UNIT-IV NOTES

SUBJECT - RURAL DEVELOPMENT :ADMINISTRATION AND PLANNING

SUBJECT CODE –KHU701 CREDITS- 3

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL SECTOR:

NEED FOR HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT-

Rural human resource development is the basis and objective requirement for achieving
modernization and industrialization. It is required to promote quality, output and added value of
agricultural products and increase agricultural economic benefits through refinement and
professional ways.

Human Resource Development - Human Resource Development (HRD) is that part of

Human Resource Management which specifically deals with the training and development of
employees.
HRD helps the employees in developing their knowledge, skills and abilities to achieve self-
fulfillment and aid in the accomplishment of organizational goals
HRD can be defined as organized learning activities arranged within an organization in order to
improve performance and/or personal growth for the purpose of improving the job, the
individual, and/or the organization.

HRD is the integrated use of training and development, career development, and organisational
development to improve individual and organisational effectiveness

HRD is the study and practice of increasing the learning capacity of individuals, groups, and
organisations through development and applications of learning based intervention for the
purpose of optimizing human and organisation growth and effectiveness

HRD develops available manpower through suitable methods such as training, promotions,
transfers and opportunities for career development. It is a systematic approach to deal with issues
related to individual employees, teams and an organisation

The HRD is required for:

 Growth of organisation.
 Diversification in an organisation
 Renewing itself to become more effective
 Improving the systems and services of an organisation
 Change and becoming more dynamic
 Playing leadership roles
 In the fast moving business world of today, organisations are evolving. The role of
manager has become more diverse. Radical changes are taking place because of economic
pressure and the demand for enhancing efficiency and productivity. Growth of
information technology facilitated tasks to be completed within seconds than in days. To
keep pace with such an environment, organizations must develop its people and allow
them to grow. HRD must therefore be viewed as total system interacting with other
systems of the organisation. The employee’s capabilities need to be sharpened. This is
possible through HRD.
The need for HRD arises because:
(1) To create a climate free from monotony and to improve the working life,

(2) To facilitate effective communication to surface creative ability of employees in full swing,

(3) To enable the members to attain self actualization through systematically developin(4)
Tapping the present and future creative abilities of the people to utilize for organisational
development,
(5) Facilitating growth of employees and making them aware about their strengths and
weaknesses,

(6) Helping organisations to utilize human resources to their maximum potentials,

(7) Availing opportunities for further development by the employees themselves.

Following points will explain the nature of human resource development:

(1) System Composition:
HRD is at the centre of Human Resource System. It relates with imparting learning to the
members of the organisation for development of skills, ability and competency. HRD is a
subsystem closely related with other subsystems in the organisation, production, marketing,
finance etc. The composition of HRD has several sub systems which are interrelated and
interdependent including communication, training and development, role analysis, job
enrichment performance appraisal and potential appraisal etc.

(2) Continuous Process: HRD is a dynamic and planned process continuously undertaken
for development of personnel’s to enable them to face multiple challenges while performing
in the organisation. The HRD process differ from organisation to organisation as per their
requirements. The subsystems of HRD are closely interrelated with economic, social,
political and cultural bias

(3) Use of Behavioural Sciences:

HRD draws heavily from the behavioural sciences for the development of people. It makes use
of principles and concepts of psychology, sociology and anthropology for planning and
implementation of multiple programmes for individual and group development. Organisational
Development programmes are based on the concepts of behavioural sciences.

(4) Quality of Working Life:

HRD aimed at improving quality of working life in the organisation to increase the productivity.
HRD takes care of health and well being of the employees and their families by promoting
healthy environment at the workplace. It helps in achieving satisfaction of employees.
ELEMENTS OF HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL SECTOR:

The basic necessitates include food, clothes, shelter, basic literacy, primary health care and
security of life and property. When any one or all of them are absent or in critically short
supply, we may state that a condition of 'absolute underdevelopment' exists.

There are at least three basic elements which are considered to constitute the ‘true’ meaning of
rural development. They are as follows:

1. Basic Necessities of Life:

People have certain basic needs, without which it would be impossible (or very difficult) for
them to survive. The basic necessitates include food, clothes, shelter, basic literacy, primary
health care and security of life and property. When any one or all of them are absent or in
critically short supply, we may state that a condition of ‘absolute underdevelopment’ exists.
Provision of the basic necessities of life to everybody is the primary responsibility of all
economies, whether they are capitalist, socialist, or mixed. In this sense, we may claim that
economic growth is a necessary condition for improvement of the ‘quality of life’ or rural
people, which is rural development.

2. Self Respect:

Every person and every nation seeks some sort of self-respect, dignity or honour. Absence or
denial of self-respect indicates lack of development.

3. Freedom:

In this context, freedom refers to political or ideological freedom, economic freedom and
freedom from social servitude. As long as society is bound by the servitude of men to nature,
ignorance, other men, institutions and dogmatic beliefs, it can not claim to have achieved the
goal of ‘development’. Servitude in any from reflects a state of underdevelopment.

Key Components of Human Resource Development

There are three fundamental component areas of human resource development
(HRD):
individual development (personal), career development (professional), and
organizational development. The importance of each component will vary from
organization to organization according to the complexity of the operation, the
criticality of human resources to organizational efficiency, and the
organization's commitment to improved human resources. But all three have
one focus individual performance improvement. Since individual performance
improvement is the heart of an HRD program, HRD can be described as the
"area of congruence" among the three components.
INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT Individual development refers to the development of new
knowledge, skills, and/or improved behaviors that result in performance enhancement and
improvement related to one's current job (training). Learning may involve formal programs, but
is most often accomplished through informal, on-the-job training activities.

