.
Explosion: rise of local atmospheric pressure above a set value, or at a fast rate, is detected.

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Ionization Smoke Detector
Ionization smoke detectors contain a radioactive source of around 1 micro curie, typically americium-
241, which bombards room air within the detector with alpha particles (ionization).
Electrical current consumption is 50 μA. The presence of smoke reduces the flow of alpha ions; the
electric current decreases and at a pre-set value an alarm is activated.
Visible Smoke Detector
A source of light is directed at a receiving photocell. Smoke obscures or scatters the light and an alarm is
triggered.
Laser Beam
A laser beam is refracted by heat or smoke away from its target photocell and an alarm is initiated. A
continuous or pulsed infrared beam can be transmitted up to 100 m and can be computer-controlled to
scan the protected area. It can also serve as an intruder alarm.
Closed-Circuit Television
Manned security monitoring also acts as fire and smoke detection. Infrared imaging cameras reveal
overheating of buried pipes and cables and can detect heat sources unseen by visual techniques. Fire
alarms are a statutory requirement. Audible bells, sirens, klaxons, hooters and buzzers are arranged so
that they produce a distinctive warning. A visual alarm should also be provided throughout a building.
Breakable glass call points are located 1.4 m above floor level within 30 m of any part of the premises.
The electrical system for fire detectors comprises alarms, a central control panel, an incoming supply and
distribution board, emergency batteries, a battery charger and fire-resistant cable. A permanent cable or
telephone line connection is made to the fire brigade and computer-controlled monitoring indicates any
system faults.
Smoke Ventilation
Positively removed smoke through automatically opened roof ventilators can greatly aid escape and
reduce smoke damage, often localizing a fire that would otherwise spread. The spread of smoke through
ventilation ductwork is arrested by fire dampers where fire compartments within the building are crossed.
Fire dampers may be motorized or spring-loaded. Multi-leaf, eccentrically pivoted flaps, sliding plate or
intumescent paint-coated honeycombs which swell and block on heating. A typical arrangement of a
pivoted flap damper is shown in Figure 3. An air pressurization ductwork and fan system is switched on
at the commencement of a fire to inject outdoor air into escape routes, corridors and staircases. The
staircase static air pressure is maintained at 50 Pa above that of adjoining areas to overcome the adverse
force caused by wind, mechanical ventilation and the fire-produced stack effect ventilation pressure. This
ensures that clear air is provided in the escape route and smoke movement is controlled.

Figure 3: Hinged deadweight single-blade fire damper in a ventilation duct

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THE ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIALISED

BUILDING SYSTEM
W.A.Thanoon, Lee Wah Peng, Mohd Razali Abdul Kadir, Mohd Saleh Jaafar and
Mohd Sapuan Salit

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Faculty of Engineering,
43400 UPM Serdang
Tel:+603-89467849, Fax:+603-89413402
Email: leeupm@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT: In essence, the growing demand for affordable housing, increasing construction costs,
lower productivity rate, and heightened concern for energy-efficiency has prompted the Malaysia’s
construction players to realise the immense benefits of industrialised building system. Despite its
advantages, the adoption of industrialised building system has been low in gaining popularity, partly due
to lack of awareness and coordination among the relevant parties. Indeed, the need to be competitive in
the emerging global market has prompted the local construction players to be more open minded and
receptive to novel building technology. In other word, the awareness of current trends and latest
innovation in industrialised building system is essential in order to survive in the competitive market.
Therefore, this article seeks to enlighten the construction industry players about the characteristics of an
industrialised building system as well as its major advantages and disadvantages.

1. INTRODUCTION

In the 7th Malaysia Plan, the country intended to construct about 800,000 units of houses for its
population. Indeed, 585,000 units or 73.1% were planned for the low and low medium cost houses.
Nevertheless, the achievement are somewhat disappointed with only 20% completed houses reported
despite numerous incentives and promotions to encourage housing developers to invest in such housing
category (Ismail, 2001).

With the announcement of 8th Malaysia Plan, the country will continue to embark in developing an
affordable and sustainable low and medium house. However, the country is facing an uphill task to
accomplish the target of 600,000 – 800,000 houses during this period because the conventional building
system currently being practiced by the construction industry is unable to cope with the huge demand.
Therefore, the former system must be replaced by an industrialised building system (IBS) which has
immense inherent advantages in term of productivity, indoor quality, durability and cost (IEM, 2001).

