GRADE IX

Chemistry

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 Air and
Water
Learning objectives
• students will learn about composition of air
• students will be able to understand fractional
distillation of air
• students will be able to draw water, air and nitrogen
cycle
• students will understand cause of acid rain and
Global warming
• students will be able to understand how human
action causes environmental degradation https://www.google.com/search?q=air+and+water+images&tb
Air:
Air is a mixture of gases that makes up the atmosphere of
earth.
Composition of Clean Air:
Clean air is made up of nitrogen, oxygen and traces of other
gases including carbon dioxide and noble gases. There are
also traces of water vapor in air. Noble gases present in air
are mostly argon and some helium, neon, krypton and xenon.
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air
Fractional Distillation of Liquid Air:
Fractional distillation of liquid air is used to separate gases of
air, specially nitrogen and oxygen. Like fractional distillation of
petroleum, it is based on the boiling points of the components
of air.
• Clean air is cooled till -80°C, carbon dioxide sublimes into
solid and is collected, water vapour condenses than freezes
into ice and is collected too
• The cold air is now put into a compressor which increases its
pressure to 100 atm. This causes the air to warm up so it has
to be cooled down again
• The re-cooled, compressed air is then allowed to expand and
lose its pressure, this causes it cool further
• The air is now recompressed then expanded again to keep
cooling it. This stage is repeated until all gases liquefy, this is
at a temperature below -200°C
• Then the cold liquid air brought in a fractionating column and
left to warm slowly
• Gases separate one after another according to their boiling
points. The gas with the lowest boiling point evaporates first,
followed by the gas of the second lowest boiling point and so
on
• The three main gases of air (nitrogen, oxygen and argon)
evaporate in the following order:
1. Nitrogen (-196 °C)
2. Argon (-186 °C)
https://www.pinterest.com.au/pin/561824122254853620/
2
Air Pollution:
Pollution is the presence of harmful substances. Air pollution is
the presence of pollutant gases in the air. A pollutant is a
substance that causes pollution. These are:
• Carbon monoxide
• Oxides of nitrogen
• Sulphur dioxide
• Lead compounds
Carbon Monoxide: Carbon monoxide (CO) is one of the
poisonous pollutants of air. It is considered a pollutant because
it can kill living organisms. The main source of carbon
monoxide is factories which burn carbon-containing fossil fuels
since CO is one of the products of the incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels. Carbon monoxide could be treated by installing
catalytic converters in chimneys of the factories.
Sulphur Dioxide: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is considered a
pollutant since it contributes to acidic rain. Sulphur dioxide is a
product of two process, these are combustion of sulphur –
containing fossil fuels and extraction of metals from their
sulphide ores (such as zinc sulphide). The problem associated
with sulphur dioxide is that when it rises in the air from
chimneys of factories, it mixes with water vapour of clouds and
air. This results in the formation of sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
When it rains, rain water which falls becomes acidic. Acid rain
causes death to water creatures since it makes water acidic,
acidifies soil causing death to plants and deforestation, reacting
with limestone from buildings and sculptures corroding it, and
may also cause lung cancer. Sulphur dioxide could be treated
before it leaves chimneys of factories by reacting it with
limestone which is a neutralisation reaction.
This process is called desulphurisation.
SO2 + CaCO3 → CaSO3 + CO2
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO & NO2): Nitrogen oxides are formed at
high temperatures as a result of nitrogen and oxygen reacting.
In cars, engines have a very high temperature; this creates a
chance for nitrogen and oxygen present in air in the engine to
react forming nitrogen monoxide.
N2 + O2 → 2NO
The produced carbon monoxide is released through the
exhaust with other waste fumes. Nitrogen monoxide reacts
with more oxygen from air producing nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
The problem associated with nitrogen dioxide is similar to that
of sulphur dioxide. It rises up in the air and mixes with rain
water forming nitric acid. This causes acid rain. Nitrogen
oxides can also cause health respiratory problems to humans
and animals. To treat this issue, cars are now fitted with
devices called catalytic converters which eliminate nitrogen
oxides.
Lead Compounds: Compounds of lead are waste products of
fuel burning in cars. They are considered pollutants because
they are poisonous and they are said to cause mental
disabilities to young children. To treat this problem, gas
stations now provide unleaded fuel.
3
The Carbon Cycle: Carbon dioxide is result of these reactions. Carbon dioxide
The carbon cycle is a natural global cycle of the element produced is released to the air through chimneys of power
carbon. It is what maintains a constant level of carbon dioxide stations. Thus the cycle is completed and all carbon dioxide
in air (0.03%). The cycle goes as follows: returns to the atmosphere.
• Plants absorb carbon dioxide from air and undergo
photosynthesis reaction which turns it into glucose and Catalytic Converters:
produces Car fuels contain carbon; so carbon monoxide gas is released
oxygen: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 by cars as waste fumes, as well as nitrogen oxides. These are
• The carbon is now stored in plants as glucose. One of pollutant gases. To prevent these gases from polluting air, a
two things happen, either the plants get eaten by animals device called catalytic converter is fitted at the end of the
or humans, or the plant dies and decays. exhaust. This device contains a catalyst which catalyses the
reaction between these two gases producing two harmless
• If the plant is eaten by animals or humans, glucose in the
gases, nitrogen and carbon dioxide:
plant is used by them in a process called respiration to
2NO + 2CO → 2CO2 + N2
release energy for their body.
2NO2 + 4CO → 4CO2 + N2
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis. Carbon The catalyst of the device works best at temperature around
dioxide is one of the products of it, which is released by 200°C.
the humans through breathing into the air. Thus carbon
dioxide returns to the atmosphere.
• If the plant dies. It is buried underground and by time it
decays forming coal and other fossil fuels. These
substances contain the carbon which was made and
stored by the plants and they are then taken by power
stations which put them to use.
• Power stations burn carbon-containing fuels that were
obtained as coal or fossil fuels formed by dead plants.
This is a combustion reaction.
C + O2 → CO2