CAREER DEVELOPMENT Career development focuses on providing the analysis necessary

to identify the individual interests, values, competencies, activities, and assignments needed to
develop skills for future jobs (development). Career development includes both individual and
organizational activities. Individual activities include career planning, career awareness, and
utilizing career resource centers. Organizational activities include job posting systems, mentoring
systems, career resource center development and maintenance, using managers as career
counselors, providing career development workshops and seminars, human resource planning,
performance appraisal, and career pathing programs.

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Organizational development is directed at

developing new and creative organization solutions to performance problems by enhancing
congruence among the organization's structure, culture, processes, and strategies within the
human resources domain. In other words, the organization should become a more functional unit
as a result of a closer working relationship among these elements. The ultimate goal of
organizational development is to develop the organization's self-renewing capacity. This refers to
the organization's ability to look introspectively and discover its problems and weaknesses and to
direct the resources necessary for improvement. As a result, the organization will be able to
regenerate itself over and over again as it confronts new and ever-challenging circumstances.
This occurs through collaboration of organizational members with a change agent (an HRD
practitioner), using behavioral science theory, research, and technology.

DIMENSIONS OF HRD FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT:

Health-

The health care infrastructure in rural areas has been developed as a three tier system as follows.

1. Sub Centre : Most peripheral contact point between Primary Health Care System &
Community manned with one HW(F)/ANM & one HW(M)
2. Primary Health Centre (PHC) : A Referral Unit for 6 Sub Centres 4-6 bedded manned
with a Medical Officer Incharge and 14 subordinate paramedical staff
3. Community Health Centre (CHC) : A 30 bedded Hospital/Referral Unit for 4 PHCs
with Specialized services
4. The three tier infrastructure is based on the following population norms:
Population Norms
Centre
Plain Area Hilly/Tribal/Difficult Area
 Sub Centre 5000 3000

Primary Health Centre 30,000 20,000

Community Health Centre 1,20,000 80,000

5. The average population covered by a Sub Centre, PHC and CHCs are 5616, 35567 and
165702 respectively as on 31st March, 2019.

Sub Centres (SCs)

The Sub Centre is the most peripheral and first contact point between the primary health care
system and the community.
Sub Centres are assigned tasks relating to interpersonal communication in order to bring about
behavioral change and provide services in relation to maternal and child health, family welfare,
nutrition, immunization, diarrhoea control and control of communicable diseases programmes.

Each Sub Centre is required to be manned by at least one auxiliary nurse midwife (ANM) /
female health worker and one male health worker. Under National Rural Health Mission
(NRHM), there is a provision for one additional second ANM on contract basis. One lady health
visitor (LHV) is entrusted with the task of supervision of six Sub Centres. Government of India
bears the salary of ANM and LHV while the salary of the Male Health Worker is borne by the
State governments.

There are 7821 SCs which are upgraded as Health and Wellness Centre-Sub Centres (HWC-SCs)
out of total 157541 SCs functioning in rural areas of the country as on 31st March, 2019. The
significant conversion of SCs into HWC-SCs have been observed in the States of Tamil
Nadu (985), Maharashtra (939), Gujarat (813), Uttar Pradesh (726), Chhattisgarh (650), Assam
(628), Andhra Pradesh (612) and Karnataka (571). Significant increase in Sub Centres are
recorded in the States of Rajasthan (3000), Gujarat (1892), Karnataka (1615), Madhya
Pradesh (1352), Chhattisgarh (1387), Jammu & Kashmir (1146), Odisha (761) and Tripura (433).
Percentage of Sub-Centres functioning in the Government buildings has increased from 43.8% in
2005 to 75.3% in 2019.

Primary Health Centre (PHC)

PHC is the first contact point between village community and the medical officer.
The PHCs were envisaged to provide an integrated curative and preventive health care to the
rural population with emphasis on preventive and promotive aspects of health care. The PHCs
are established and maintained by the State governments under the Minimum Needs Programme
(MNP)/ Basic Minimum Services (BMS) Programme.

As per minimum requirement, a PHC is to be manned by a medical officer supported by 14

paramedical and other staff. Under NRHM, there is a provision for two additional staff nurses at
PHCs on contract basis. It acts as a referral unit for 6 Sub Centres and has 4-6 beds for patients.
The activities of PHC involve curative, preventive, promotive and family welfare services.
At the national level, there are 24855 PHCs functioning (i.e 16613 PHCs and 8242 HWC-PHCs)
in rural areas as on 31st March 2019. There is an upgradation of 8242 of PHCs as HWC-PHCs.
The significant number of conversion of PHCs into HWC-PHCs have been observed in the
States of Andhra Pradesh (1145), Uttar Pradesh (946), Odisha (827), Gujarat (772), Tamil Nadu
(716) and Telangana (636). Significant increases in the number of PHCs have been seen in the
States of Karnataka (446), Gujarat (406), Rajasthan (369), Assam (336), Jammu & Kashmir
(288) and Chhattisgarh (275).