2. DEFINITION OF INDUSTRIALISED BUILDING SYSTEM (IBS)

An industrialised building system (IBS) may be defined in which all building components such as wall,
floor slab, beam, column and staircase are mass produced either in factory or at site under strict quality
control and minimal on site activities (Rollet, 1986; Trikha, 1999).

Esa and Nuruddin (1998) asserted that an IBS is a continuum beginning from utilising craftsmen for every
aspect of construction to a system that make use of manufacturing production in order to minimise
resource wastage and enhance value for end users.

Warswaski (1999) expounded that an industrialisation process is an investment in equipment, facilities,

and technology with the objective of maximising production output, minimising labour resource, and
improving quality while a building system is defined as a set of interconnected element that joint together
to enable the designated performance of a building.

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Perhaps the most comprehensive definition of IBS was clarified by Junid (1986). He mentioned that an
IBS in the construction industry includes the industrialised process by which components of a building
are conceived, planned, fabricated, transported and erected on site. The system includes a balanced
combination between the software and hardware components. The software elements include system
design, which is a complex process of studying the requirement of the end user, market analysis,
development of standardised components, establishment of manufacturing and assembly layout and
process, allocation of resources and materials and definition of a building designer conceptual framework.
The software elements provide a prerequisite to create the conducive environment for industrialised to
expand.

Meanwhile, the hardware elements are categorised into three major groups. These includes frame or post
and beam system, panel system, and box system. The framed structures are defined as those structure that
carry the loads through their beams and girders to columns and to the ground whilst in panel system load
are distributed through large floor and wall panels. The box systems include those system that employ
three-dimensional modules (or boxes) for fabrication of habitable units are capable of withstand load from
various directions due to their internal stability.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF IBS

This section focuses on the classification of IBS published in Malaysia as well as other parts of the world.

Generally, there are four types of building systems currently available in Malaysia according to Badir-
Razali building system classification (Badir et al. 1998), namely conventional, cast in-situ, prefabricated
and composite building systems is shown in Figure 1.0. Each building system is represented by its
respective construction method which is further characterised by its construction technology, functional
and geometrical configuration. It is reported that currently at least 22 companies supplying building
system in Malaysia (Badir et al.2002). Plate 1.0 – 10 show the various building available in Malaysia.

Warszawski (1999) asserted that the building system could be classified in different ways, depending on
the particular interest of their users or producers. Such classification use construction technology as a
basis for classifying different building systems. In this manner four major groups can be distinguished
namely, system with (1)timber, (2)steel, (3)cast in situ concrete, and (4)precast concrete as their main
structural and space enclosing materials. These systems can be further classified according to the
geometrical configuration of their main framing components as follows (1)linear or skeleton (beams and
columns) system, (2)planar or panel systems, and (3) three dimensional or box systems.

Majzub (1977) expounded that the relative weight of components should be used as a basis for building
classification is presented in Table 1.0. The factor of weight has significant impact on the transportability
of the components and also has influence on the production method of the components and their erection
method on site. The classification by weight also has the advantage of distinguishing between the various
basic materials used in the production of component which by itself could determine the characteristic of
the system under study. However, Majzub’s classification method is found to be inadequate to incorporate
other building system flourish recently. One of the distinct example is the interlocking load bearing
blocks which was the brainchild of a group of researchers in Universiti Putra Malaysia. This new building
system cannot be categorised according to frame, panel or even box system. On the other hand, the
composite system that combines two or more construction method cannot also be categorised under the
Majzub’s classification. Hence, the classification needs to be updated to reflect the current technological
advancement.

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Building System

Conventional Cast in-situ Prefabricated Composite

column-beam-slab System with steel System System
frame system with or aluminum as
timber and formwork
plywood as
formwork

Table Tunnel Panel Frame

Form Form System System

Block
System

Fig. 1 Type of building system in Malaysia

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No General System System Production Material

1 Frame system Light weight frame
Medium light weight frame
Heavy weight frame
2 Panel system Light and medium weight
panel
Heavy weight panel (factory
produced)
Heavy weight panel (tilt up –
produced on site)
3 Box system Medium weight box (mobile)
(modules) Medium weight box
(sectional)
Heavy weight box (factory
produced)
Heavy box (tunnel produced
on site)
Wood, light gage metals
Metal, reinforced plastics, laminated wood
Heavy steel, concrete
Wood frame, metal frame, and composite
materials
Concrete
Concrete
Wood frame, light gage metal, composite
Wood frame, light gage metal, composite
Concrete
Concrete

Table 1.0: Building system classification according to relative weight of component (Majzub, 1977).

4. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IBS

It is plausible to review the prerequisite characteristics underlining the successful implementation of

industrialised building system. Each of them is briefly discussed below.

4.1 Closed System

A closed system can be classified into two categories, namely production based on client’s design and
production based on precaster’s design. The first category is designed to meet a spatial requirement of the
client’s, that is the spaces required for various functions in the building as well as the specific
architectural design. In this instance, the client’s needs are paramount and the precaster is always forced
to produce a specific component for a building. On the other hand, the production based on precaster’s
design includes designing and producing a uniform type of building or a group of building variants, which
can be produced with a common assortments of component. Such building includes school, parking
garage, gas station, low cost housing, etc. Nevertheless these types of building arrangement can be
justified economically only when the following circumstances are observed (Warszawski, 1999).

a) The size of project is large enough to allow for distribution of design and production costs over the
extra cost per component incur due to the specific design.

b) The architectural design observes large repetitive element and standardisation. In respect to this, a
novel prefabrication system can overcome the requirement of many standardised elements by
automating the design and production process.

c) There is a sufficient demand for a typical type of building such as school so that a mass production
can be obtained.

d) There is an intensive marketing strategy by precaster to enlighten the clients and designer the
potential benefit of the system in term of economics and noneconomic aspects.

4.2 Open System

In view of the limitations inherent in the closed system, an open system which allows greater flexibility
of design and maximum coordination between the designer and precaster has been proposed. This system
is plausible because it allow the precaster to produce a limited number of elements with a predetermined
range of product and at the same time maintaining architectural aesthetic value.

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In spite of many advantages inherent in an open system, its adoption experiences one major setback. For
example, joint and connection problem occur when two elements from different system are fixed together.
This is because similar connection technology must be observed in order to achieve greater structural
performance.

4.3 Modular Coordination

Modular co-ordination is a co-ordinated unified system for dimensioning spaces, components, fitting, etc.
so that all elements fit together without cutting or extending even when the components and fittings are
manufactured by different suppliers (Trikha, 1999).

The objectives of modular co-ordination are:

a) to create a basis upon which the variety of types and sizes of building components can be minimized.
Through a rationalised method of construction, each component is designed to be interchangeable
with other similar ones and hence, provide a maximum degree of freedom and choice offered to the
designer. This can also be accomplished by adopting a relatively large basic measurement unit (basic
module) and by limiting the dimensions of building components to a recommended preferred sizes
(Warszawski, 1999).

b) to allow for easy adoption of prefabricated components to any layout and for their interchangeability
within the building. This is achieved by defining the location of each component in the building with
reference to a common modular grid rather than with a reference to other components (Warszawski,
1999).

The modular co-ordination for building component apply the basic length unit or module of M=100cm.
This allows the designer to apply this size or its multiple in the production of building components.
Although this concept seems to be easy for adoption, its application involves a great degree of
coordination and adjustment in the manufacturing process and the interfacing aspects of components.

4.4 Standardisation and Tolerances

For accomplishing the requirement of modular co-ordination, all components need to be standardised for
production. Such standardisation of space and elements need prescribing tolerances at different
construction stages such as manufactured tolerances, setting out tolerances, and erection tolerances, so
that the combined tolerance obtained on statistical considerations is within the permitted limits (Trikha,
1999).

Production resources can be used in the most efficient manner if the output is standardised. Then the
production process, machinery, and workers’ training can be best absorbed to the particular characteristics
of the product.

4.5 Mass Production

The investment in equipment, human recourses, and facilities associated with an industrialisation can be
justified economically only when large production volume is observed. Such volume provides a
distribution of the fixed investment charge over a large number of product units without unduly inflating
their ultimate cost (CIDB Singapore, 1992).

4.6 Specialisation

Large production output and standardisation of precast elements allow a high degree of labour
specialisation with the production process. The process can be subdivided into a large number of small
homogenous tasks. In such working condition, workers are exposed to their work repetitiously with
higher productivity level (Warszawski, 1999).

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4.7 Good Organisation

High production volume, specialisation of work, and centralisation of production requires a efficient and
experiences organisation capable of a high level of planning, organising, coordination and control
function with respect to production and distribution of the products (Warszawski, 1999).