4
 M OVIE 1.1 Carbon Cycle
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sd8D7WyVS6A
Green House Gases:
The sun sends energy to the earth in two forms, light and
heat. Some of the heat energy reflects back to the space, some
however are trapped inside the Earth. This is caused by some
gases and it is called the greenhouse effect. The main
greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide and methane.
Carbon dioxide is formed in many ways. It is formed on a
large scale in power stations by the combustion of carbon
containing fuels. Carbon dioxide is also caused by respiration
of living organisms. The gas can also be produced by a
reaction between an acid and a carbonate, like that of the
corrosion limestone.
Methane, the other greenhouse gas is formed by animals.
When animals eat and digest their food, methane gas is one of
the waste products of this process. It is released to the
atmosphere by animals. When plants die and decompose over
many years, methane gas is also produced.
The greenhouse effect poses a threat to the world now days.
This is because greenhouse gases, especially carbon dioxide,
have increased in amounts in the atmosphere due to activity
of humans. Lots of fuel combustion is taking place around the
world, increasing the levels of CO2, while trees are being
chopped off to made use of instead of leaving to replace CO2
with oxygen. These activities cause an increase of the levels of
CO2 in the atmosphere, which leads to more heat trapping in
earth. This rises the global temperature of the earth causing
what’s called global warming.
Global warming is the increase of the temperature of the earth
due to the increase of levels of greenhouse gases. Global
warming has effects on the earth. To start with, it north and
south poles, which are made of ice, will start to melt raising
sea levels. The sea temperature will also rise causing death to
marine lives. This is also accompanied by other natural
disasters such as hurricanes and heavy rains.
Humans could prevent this by reducing combustion of fossil
fuels and leaving forests to live.
5
Water:
Water is perhaps the most known substance. This is perhaps
because of its abundance and numerous uses. Water is, H2O,
is the most popular solvent for chemical reaction.
Tests for Water:
There are several tests for water, the easiest one which you
can perform at home is physical and doesn’t involve any
reaction. It is testing its boiling point. Pure water boils at
100°C sharply, and freezes at 0°C sharply.
Uses of Water:
The uses of water are many, from drinking and cleaning to
irrigating crops and landscapes. Water is used for cooling, for
recreation, and dust control. Water is needed for restaurants,
most industrial processes, and even some religious
ceremonies. On another level, the splash and flow of water in
streams and fountains soothes and inspires.
In one way or another, water is a part of almost everything
humans make and do. Washing a load of laundry uses 40
gallons, filling a backyard pool takes about 25,000 gallons,
growing a pound of cotton consumes 1,000 gallons, while
producing a pound of copper uses 20 gallons.
Uses where water is consumed, usually through evaporation
or plant growth, are consumptive uses. Examples include
water used for irrigation or in evaporative coolers.
Non-consumptive uses, such as bathing, hydropower
generation and recreation, do no t use up water. Used
non-consumptively, the same water can be used again and
again, although some uses lower the quality of the water.
Once used, wastewater can be treated and used again as
reclaimed water or effluent.
The main categories of water use are agricultural, municipal
and industrial. Municipal and industrial uses currently are
much less, but are growing rapidly. Mining activities and
cooling towers used for power generation account for most of
the remaining water use.
Water Purification:
Water that exists naturally in earth is never pure. There are
always impurities in it, sometimes in large amounts. In fact
water could very well be contaminated with diseases and
bacteria. This is why water has to be purified before it is put
to use. Water purification involves two processes (Filtration &
Chlorination) done in several steps:
1. Water is taken from reservoirs or any other source to the
water treatment plant
2. Water is passed through filters to remove large, floating
objects such as pieces of rocks or mud
3. Smaller particles are removed by adding aluminum
sulfate which makes them stick together in large pieces
and settle down
4. Water is passed through sand and gravel filters which
filter off small particles and may kill some bacteria
(filtration is done)
5. Chlorine gas is bubbled through the water to kill all
bacteria living in the water making the water sterile
6. The water may end to be slightly acidic, small amounts
of sodium hydroxide are added to treat this. Fluoride
might be added to because it helps in preventing tooth
decay 6
 G ALLERY 1.1 Acid Rain
M OVIE 1.2 water cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nf8cuvl62Vc
sciencescore.com