Percentage of PHCs functioning in Government buildings has increased significantly from 69%
in 2005 to 94.5% in 2019.
For allopathic Doctors at PHCs, there is a shortfall of 7.6% of the total requirement for existing
infrastructure as compared to manpower in position.

Community Health Centres (CHCs)

CHCs are being established and maintained by the State government under MNP/BMS
programme.
As per minimum norms, a CHC is required to be manned by four medical specialists i.e. surgeon,
physician, gynecologist and pediatrician supported by 21 paramedical and other staff. It has 30
in-door beds with one OT, X-ray, labour room and laboratory facilities.

It serves as a referral centre for 4 PHCs and also provides facilities for obstetric care and
specialist consultations.
As on 31st March 2019, there are 5335 CHCs functional in rural areas of the country.
Significant increase is observed in the States of Uttar Pradesh (293), Tamil Nadu (350), West
Bengal (253), Rajasthan (245), Odisha (146), Jharkhand (124) and Kerala (121).
The % of CHCs in Govt. buildings has increased from 91.6% in 2005 to 99.3% in 2019.

First Referral Units (FRUs)

An existing facility (District Hospital, Sub-divisional Hospital, Community Health Centre etc.)
can be declared a fully operational First Referral Unit (FRU) only if it is equipped to provide
round-the-clock services for emergency obstetric and New Born Care, in addition to all
emergencies that any hospital is required to provide. It should be noted that there are three
critical determinants of a facility being declared as a FRU:

 Emergency Obstetric Care including surgical interventions like caesarean sections;

 new-born care; and
 blood storage facility on a 24-hour basis.

As on 31st March 2019, there are 3204 FRUs functioning in the country. Out of these, 95.7% of
the FRUs are having Operation Theatre facilities, 96.7% of the FRUs are having functional
Labour Room while 75.3% of the FRUs are having Blood Storage/ linkage facility.
 EDUCATION:

One of the most important ways to boost rural education is boosted up free education. ... The
government should focus on how they can increase the enrolment of children who reside in rural
areas. This can be done by establishing more schools, providing proper infrastructure and
resources.

Objectives of Rural Education

 To provide Coordination, at the national level, for rural education programs and activities.
 To provide leadership for rural education – related conferences and workshops.
 To provide a forum for all those involved in public education in rural areas – including teachers,
administrators, board members, and members of the rural community at large whereby they may
come together professionally and exchange ideas.
 To promote state, regional and local delivery systems which bring about efficient and effective
education for children in rural areas.

To stimulate discussion, research, and policy development regarding equal educational

opportunities for all students

Present scenario of rural education in India:

 Right to Education is the primary right of every citizen of India, whether a child resides in a high
profile society or in a far away not so developed secluded village. In India, the condition of rural
education is still improving, the conditions of these rural schools are still very poor.
 There are very few schools in the rural areas and children have to travel far away distances to
avail these facilities and most schools in these locations do not provide drinking water.
 The quality of education is also very poor. The teachers get very less income, so most of the time
the teachers are either absent or they do not teach properly.

Ways to boost rural education in India

We need to overcome the abovesaid obstruction to boost education in India. In order to boost up
this, we need to adopt the following measures:

 Encourage free education

 Increase the number of schools
 By adopting modern teaching technologies
 By providing scholarships
 Proper infrastructure and availability of resources
Encourage free education

One of the most important ways to boost rural education is boosted up free education. as our
constitution provides the right to education to all citizens of India. The government should focus
on how they can increase the enrolment of children who reside in rural areas.
This can be done by establishing more schools, providing proper infrastructure and resources.
The government should also ensure that the number of children who are attending school must
retain education up to elementary level.

Another reason for encouraging free education is that people of rural India don’t have much
income so they can’t afford high school fees and eventually drop out the school.

Increase the number of schools

The government should set up more school in rural India to boost up education. Most of the
children have to leave their education due to the large distance between the home and the school.

This is the case, especially for girls. Most of the girls drop out of school due to non-availability
of transport. If the schools are set up at every village, it will aid in increasing the enrolment
percentage and decrease the drop -out rate of rural children.

By increasing the modern teaching technologies

Modern technologies are very important in imparting education. Today in a globalised world
where technology is rapidly emerging, it is necessary for every individual that they are updated
with the current technology.

Also, the focus of education should be on conceptual learning not on rote learning so that the
students must use the applications of these new technologies.

By providing proper infrastructure and resources

Another way to boost up the education in rural India is by providing proper infrastructure and
resources. The objective of education is the all-round development of the individual.

Availability of resources is also important for providing education. Resources include textbooks,
stationery, laboratories, playgrounds, and benches should be in good condition and available for
all the students. This will aid in achieving the objective of education and retaining the number of
students in education.
 The government should make provisions and schemes to boost up education in India,

Conclusion:

The literacy rate of India is 77.7%, but it is different in rural and urban India. There is a wide gap
between the literacy rate of urban and rural India. However, the reason behind the low literacy
rate in rural India is many.

The problems faced by rural India in achieving the education are less number of schools and
resources, less availability of teachers, religious and societal norms, the large distance between
the school and home, lack of awareness of education.

The way to improve the present scenario of education in rural India is the construction of schools
in every village, providing proper and adequate infrastructure and other resources, using modern
technologies in education, creating awareness about the importance of education and rights.