4.8 Integration

In order to obtain an optimal result, a high degree of coordination must exist between various relevant
parties such as designer, manufacturer, owner, and contractor. This is achieved through an integrated
system in which all these functions are performed under a unified authority (Warszawski, 1999)

4.9 Production Facility

The initial capital investment for setting up a permanent factor is relatively experience. Plant, equipment,
skilled worker, management resources need to be acquired before production can be commenced. Such
huge investment can only be breakeven if there is sufficiently demand for the products. On the other
hand, a temporary casting yard or factory can be established at the project site in order to minimise the
transportation costs (Peng, 1986).

4.10 Transportation

It is found that casting of large-panel system can reduce labour cost up to 30 percent. However, these cost
savings are partially offset by the transportation costs. The transportation of large panels is also subject to
the country’s road department requirement. These limitations must be taken into consideration when
adopting a prefabrication system (Peng, 1986).

4.11 Equipment at Site

For the purpose of erecting and assembling precast panels into their position, heavy crane is required
especially for multi-storey building. It is therefore important to incorporate this additional cost when
adopting a prefabrication system (warszawski, 1999).

5. BENEFITS OF IBS

Industrialised building system has the following benefits when compared to the conventional construction
method.

a) The repetitive use of system formwork made up steel, aluminium, etc and scaffolding provides
considerable cost savings (Bing et al. 2001).

b) Construction operation is not affected by adverse weather condition because prefabricated component
is done in a factory controlled environment (Peng, 1986).

c) Prefabrication takes place at a centralised factory, thus reducing labour requirement at site. This is
true especially when high degree of mechanisation involved (Warszawski, 1999).

d) An industrialised building system allows for faster construction time because casting of precast
element at factory and foundation work at site can occur simultaneously. This provides earlier
occupation of the building, thus reducing interest payment or capital outlays (Peng, 1986).

e) An industrialised building system allows flexibility in architectural design in order to minimise the
monotony of repetitive facades (Warszawski, 1999).

f) An industrialised building system provides flexibility in the design of precast element as well as in
construction so that different systems may produce their own unique prefabrication construction
methods (Zaini, 2000).

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g) An industrialised building system component produces higher quality of components attainable

through careful selection of materials, use of advanced technology and strict quality assurance
control (Din, 1984).
6. SHORTCOMINGS OF IBS

The adoption of IBS is not without its limitations. Below discuss the shortcoming of an IBS system.

a) An IBS system can only be acceptable to practitioners if its major advantageous can supersede the
conventional system. However, up to date, there is inadequate corroborative scientific research
undertaken to substantiate the benefits if IBS system. It is therefore, arguable that the implementation
of IBS is particularly hindered by lack of scientific information (Trikha, 1999).

b) Standardisation of building elements face resistance from the construction industry due to aesthetic
reservation and economic reason. One good example of this is when a 300mm thick modular
standardised floor slab has to be used although a 260mm thick floor slab can achieve the similar
structural performance. This results wastage of material (Kampempool and Suntornpong, 1986).

c) The selection of a new IBS has been hindered by lack of assessment criteria set by the approving
authorities. This phenomenon has been even more detrimental to the development of an indigenous
IBS. With such reason, absence of assessment criteria has been identified as the most important
inhibitor to the introduction of IBS system in the country (Trikha, 1999).

d) Despite an intensive marketing strategy since 1980’s in Malaysia to introduce modular co-ordination,
its acceptance has received poor responses for the building industry. As a result, even partial
introduction of IBS such as lintels, staircase, etc has not been possible (Trikha, 1999).

e) A general decline in demand and volatility of the building market for large public housing projects in
most developed countries make an investment in IBS more risky when compared with the
conventional labour intensive methods. This reason is substantiated by a cheap imported labour in
several European countries (Warszawski, 1999).

f) The industrialisation of building process which emphasis is on the repetitiveness and standardisation
cause monotonous “barracklike” complexes that very often turned into dilapidated slums within
several years. This shortcoming is further reinforced by production defects in building components
which are quite frequent in the initial stages of prefabrication. Such defects resulting from lack of
technical expertise and poor quality control cause aesthetic and functional faults, such as cracks,
blemishes, moisture penetration, and poor thermal insulation in completed buildings (Warswaski,
1999).

