TOPIC 1: RESEARCH SAMPLING METHOD
If there are a total of 10 clinical areas in a hospital only 2
Nature & Definition of Sampling
- Research requires an efficient and effective means of
ensuring the quality of data gathered.Selection of
appropriate subjects or respondents of the study that
will generate data specific to the purpose or objective
of the inquiry.
- To ensure validity & reliability of research findings,
the researcher must come up with subjects that are
representative of the target population.The researcher
is not able to change a decision about the selection of
a sample for a study once the sample has been
chosen.It’s not possible to study the whole
population, a sample chosen wisely is enough.
Guidepost on the Sampling Procedure
1. UNIVERSE
- The universe is a totality of elements to which
research findings may apply.This is also refers to the
target population, the group of people or objects from
which the researcher intends to collect data and
generalize the findings of the study.
Elements-refers to entities that make up the sample and the
population e.g.patients, students nurses, staff nurses
2. POPULATION- refers to the accessible group of
individuals from which the samples will be drawn by
the researcher, consistent with specific criteria, or the
total possible participation of the group in the study.
TYPES OF POPULATION
A. Target Population-group of individuals or objects which is
of interest to the researchers and about which speculative
information is desired.
E.g. all student nurses of UZ college of Nursing
All patients in the Medical Surgical Ward of ZCMC
B. Subjects or Respondents Population- Group of
individuals or objects chosen to provide actual data and
information needed in a research.
E.g. BSN IV or the graduating student nurses of UZ College
of Nursing
C. Stratum-Describes a mutually exclusive segments of the
population, distinguished by one or more traits or
qualifications. e.g.age-youngest to oldest, civil status-single or
married
D. Eligibility or Inclusion criteria-the criteria or
characteristics specified in the population to be included in the
study. Exclusion criteria are the characteristics of the
population that are not specified in the study and are therefore
disqualified to participate in the study.
3. .SAMPLING- sampling is the process of selecting
representative portion of the population to represent
the entire population.This is a practical and efficient
means of ensuring the quality of data that will be
gathered.
Types of Sampling
a. Sampling Unit-refers to a specific area or place which can
be used during the sampling process. e.g. surgical ward, skills
lab.
b. Sampling Frame-comprises a complete list of sampling
units from which sample is drawn
e.g.
or 3 areas are sampled.
c. Sampling Design-scheme that specifies the number of
samples drawn from the population, the inclusion and
exclusion criteria for their choice and the sampling technique
used, such as purposive, random sampling,stratified and
convenience sampling, among others
To get the sample size from the population, the Sloven formula
may be used:
n= __N__
1+Ne2
Where n=number of samples
N=population
E=sampling error ranging from 1%-10%
4. SAMPLE- a sample is a portion of the population
from which data will be solicited for purpose of the
research. It is s subgroup of the population which
constitutes the subjects or respondents of the study.
Samples may be categories as follows:
- Respondents or participation of the study
- These are individuals who will responds to the survey
particularly in non-experimental or descriptive
studies.
- Subjects of the study-individuals who will receive
the treatment or intervention in an experimental
studies.
• Key informants or volunteer samples
- Individuals chosen to provide the most vital
information in qualitative studies. Theses are the
people who have the experience and can articulate the
phenomenon under study and are willing to talk at
length with the researcher. Most often, informant are
chosen through purposive, snowball or theoretical
sampling
E.g. from a university of 500 students at UZ college of
Nursing only 100 BSN IV are considered as the target
population and 50 students out of 100 are chosen as samples
for the actual study, thus the 50 students represents the 500
students nurses from which data are solicited.
➢ The researcher may encounter sampling bias or
sampling distortion which arise when a sample is not
representative of the population from which it was
drawn. When those who make up the population are
all identical with respect to some attributes, then any
sample would be as good as any other.there will be
sufficient evidence to draw the conclusions from the
samples used.
5. Sample Size-researcher are confronted with a sample
selection of either how large the sample may be. A
large sample would be required in instances such as
the following
• Presence of variables which can not be controlled.
• Expected differences on a variable of interest among
population.
• Dividing the population into sub groups.
• Expected dropout rate among subjects is high
• Statistical test require minimum sample sizes.
Steps in Sampling
1. Identify the target population-group to which the
researcher wishes to apply the research findings.
E.g. all graduating students, all staff nurses of ZCMC, All
juvenile diabetics of Zamboanga city
2. Identify the respondents population-important to
determine the specific portion of the available target
population from whom needed data and information will be
drawn.
e.g. BSN graduating students, staff nurses in the SICU,
juvenile diabetics with insulin deficiency.
3. Specify the inclusion and exclusion Criteria for
respondent-must be specific with respect to the characteristics
of the respondents ,the researcher should state clearly the
characteristics of the population required in the study using the
inclusion or eligibility criteria and the characteristics that the
respondents or subjects must not possess or the exclusion
criteria in selecting the respondents of the study.
E.g. inclusion criteria: BSN graduating students with no
RLE deficiency, male and female; regular 4 years of study,
grades not lower that 80%have had intensive practicum in
special areas.
Exclusion criteria: Academic and clinical grades lower than
80% not less than 3 or more than 4 years in the nursing
program study, with RLE deficiencies.
4. Specify sampling design-once the respondents population
is identified, the researcher must then decide how the samples
will be chosen and how large this will be considering the
representative proportion of the population.
E.g. probability sampling, suing sample random or the use of
non probability sampling using purposive sampling
5. recruit the subjects-screening instrument may be used to
determine if the subjects meet the inclusion criteria
TYPES OF SAMPLING
1. Non-Probability Sampling-respondents or subjects
are selected in a non random way.the researcher
desires to use available subjects at his convenience
anytime during the period of the study.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Accidental or convenience sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Purposive or Judgment sampling
4. Snowball or Network or chain Sampling
5. Modal instance sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified random sampling
3. Cluster sampling or multi-stage sampling
4. Systematic or sequential sampling
Theoretical Sampling
E.g. In a study of mothers of twins,16 mothers were
interviewed to describe the blur period. At first ,the researcher
identified those who had 1 yr. Old twins. But since these
mothers could not adequately describe the “blur period” as it
was a blur, the researcher then next interviewed mothers of 3
month old twins to determine if they could still recall how the
blur period was like regarding the phase of mothering twins/
Importance of Sampling
• Ensures quality of subjects through its inclusion and
exclusion criteria.
• Acknowledges and specifies the scope and limitation
of the study.
• Maximizes time and effort for better and accurate
collection of data.
• Ensures the quality of data since the sampling
[process helps control or eliminates extraneous
variables.
• Economical and financial concerns.
Topic 2: Methods of Data Collection
The questionnaire
• The most common type of research instrument ,in a
form prepared and distributed to the study subjects to
secure responses to questions that intend to obtain
information about condition or practices on which the
respondents are presumed to have knowledge of.
Every item should have a response.Provide a
response of “Don’t know” or “Uncertain”. If the
question is unstructured and the answer needs further
explanation, one or two blank spaces be provided for
a brief explanation.
Advantages of questionnaire
• Simple method of obtaining data, especially for
beginning researchers.
• Less time is consumed.
• Able to gather data from a widely-scattered sample.
• Does not have to see the respondents personally.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires

• Responses to questionnaires may luck depth. the Interview

instrument is unable to probe a subject without
becoming unduly lengthy.
• Researcher may omit or disregard certain item
choices without giving an explanation.
• Subject may be forced to select responses to some
items that are not in actual choice.
• The length of questionnaire is limited according to
the respondents’ interest.
• Printing may be costly if the questionnaire is lengthy
and is printed on high grade paper.
• Data are limited to the information voluntarily
supplied by the respondents. Not all members of the
anticipated sample may comply with the request to
participate.
• Some items may be misunderstood.
• Sample is limits to those who are literate.
• The second most common method for data collection.
may either utilize what is called an interview
schedule (structured) which is read to the respondent,
or an interview guide (unstructured)wherein the
interviewer allowed to pursue relevant ideas in
depth.It would also help the interviewer to use tape
recorder while writing down the respondent’s
answers.
Categories of Interview
• Standardized interview
• Non standardized interview
• Semi-standardized interview
• Focused interview
• Non-directive interview.

Sample Questionnaire Advantages of interview

Direction: please check the item: ● Complete answers are possible

1. unit assigned: ● Misunderstanding can be minimized when questions

are explained by the researcher
____A.surgery ____F.OB
● No items are omitted, accidentally or purposely.
____B.Medicine ____G.DR
● Higher percentage of response is possible.
____C.Pediatrics ____H.ER
● Greater flexibility is provided in the interview than in
____D.OPD ____I. Nursery questionnaire
____E.OR ● Subliminal cues can be observed

● Subject does not have to be literate.