ENERGY:

However, many rural areas do have local access to other sources of energy, such as solar
energy, water streams, wind and biomass. There are opportunities for these resources to be
tapped using existing technologies and thereby release a range of useful services.

Different Sources of Energy

 Solar Energy. The primary source of energy is the sun. ...
 Wind Energy. Wind power is becoming more and more common. ...
 Geothermal Energy. Source: Canva. ...
 Hydrogen Energy. ...
 Tidal Energy. ...
 Wave Energy. ...
 Hydroelectric Energy. ...
 Biomass Energy.

Rural areas can depend on Solar energy and Biogas.

 As India is a tropical country, there is massive scope to tap solar energy.

 Sunlight is directly converted into electricity using Photovoltaic technology.
 Solar energy is gaining enormous popularity in remote areas and rural areas.
 To reduce the dependence of rural households on dung cakes and firewood, big solar
power plants are being established. This will help in retaining adequate supply of manure
to agricultural activities and help in conservation of environment.
  Human, animal, farm wastes and shrubs are used to produce biogas for domestic
consumption in rural areas.
 Compared to charcoal, dung cake, and kerosene; the thermal efficiency is much higher
through decomposition of organic matter which yields gas.
 Biogas plants are set up at individual levels, cooperative levels, and municipal levels.
 In rural areas, Gobar gas plants are the ones which make use of cattle dung.
 It provides two benefits to the farmer in the form of improved quality of manure and in
the form of energy.
 The most efficient use of cattle dung is its use in biogas plants.
 It not only prevents the loss of trees and manure due to burning of cow dung cakes and
fuel wood but also improves the quality of manure.

An estimated 16% of the world’s population has no or little access to electricity supply.
Furthermore, 80% of this population resides in rural areas. Depletion of fossil fuels and high
costs of energy are the main factors contributing to this problem.
There is one possible solution to the world’s power supply problems: renewable energy sources.
These include solar power, wind power, and biomass.

Let’s discuss four ways in which renewable energy sources can help the world overcome energy
problems:

1. Increase in employment opportunities:

Did you know that renewable energy industries are creating jobs 12 times faster than other
industries in the country? A stable industry in a locality encourages the locals to stay in town and
not move elsewhere for employment.

2. Easy access to the main energy source:

Not all rural areas can become a site for coal or gas mining. This means that these areas have to
outsource their energy supply. Coal powered plants can also work here, but the required coal
needs to be outsourced as well and that is another addition to the power cost.
Renewable energy plants require a one time import of materials and equipment. After that, these
systems produce power without any need for raw materials from other areas. Localities with their
own energy power plants can even sell excess energy to neighboring areas. And in turn also
strengthen the local economy even further.

3. Affordable energy costs:

Having access to the main power plant in the locality ensures lower power costs. This works on
the basic principle of supply and demand. Basically, increasing the power supply in a specific
area leads to cheaper costs. This doesn’t only benefit the power consumers but also the local
economy.

4. A Cleaner source of energy:

Renewable energy sources like solar panels don’t have any harmful by-products. Local ecologies
are not disturbed and the locals aren’t subjected to any health problems either. Renewable energy
sources like wind power plants may take up more space in comparison to a coal power plant, but
they are the most environmentally friendly sources of power out there.
There is no doubt that renewable energy sources can kick-start development in rural areas. It
creates more jobs and provides cheaper energy to the locals. With proper management, it can
also become a contributor to the local economy.

SKILL DEVELOPMENT:
Skills development. are central to improve employability and livelihood opportunities,
reduce poverty, enhance productivity, and promote environmentally sustainable development.
Skill Development in Rural Areas. Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (2016 - 2020) is the
flagship outcome-based Skill Training Scheme of the Ministry of Skill Development &
Entrepreneurship (MSDE) which aims to train 10 million youths by 2020 pan India both in Rural
and Urban areas.
Skill development courses can work as a vehicle for a change in the rural areas and can enhance
the income and employment for the rural youths. Besides hard skills, the weightage on
communication skills, upkeep of the employees, language proficiency, hygiene, punctuality
etc. should also be taught to the trainees.
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY)

Brief Description:
Deen dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDY-GKY) is designed to provide high
quality skill training opportunities to the rural poor and also to establish a larger ecosystem that
supports trained candidates secure a better future. The DDU-GKY National Unit at MoRD is the
agency responsible for national policy-making, funding, technical support and facilitation Key
features of DDU-GKY:

 Outcome Led Design: Guaranteed Placement for at least 75% trained candidates and
moving towards minimum mandatory certification.
 Greater Support for placed Candidates: Post-Placement Support, Migration Support and
Alumni Network to enable farm to factory transition.
 Special Regional Focus: Jammu & Kashmir (HIMAYAT), 27 Left Wing Extremist
Districts (ROSHINI), North East States.
 Enable the poor and Marginalized to Access Benefits: Demand led design through
funding of skill training programs that are based on national and international market
demand.
  Standards-led delivery: Pioneering Standard Operating Procedures provide essential
quality assurance framework for training infrastructure and service delivery
 Inclusive Program Design: Mandatory coverage of socially disadvantaged groups (SC/ST
50% Minority 15%, Women 33%)

Nature of Assistance:

DDU-GKY offers to and fro cost, Uniform and post placement support to the candidate apart
from the training that is being imparted under the scheme.

Who can apply?