g) Prefabricated elements are considered inflexible with respect to changes which may be required over
its life span. This may occur when small span room size prefabrication is used (Warszawski, 1999).

h) At university level, students are less exposed to technology, organisation and design of industrialised
building system. The academic curriculum seldom includes courses that incorporate a thorough and
methodological manner, the potential and the limitations associated with industrialisation in building.
As consequences, there is a natural tendency among practioners to choose conventional methods
perhaps with occasional utilisation of single prefabricated elements (Warszawski, 1999).

i) The weakness of existing industrialised building system is still in its cumbersome connections and
jointing methods which are very sensitive to errors and sloppy work. Also, standardisation of joint
and connection detail may impede the evolution of new technology (Din, 1984).

j) An adaptation of standardisation requires a tremendous education and training effort. Hence, requires
an initial immense investment cost. This is cited as one of the greater hindrance to the use of modular
coordination (Warsawski, 1999).

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7. Potential Growth of IBS

A study was carried out in Israel comparing the economic benefits between the IBS and conventional
construction method in 1984. The result findings indicated that the use of IBS components brought
considerable savings in site labour up to 70% while the total construction cost amounted to 5-8% of the
compared conventional method (Warszawski, 1999). In addition to that, in Singapore, the use of fully
prefabricated system provides labour saving of 46.5% as compared to the conventional methods, thus
reducing the dependency on foreign (Cheong, 1997). On the hand, the construction of “Bayshore
Condominium” in Singapore indicated that the construction cycle time for each floor using the
conventional method was 22 days, which is 14 days more than using the prefabricated method based on
similar site constraints and management experiences (Cheong, 1996).

Clearly, having described the examples mentioned above, the benefits offered by an IBS are immense and
plausible. So, if viewed positively, there is a great potential for IBS to grow in the country. Nevertheless,
the commitment and cooperation between the public and private sectors is paramount in ensuring the
successful implementation of building industrialisation.

Also, the Malaysia’s construction workforce is aging and shrinking as progressively fewer young enter
the industry. This phenomenon prompts the industry to rely heavily on foreign workers. If, the demand
for labour remains the same and the supply decrease, construction cost will increase and eventually pass
on this cost to the home buyers. Hence, the industrialisation of building construction method and the
evolution of construction technology are inevitable and plausible.

8. CONCLUSIONS

This paper has focused on some broader issue that could affect the take-up of industrialised building
system (IBS) in Malaysia. Despite various economic and non-economic benefits of IBS, its utilisation is
not well accepted by the construction players. Therefore, various informative programs such as seminar,
colloquiums, and, conferences or perhaps the collaboration with the public universities should be devised
to enlighten the private sector as well as the public sector.

REFERENCES

Badir, Y.F., Kadir, M.R.A, and Hashim, A.H. (2002) Industrialise building systems construction in
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Badir, Y.F., Kadir, M.R.A. and Ali, A.A.A (1998) Theory of classification on Badir-Razali Building
system classification. Bulletin of Institute of Engineer, Malaysia, October.

Bing, L., Kwong, Y.W., and Hao, K.J. (2001) Seismic behaviour of connection between precast concrete
beams. CSE Research Bulletin, No.14

Cheong, G.K. (1996) “The Bayshore Condominium prefabricated construction. Precastech Newsletter On
Line. Volume 7

Cheong, G.K. (1997) Fully precast system at Choa Chu Kang. Precastech Newsletter On Line., Volume 8.

CIDB Singapore (1992) Raising Singapore’s construction productivity. CIDB Construction Productivity
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Din, H. (1984) Industrialised building and its application in Malaysia. Seminar on Prefabrication of
Building Construction, Kuala Lumpur.

IEM (2001) A need for new building technologies. Bulletin of Institute of Engineer, Malaysia, February.

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Ibrahim, R. and Ismail, S. (1999) Modular coordination. A design guide towards open building system in
Malaysia. CIBD, Kuala Lumpur
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Junid, S.M.S (1986) Industrialised building system. Proceedings of a UNESCO/FEISEAP Regional

workshop, UPM Serdang.

Kampempool, S., and Suntornpong, E. (1986) Residental Housing. The challenge in the building industry
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Majzub (1977) Modular housing systems used around the world. International Journal of Housing
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Peng, C.S. (1986) The scenario of industrialised building systems in Malaysia. Proceedings of a
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Trikha, D.N. (1999) Industrialised building systems. Prospects in Malaysia. Proceedings World
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