2. Orientation to the unit: Disadvantages of Interview
a. Were you adequately oriented to theunit before you were to • Requires more time for the researcher to locate and
the patients? interview each person individually.
___1.YES • Interpersonal relationship between the subject and the
researcher is different for each interview,
___2.Not enough • Cost, time and effort are greater for the interview as
compared with mailing a questionnaire.
___3.None at all
• Requires more time for the researcher to locate and
b. Who oriented you? interview each person individually.
• Interpersonal relationship between the subject and the
___1.the clinical instructor from the school. researcher is different for each interview,
___2.The unit head nurse • Cost, time and effort are greater for the interview as
compared with mailing a questionnaire.
___3.The training staff of the hospital.
Sample of Combination Interview guide & schedule

2. Feeling of Acceptance

Did you feel accepted to the unit where you were assigned?

____1.Yes

____2.Fairly accepted

____3.Not accepted

Sample Cover Letter

Observation

• Most direct means of studying the subjects when the

researcher is interested in their behavior. this is
common in nursing care research. The investigator
may assume several role in observing nursing
situations: a visiting satranger, an attentive listener,
 an eager learner, a participant observer or non
participant one.

Types of Observation

1. Participant observation
2. Non participant observation
3. One way mirror
4. Anecdotal records
5. Critical incident technique
Physiological Measurement
Several factors should be considered when observing the
study subjects. 1. Self report
2. Laboratory test
1. Halo effect-the observer may have the tendency to rate 3. Electronic monitoring
certain subjects as consistently high or low on everything
because of the good impressions the subjects give the rater.

2. Hawthorne effect-The people may deliberately change Topic 3: Research Design & Methodology
theory behavior because they know they are being studied or
“Research design should be deliberately laid out to account for
observed.
all exigencies”
Example of Observation

Research Method

• It is dictated by the problem statement and goal of the

research.

Research Design

• Can be as the structure of research, it holds together

all of the elements in a research project.it is the
researcher’s overall plan of how the study will be
conducted such as the details and type of data to be
collected.

Advantages of Observation

• Valuable in studying nursing practice

• Inexpensive to employ
• Not dependent on subject who consent to answer
• Subject usually available
• Quite simple to develop as compares to lengthy
questionnaire
• Observation allows researcher to view the complete
situation as it develops and also affords inclusion of a
sequence of events
• Observation technique can be discontinued and
resumed any time
• may be recorder at the time the incident occurs,
eliminating bias because of recall.

Disadvantages of Observation

• Accurate observations of a situation is unlikely.it is

difficult to be always present to observe key events.
• Interviewing is more economical than waiting for the
spontaneous occurrence of the situation
• Presence of an observer gives the subject a quality
that is normally absent.
• Observed events are always subject to bias of cultural
background and observer interpretation. Elements to consider in the choice of research design
• Unless camera and tape rtecorders are useds, events
often occur so rapidly and suddenly that ii is 1. The total population from which to select the study
impossible to record all the details. samples
• Extensive training is necessary if data gathering is 2. The method of selecting the samples or study
done by more than one observer. respondent.
3. The alternative version of independent variables
Records- method of collectinng information is through under study
records which provide a readily available and valuable source 4. The criterion measures evaluating the effects of the
of data.Record are numerous and can be found in such places independent variables
as libraries,office,homes,institutions. 5. The statistical treatment of data, using various tools.
 Threats to internal validity
• The benefit gained in experimental studies is the
possibility of establishing causal relationship between • Selection bias
independent and dependent variables. • History
• The researcher manipulates or control situation • Maturation
related to the study thus interfering with nature. • Testing
Observations e7ther under control condition or • Instrumental change
environment.
• Mortality

• In the case which aims to help people stop smoking

using a “smoking cessation intervention,”(new
treatment) there were 20 volunteers who offered to
stop smoking(experimental group), ans 20 volunteers
refused to stop smoking(control group).However, the
experimental group may have been motivated to stop
smoking even before the treatment started, hence, the
selection process may have a biased effects on the
results of the study.