The target group for DDU-GKY is poor rural youth in the age group of 15-35 year. However, the
upper-age limit for women candidates, and candidates belonging to particularyly Vulnerable
Tribal Groups (PVTGs), persons with Disabilities (PwDs), Transgender and other Special
Groups like rehabilitated bonded labour, victims of trafficking, manual scavengers, trans-
genders, HIV positive persons, etc shall be 45 years.
Eligibility for a program Implementing Agency: In order to be eligible to apply for a project, an
entity should be:

 Registered under Indian Trust Acts or any State Society Registration Act or any State
Cooperative Societies or Multi-State Cooperative Acts or the Companies Act 2013 or the
Limited Liability Partnerships Act 2008, or
 Government or a semi-government organization at the State and National Level.

How can apply?

The completed prohect proposals shall be submitted to the State Government through email at
the IDs given in the instructions in sheet 1 of the application form.
Rural Self-Employment Training Institutes (RSETIs)

Brief Description:
Rural Self Employment Training Institutes(RSETIs) is a national scheme extending development
support for promoting self-employment in the unemployed rural youth, particularly those below
the poverty line, and periodic skill up gradation to keep them abreast of lates technologies. Once
trained appropriately, the youth will launch profitable micro-enterprises and enhance their own
standards of living and thereby contribute to the overall national economy. RSETIs are promoted
and managed by banks with active cooperation from state governments. Each RSETI should
offer 30 to 40 Skill Development Programmes in a financial year in various avenues. All the
programmes should be of short duration ranging preferably from 1 to 6 weeks. Escorts services
will be provided for at least for two years soon to ensure sustainability of micro enterprise
trainees. The trainees will be provided intensive short-term residential self-employment training
programmes with free food and accommodation.

Nature of Assistance:
MoRD will provide a onetime grant of Rs. One Crore to the lead bank in every district to set up
one RSETI. The public sector/private sector banks will be set up and run these institutions with
the active support from state government. The RSETIs will provide intensive short-term
residential training in trades that enjoy market-acceptance and extend them hand-holding support
in availing bank credit.
Who can apply?
Applicants from the rural BPL category
How to apply?
It shall be the primary responsibility of all DRDAs and the branches of the sponsoring bank to
sponsor the rural IBPL trainees under the scheme.

Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (2016 - 2020) is the flagship outcome-based Skill
Training Scheme of the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship (MSDE) which
aims to train 10 million youths by 2020 pan India both in Rural and Urban areas. MSDE
does not maintain any segregated data for rural and urban areas. There are three training
routes under the scheme: Short term Training for fresh skilling of school / college drop outs
and unemployed youth, Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) to recognize the existing skills
and Special Projects to address skilling requirements of groups which are under represented
or require special initiatives and efforts. RPL only provides orientation to the already skilled
workforce, and does not mandate placements.

Under PMKVY 2016-2020, Training Centres make all efforts to facilitate placements of
certified candidates through multiple initiatives like Rojgar Melas and collaboration with
industries and Sector Skill Council. Also, candidates can avail benefit of placement through
‘Yuva Sampark’ portal which brings both candidate and potential employer on IT platform to
find potential match between two (employer and candidate).

The details of candidates who have been benefited under PMKVY as on January 17, 2020,
data reported in Systematic Data Management System reports is at (Annexure -I)

TRAINING:

Training for Rural Economic Empowerment (TREE)

TREE is an ILO community-based training programme implemented in Asia and Africa. It

promotes income generation and employment opportunities for disadvantaged women and men
by ensuring that they gain skills and knowledge they can use in their communities. The TREE
strategy differs from conventional vocational training programmes by: Identifying potential
income-generating activities and related training needs before designing the content and
modalities of specific training programmes Involving the local community and social partners
directly in each phase of the identification, design and delivery process Providing post-training
support to facilitate trainees’
Expanding access to quality education and vocational training Expand the outreach of both
schools and training institutions in underserved rural areas. Provide free basic education as it is a
stepping stone to further skills training and provide financial incentives (e.g. vouchers) and non-
financial incentives (e.g. meals at school and take-home rations) to improve attendance. Provide
affordable technical and vocational training by reducing financial entry barriers, and design
interventions to include those most disadvantaged in accessing education and training, such as
working children, women in poverty, people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, and ex-
combatants. Complement technical and vocational training with basic education (literacy and
numeracy) and life skills

Develop labour-based programmes that improve rural infrastructure as one opportunity for
transferring skills and knowledge among the rural population. Labour-based programmes can
provide training in construction, maintenance and managerial skills, for instance.

Upgrading informal apprenticeship

ILO recognizes informal apprenticeship as an important training system in the informal

economy. In informal apprenticeship, an apprentice and a master craftsperson conclude a training
agreement that is embedded in the local norms and traditions. The apprentice (usually a young
learner) acquires the skills for a trade or craft in a micro or small enterprise, learning and
working side by side with an experienced craftsperson. Based on country research in Tanzania,
Mali, Malawi, Ghana and Egypt, the ILO is developing a guide for upgrading informal
apprenticeship systems. The upgrading involves the gradual improvement of a training system
embedded in the culture and traditions of societies, and its inclusion in the national training
system. An ILO project in Niger (2005-2010) established a dual apprenticeship system
combining learning at school and at the workplace in ten pilot trades, building on informal
apprenticeship practices. In 2010, project activities to upgrade the informal apprenticeship
system started in Benin, Burkina Faso and Zimbabwe.