7
M OVIE 1.3 Water cycle Cycle M OVIE 1.4 Nitrogen Cycle

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=372K0jyO0h
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWb4KlM2vts

The content of this chapter only is adapted from IGCSE

Chemistry Notes - Miss Jones

8
C HAPTER 2- M ATTER IN OUR SURROUNDING

Board Game Activity to

understand states of matter

Kinetic theory of matter

https://perfecttuition.wordpress.com/2015/04/24/matter-in-our-surroundings/The im
for kinetic theory of matter are:
https://perfecttuition.wordpress.com

Teachers instructions • Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms, ions or molecules
• These particles are not stationery but are continuously exhibiting some
• In case of gases the particles moves very fast and independent of each
• As per learning requirement of the children divide them
in to different groups • In case of liquid motion is bit restricted.
• While in case of solid the motion is restricted and they can only vibrate
• prepare a board game card having properties of matter
written on them • As the particles in solid are very close to each other, they attract each o
strongly which results in to fixed shape in case of solids
• create solid, liquid and gas cards
• Ask the students to shuffle the cards • while in gases since the particles move independently of each
• pick up the properties which match the solid card and
put under the same
• similarly repeat for liquid and gases
• Children should thus match the property cards with
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EumqKHOgz4E
Why particles exhibits different
motion in different states of mater ?
Have you ever thought why the same particles move differently
in different states of matter?Well the answer to this mystery is
kinetic energy
What is kinetic energy?
• The energy possessed by any body in motion is known as
kinetic energy.
• Solids by nature have minimum kinetic energy due to which
the particles can not move far away from one other but just
vibrate on their position
• In case of liquid the kinetic energy is bit higher then solids as
any body with more energy can perform work better, the liquid
particles moves bit far away from one another then in case of
solids
• While in case of gases the kinetic energy is maximum and
hence molecules can move past one another. This explains
why particles move differently in different states of matter.
Change of state and kinetic theory of matter:
• solids have low vibratory motion however when heat is
supplied, kinetic energy of solids increases and they start
vibrating rapidly this results in to their higher particle motion
when kinetic energy is greater then the intermolecular force of
attraction between the particles the solids starts melting and
change to liquid phase- Fusion
• on further heating, the kinetic energy increases and particles
starts moving fast enough to escape the surface of liquid and
the process of boiling has begun and liquid will turn to gas
phase - Evaporation
• While cooling the gas,the kinetic energy decreases and
particles starts coming closer this results in to conversion of
gas to liquid - Condensation
• On further cooling particles gets locked to their lattice
positions- solidification
10
Let’s Try Activity : Change in states of matter

• Which theory describes the arrangement and movement of Solid to liquid - Melting
particles in solid , liquid and gases?
1. Theory of relativity
2. Kinetic theory
3. Atomic theory

• In which state of matter are the particles mostly touching but

arranged in random way?
1. Liquids
2. solids
3. gases

• Many times the solids directly gets converted to gas phase.