Maturation

• This takes place when changes within the subjects

occur during the experimental study, thus, may
influence study results
• “The subjects may have gained in height and weight
at the time when the pretest and post test were being
administered. If the nurse is interested i gain in
weight and height of malnourished children, she will
 keep in mind that change in their size may occur
during the treatment or course of the study”
Testing
Reactive Effect of the Pre-test
• This occurs when the subjects have been sensitized to
the treatment by taking the pre-test and there after
influence the post-test results.

“Test scores of the actual subjects may be altered i the post

test as a result of their knowledge of the pre test results.” Halo Effect

• Instrumentation change-existence of difference
between pre test and post test results caused by
change in the accuracy of the instrument or the
ratings, rather than the result of the experimental
treatment.
“a change in breakdown of a mechanical instrument such as
the sphygmomanometer used i taking blood pressure affects
the accuracy of reading throughout the study”.
• This is the tendency of the researcher to rate the
subject high or low because of the impression he has
on the subject.
Double blind method maybe used to remove the observer’s
Bias, neither the subject nor the observer knows the specific
research objectives, hence the observer cannot distort the
data.

Topic 4: Empirical Phases of Measurement

MORTALITY
Measurement Problem
• this happens when difference exists between the
subjects dropout rates of either the experimental 1.A Misplaced belief in precision
group and the control group. 2. Measures that go against social condition.
“if a large experimental group or control group scored very 3. The operational definition does not correspond to the
low in a pretest, some of the subjects may have dropped out conceptual definition.
of the study. Thus, the average scores in the post test of either
the experimental group or control group would be 4.The researcher depends on certain statistics
correspondingly low”.
Sources of Measurements Errors
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
1. Measurability
• This is the degree to which study results can be
a. Stability of measurement
influenced or affected by external factors or
populations and settings. b. Internal consistency
Threats to External Validity: c. equivalence
• Hawthorn Effect 2.Validity
• Experimenter effect
• Reactive effect of the pre test a. Content validity
• Halo effect b. Face validity
Hawthorne Effect c. Criterion -related validity
• Refers to the behavior of interest being caused by the d. Construct validity
subject being in the center of the experimental stage.
e.g; having a great deal of attention focused on them.
It occurs when the participants respond in a particular
manner, or there is obvious change of behavior
because they are aware that they are being observed.

Sheenan (2009) studied men at average risk of developing

prostate cancer. The men were shown a 6-minute video on
prostate cancer and prostate cancer screening. These
participants scored higher on knowledge of prostate cancer
screening and rated their own risk of prostate cancer more
accurately after watching the video. Sheenan acknowledged
that a possible limitation of her study was the Hawthorne
effect. The men may have answered differently than they
usually would because they knew their answers were being
observed and recorded.

Experimenter Effect Criterion related validity

• This refers to a threat to the study which results when
the researcher’s behavior influences the behavior of
the subjects, such as the researcher’s facial
expression, gender, and clothing among others. It has
been shown that researcher characteristics such as
gender, dress, and type of jewelry
• may influence study participants’ answers to
questions in non experimental studies.
E.g.a measure of attitude towards study habits correlates higly
with high scores in the premid exams of a group of nursing
student then the attitude scale would have good validity.
2 Types of criterion-related validity
• Predictive validity
• Concurrent validity
Predictive Validity

E.g. A college of nursing correlate students incoming high

school grades and their subsequent grade-point averages,the
predictive validity of the high school grades serve as basis to
determine probability of students acceptance to the nursing
program.

Concurrent Validity

E.g., Maternal attitude towards breastfeeding correlating the

scores with the criterion and the time breastfeeding is done.

Construct Validity

● Known group technique-this is where the

differences in the group’s attribute are measured and
scores are compared.

E.g., measure performance of the nursing process between

level 3 and 4 students then compare their scores on each
criterion of the nursing process.

● Factor Analysis-used to identify and group or cluster

together related items on a scale to measure the
different attributes.

E.g., consider various indicators or factors in each of the

components of the nursing process the compare the extent and
differences of performance between the two groups,(level 3 or
4 students)

Sensitivity & Specificity

Sensitivity

is the ability of the instrument to correctly screen or identify

the variables to be manipulated and measured to diagnose its
condition, while specificity is the ability of the instrument to
correctly identify non-cases or extraneous variables and screen
out those condition not necessary for manipulation.

E.g., the attributes necessary to measure the nursing process is

to o serve the extent of performance of level 3 and 4 students
rather than the attitude towards the nursing process.

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