Kishori Shiksha Program (KSP)

Right to education is a fundamental right of all citizens under the 86th amendment of the Indian
constitution, yet women’s literacy in one of our operational area continues to fall far behind
males. The most significant difference is in the literacy rates of males and females in the rural
areas of Tijara – where 36.13 fewer women are sent to school compared to the men. The gender
gap recorded between male and female literacy rate in the Tijara Block is 27.07% where in
Tijara, literacy among rural males is 75.01%, while that of rural females is 38.88%. This reflects
the way men and women lead their lives. End Poverty addresses this issue with one of its
flagship programmes - Kishori Shiksha Programme. End Poverty started the Kishori Shiksha
Program with an aim of providing education to adolescent girls. KSP is an intensive 1-year catch
up education programme for out-of-school teenage girls to bring them back on track.

End Poverty selects female teachers from the local community and trains them in record keeping
and course delivery, teaching methodology etc. Teaching-Learning- Materials are provided to all
teachers and students. As other villages are demanding this programme, we know that our
model is scalable and replicable for the Meo Muslim community spread across Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh and Rajasthan. Several girls who complete the program want to move on to higher
education or further training.

SUSTAINABLE FARMING :

Agriculture and allied services sector play a pivotal role in Indian economy as it provides
livelihoods to around 52% of the total workforce, the whole sector in turn is a major driver for
other associated sectors and sub sectors. Despite having a huge potential and resources in this
sector, there remains a lot of slippage due to inefficiencies and unorganized nature of the sector
and associated industries. Setting up processes and standardizing them is the key requirement for
this sector in India. Farmers who are the backbone of the sector suffer a lot due anomalies like
lack of adequate inputs, methods of advanced farming techniques, access to credit and
transparency in pricing etc. End Poverty’s programs are tailor-made to cater to specific needs of
the local geographies and systems.

We, at End Poverty are empowering farmers by strengthening the processes at the grass roots.
Our Sustainable Farming programme intends to enable farmers to adapt to technological and
methodological innovations & enhance their income realisation by setting up a sound access
benefit sharing mechanism, thus increasing farm/dairy productivity, facilitating credit linkage
and linking them to markets. Our vision is to empower 1 million farmers in the next 10 years.

Program started in 2009 in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh covering
13,266 farmers from 230 villages covered till date

Sustainable agriculture

End Poverty’s program on sustainable agriculture has been growing in scale and scope year on
year. Till now, we have registered 3950 farmers in Tijara Block from Alwar district and help
them to improve their farm productivity by adopting modern and scientific farming. End Poverty
nurtures and motivates farmers to adopt best practices in the following ways:

1. Promotes adoption of sustainable farming techniques to optimize the resources and in

turn conserving basic life support systems with focus on land and water conservation
2. Promotes less water consuming crops like in horticulture
3. Builds capacities of farmers to tackle the adverse effects of climate change by adoption of
climate resilient farming techniques
4. Organizes exposure visits to agricultural institutes, Kisan Vikas Kendra’s, modern farms
etc.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS ACCESS TO BASIC AMENITIES- POPULATION
COMPOSITION:

The nutritional status of an individual is usually a result of multiple factors that interact with
each other at different levels. Recognizing the role of diet at the onset of many diseases and
assessing the nutritional status of an individual, family and community are important for public
health. The nutritional assessment is done to obtain information about the prevalence and
geographic distribution of nutritional disorders within a community or a specified population
group. It can also be used to identify high-risk groups and to assess the role of different
epidemiological factors in nutritional deficiency. Assessment of the nutritional status aids
assessing the prevalence of nutritional disorders, planning corrective measures, and evaluating
the effectiveness of the implemented strategies simultaneously.

Introduction

The consumption of adequate amount of food both in terms of quantity and quality is one of the
key determinants, which has a significant impact on the nutritional status. Furthermore, the
eating pattern of an individual is a crucial factor that dictates the occurrence of a disease,
especially some chronic conditions such as coronary heart disease, hypertension, stroke, diabetes
mellitus, and cancer. In addition, adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, malnutrition,
disability, poor quality of life, and mortality are also related to poor eating pattern, in both
developed and developing countries. Recognizing the role of diet at onset of many diseases, and
assessing nutritional status of an individual, family and community are important for public
health.

Nutritional Assessment - Aim and Rationale

The nutritional assessment is done to obtain information about the prevalence and geographic
distribution of nutritional disorders within a community or a specified population group. It can
also be used to identify high-risk groups and to assess the role of different epidemiological
factors in nutritional deficiencies. Such nutritional assessment has a significant role in policy-
making and nutritional recommendations, deciding fund allocations desired in the surveyed area
to program managers, and evaluating the effectiveness of implemented corrective measures.
Realizing the scarcity of resources, especially in developing nations, the goal is not to examine
the entire population in the community, but limit the survey to a representative group so that the
results can be generalized to the entire community.

Methods for Nutritional Assessment

The assessment of the nutritional status involves two methods: Direct (- deals with individuals
and measures the objective criteria) and indirect (- uses community health indices reflecting
nutritional influences. These methods include anthropometric, biochemical, clinical, dietary,
emotional, and functional measurements to cover all the phases of the disease. Since, each of
them has some advantages and limitations, utilizing all of them to assess the nutritional status
gives an overall picture of an individual's nutritional status. ] However, the use of any one
method or a combination of methods is recommended depending on the purpose of the
nutritional assessment.

Clinical Appraisal

It is an essential feature of all nutritional surveys as the primary goal is to assess the health status
of individuals or groups within a population in accordance with the type of food consumed. The
presence of two or more clinical signs of a specific nutritional deficiency increases the diagnostic
significance. It can be applied to a large group of the population. However, its limitation is that
it cannot quantify the exact level of nutrient deficiency because most of these clinical signs for
nutrient deficiency are nonspecific and require biochemical analysis to identify the nutritional
status.

Anthropometric
Measurements

Anthropometric measurements include height, weight, skin-fold thickness, and circumference

etc., could detect the change of body composition to assess the nutritional status in specific
population groups, including newborn, children under age of five and adults. The advantage of
using anthropometric measurements is that routine anthropometric measurements can suggest
patterns of growth and development of an individual.

Laboratory and biochemical investigations

These investigations are extremely helpful in detecting early changes in body metabolism and
nutrition before the appearance of overt clinical signs. In addition, the results obtained are
precise, accurate and reproducible. The limitations are that these investigations are time-
consuming and expensive, which cannot be used on a large scale.

Functional indicators

These indicators for nutritional status are emerging as an important category of diagnostic tools
and supporting the biochemical investigations. Some of the commonly used functional indices
are for hemostasis and nerve conduction. Although these indicators are been used in different
physiological components, they are time-consuming and expensive.

Vital statistics

Vital statistics is obtained from the community, health care professionals, and surveillance
network etc. All the data collected from different countries will present an overall picture of the
nutritional status for that population of interest to help the government-making policy
decisions. For example, analysis of morbidity and mortality data can be used in estimating the
prevalence of the disease in the community and identifying the high-risk groups. However, in
contrast to the mortality data which do not provide a satisfactory picture of the nutritional status
of the population, morbidity data has higher public health importance and can help policy makers
in giving priority to a particular area.The program managers could use vital statistic to evaluate
the strategies periodically, then revise their program, accordingly.

Dietary intake assessment

Dietary survey is a scientific assessment of eating pattern that could detect nutrient deficiency.
There are many methods to do dietary surveys. The food balance sheet could aid the program
managers to decide the dietary needs of a region or a state or a country - it is obtained by
subtracting the amount of food provided for a specified group of population on a specific date
and the amount remaining after a previously set time limit, to finally establish the
consumption/requirement of food commodities for the earmarked population in that specified
arbitrary period.

The inventory method is based on a similar rationale as food balanced sheet except the study
population is usually a group of a homogenous population, that is, hostel. The weighed food
records method is employed at household level to estimate the food requirement - by weighing
either raw food or cooked food for 7-10 days for a particular family in a specified period. The 24
h recall method is employed at household level to assess the type of food and the quantities
consumed in the last 24 h.

The food frequency questionnaire method helps in assessing meal patterns and dietary habits of
people by identifying number of times a specific food item is consumed in a defined time-
span.However, most of these methods are tedious, difficult to execute, and have a poor
acceptance rate by members of the community. To summarize, food balance sheet method and
inventory method are similar, and the only difference is the settings (food balance sheet -
state/national level or inventory - institutional level) in which they are generally considered
applicable. However, the other three methods are used at household level to assess the amount of
food consumed/dietary patterns of members of a family in a specified period.

Ecological factors

Occurrence of malnutrition is usually the final results due to the interaction of different
ecological factors such as socio-economic factors, quality, accessibility, availability of health
care services, and diseases. It is extremely important to make an "ecological diagnosis" to
identify, which factors will affect the nutrition status of the community. However, it is often
difficult to quantify the influence of ecological factors, which precipitates unfavorable nutritional
outcomes.

Nutritional assessment is being used in different settings, for instance, for evaluating the level of
cognitive impairment in the elderly; finding potential nutritional risk of the patients during the
 transplantation process in leukemia patients; assessing the cardiovascular risk of people suffering
from heart condition; and identifying the prognosis of tuberculosis patients.

Conclusion

Assessment of the nutritional status aids in assessing the prevalence of nutritional disorders,
planning corrective measures, and simultaneously evaluating the effectiveness of the
implemented strategies.

POPULATION COMPOSITION:

Population composition is the description of a population according to characteristics such

as age and sex.

Population composition is the description of the characteristics of a group of people in terms

of factor Population is divided into two parts-rural and urban on the basis of the size and
occupation of settlements.
The rural population consists of small sized settlements scattered over the countryside. Urban
population is one that lives in large size settlements i.e. towns and cities. such as their age, sex,
marital status, education, occupation, and relationship to the head of household. Of these,
the age and sex composition of any population are most widely used.
The three important attributes of population composition are:-
i) age structure
ii) sex-ratio
iii) literacy rate
The three important attributes of population composition are as follows:

 In a population, the number of individual expresses total size. Individual's number per unit
volume of environment defines density of population.
 Vital index defines a birth-death ratio. Dead individuals are less significant than surviving ones
for a population.
 The power of growing is inherited by each population. The specific growth rate of population
becomes constant and maximum when the environment is unlimited.

Age

The age structure of a population is one of the basic demographic characteristics and is helpful
for demographic analysis and for socio-economic development planning. Generally, less
developed countries have young populations, while more developed countries have old or ageing
populations (Population Reference Bureau, 2011). The relative numbers of different age groups
have a significant impact on social and economic policies and on the way people live their lives.
The age dependency ratio is the ratio of the number of people in dependent age groups
compared to the economically productive age groups. Dependent age groups are the young (aged
under 15) and the old (over 65). People aged from 15 to 64 are classed as economically
productive. The age dependency ratio is often used as an indicator of the economic burden of the
countries. In countries with high age dependency ratios there is a large number of elderly and
young people who are dependent on the economic productivity of the people in the middle age
group. The large proportion of children in the population means countries with very high birth
rates have the highest age dependency ratio.

Sex ratio

The sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a given population, usually expressed as the
number of males for every 100 females. Sex ratios may vary due to different patterns of death
and migration for males and females within the population. For example, males are more
vulnerable to wars and more likely to be mobile and migrate to other regions or countries, which
would affect the sex ratio within the population, especially for young adult males.

Rural-Urban Composition:
The division between rural and urban areas is significant in terms of geographical distribution of
population. The percentage of rural population is higher in farm-based agricultural countries,
while industrially, developed regions have higher share of urban population.

For a long time now, there has been a nearly universal flow of population from rural into urban
areas. The most highly urbanised societies in the world are these of western and northern Europe,
Australia, New Zealand, temperate South America, and North America: in all of these, the
proportion of urban population exceeds 75 per cent.

In many of the developing countries of Asia and Africa, the urbanisation process has only
recently begun; less than one-third of the population lives in urban areas. But the rate of growth
of urban areas has shown a great increase. The general rule for developing countries is that the
rate of growth of urban areas is twice that of the population as a whole.

A prominent feature of population redistribution, especially in developing countries, is the

growth of major cities. Almost half of the world’s population lives in cities. It is projected that
there would be about eight billion city dwellers in the world by 2030, and 80 per cent of them
would be living in developing countries.
Population pyramid

Both key variables of age and sex are combined in the population pyramid. A population
pyramid is a graph which displays a population’s age and sex composition. The numbers or
proportions of males and females in each five-year age group are represented using horizontal
bars. Population pyramids of countries can differ markedly as a result of past and current patterns
of birth rates, death rates and migration.

Impacts of population growth

As noted in Study Session 1, an increase in the number of people on Earth will mean that the
impacts of their activities will increase too. However, it is important to note that this is not a
simple cause and effect relationship. High population growth may deplete resources and trigger
social or economic problems, but these same problems may also contribute to the causes of high
population growth.

The impacts of population numbers on water resources and sanitation are covered in other study
sessions. In this section we will look at the links between rapid population growth and problems
with food, health and poverty.

Population growth and food security

As the population grows, the amount of food required to adequately feed people is
increasing. Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access
to adequate, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life
(WHO, n.d.). In many developing countries, the numbers of hungry, malnourished people who
don’t have food security are growing.

In Africa, agricultural production is increasing, but it is still lagging behind population growth.
This means that even though the proportion of the population with inadequate food is
decreasing, the total number of people is increasing. Graff and Bremner (2014) reported that
between 1992 and 2010, the proportion of underweight children in sub-Saharan Africa decreased
from 27% to 22% of all children, but the number increased from 24.8 million to 30.3 million.

One of the long-term consequences of malnutrition in children is stunting, which means children
are not the height expected for their age. Stunting also affects child development and health, with
the result that stunted children are less successful at school and are more vulnerable to anaemia,
diarrhoea and some other diseases. In Ethiopia, more than two out of five children are stunted
and 67% of the adult population suffered from stunting as children (World Food Programme,
2013). However, recent reports indicate the trend is positive and stunting has reduced in the past
decade (Mideksa, 2015).

Food security can be improved by increasing the quantity and quality of food produced. This
could be by bringing more land into cultivation or by improving crop yields by irrigation or the
use of fertilisers. However, these ‘solutions’ to the problem will all have environmental impacts
that need to be weighed up against the potential benefits.

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Population growth and health

Population growth has a number of effects on health. Rapid population growth increases demand
for health services, infrastructure, and financial resources. For a rapidly growing population, a
shortage of health workers and resources causes difficulties in accessing health care services.

The number and spacing of children per family both have significant effects on health. Women
who have many children are more likely to become ill than those with small families.
Furthermore, the gap between children has a significant effect on the survival rate of the child.
Figure 2.7 shows the difference in child survival for children born less than two years apart
compared to a three-year interval.

Poverty, population and the environment

Families with many children are more likely to live in poverty with an inadequate diet and poor
living conditions. This leads to ill health, which diminishes people’s ability to work and puts
them deeper into poverty in a negative downward spiral.

The environment is very important for the well-being of everyone, but particularly poor people
because they tend to have a closer relationship with their immediate surroundings than people
who are better off. Poor people are more directly dependent on the environment for food, water,
fuel and traditional medicines, as well as deriving their income from it through agriculture,
forestry or fishery.

Poor people are also more vulnerable to natural disasters such as flood and drought, and to
climate change. They may live in undesirable areas such as marshy lands without flood
protection, or on unstable hillsides. Poverty means they don’t have the resources to build shelters
that can withstand floods and landslides (Figure 2.8). In urban areas they are likely to live in
slums with less access to affordable clean water, good sanitation or health facilities.