The process is known as
1. Crystallisation
2. Decantation Aim : To find out the factors affecting phase change of a
3. Sublimation substance
Apparatus : Beaker, Thermometer, boiling tube, heating
• Why does the pink colour of phenolphthalein spreads very assembly
easily when placed in water? Variables : Independent - Temperature
Dependent - Melting/Boiling
• Which word means the opposite of Constant - Pressure
boiling? Material required : water, salt
melting?
Method : 1 . Design a safe method to study the effect of
temperature on phase change of substance

11
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure Activity : To study sublimation of ammonium chloride
3. gradually provide heat to the substance in boiling tube
4. record the rise in temperature and phase change after every
minute
5. plot the data graphically taking temperature(independent
variable) on X- axis and melting/Boiling point on y- axis
6. You will observe that with supply of heat, there is phase
change and temperature remains constant when solid is
converted to liquid this is known as melting point. similarly
temperature remains constant when liquid is converted to
vapour.This is known as boiling point

Let’s Sum it up

Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid. The https://www.tutorvista.com/chemistry/boilin

temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting
point.The temperature remains constant at Melting Point
Evaporation: The change of state from liquid to gas. The
temperature at which a liquid evaporates is called the boiling
point. The temperature remains constant at boiling point
Some substances never exist in a liquid form. If they are solid
and you heat them they turn into a gas, and if they are a gas and
you cool them they turn into a solid. This process is called
Sublimation.
Let’s Think
Why temperature remains constant at melting or boiling point?
During melting, the heat being added to a substance goes into
breaking apart the "molecules" or breaking down the crystal
lattice, not into raising the temperature. During the phase
change all the molecules continue to have the same kinetic
energy, and therefore the temperature remains constant.
The same thing happens at the boiling point. The energy goes
into breaking the intermolecular bonds, but the average kinetic
energy stays constant and so does the temperature until all of
the bonds are broken and the substance is in the vapour state.
12
Let’s Try

1. What is the effect in melting point or boiling point of

substance when there is impurities present?
2. Why salt is added while boiling egg?
3. Why temperature remains constant at boiling point
4. Explain terms elevation in boiling point and
depression in freezing point. https://www.google.com/search?q=hea

Cooling Curve
Heating and cooling curves

The following figure is a cooling curve of a gas. At point ‘A’ the

What happens when an ice dish is kept in open? it melts and
state is gas. At point ‘B’ the gas is condensing;; the state is a
is converted to liquid state.. what happens when you boil the
mixture of gas and liquid. At point ‘C’ the state is liquid. At
water ? it is converted to gaseous state. All such physical
point ‘D’ the liquid is freezing, the state is a mixture of liquid
changes can be presented graphically in terms of heating and
and solid. At point ‘E’ the state is solid. Temperature ‘X’ is the
cooling curve which is a simple line graphs that shows the
melting point and temperature ‘Y’ is the boiling point
phase change of matter with increase or decrease of
temperature.

Heating Curve

• The following figure is a heating curve of a solid. At point

‘A’ the state is solid.
• At point ‘B’ the solid is melting;; it is a mixture of solid
and liquid. At point ‘C’ the state is liquid. At point ‘D’the
liquid is evaporating, it is a mixture of liquid and gas. At
point ‘E’ the state is gas. Temperature ‘X’ is the melting
point while temperature ‘Y’ is the boiling point.
13
M OVIE 2.1 Case Study - Adulteration around us Task - Adulteration of food sample

• Mention the food items commonly used in our daily life

and are contaminated with food adulterant
• Discuss why there is adulteration of food sample
• Discuss the impact of increasing use of food adulterant on
global market in terms of economic aspect
• Explain with example some commonly used food items
and how they are adulterated
• explain role of science to analyse and seperate them
• Draft proper consumer guidelines which will help people
globally to prevent falling pray to adulteration
• On the basis of video explain the chemicals used to make
synthetic milk and chemical test use to identify
adulterated milk.
Matter can be adulterated in several ways. In our day to
day life we see several scams like this where food matter is I NTERACTIVE 2.1 Adulteration in food sample
adulterated. The video shows the similar scam that
happened in local community

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EumqKHOgz4E

14
Let’s Try
1. • Why temperature remains constant and the graph becomes
straight?
• Define melting and boiling point of substance.
• What happens on addition of salt?

15
I NTERACTIVE 2.2 Distillation - Separation of substance
Purification of matter
Condenser condenses
evaporated liquid at its
boiling point.

Mixture of liquid in
Round bottom flask is
heated.

16
U NIT - I

Seperation of
Substances
Key Terms:
Solute: This is a substance that dissolves in a solvent forming
a solution

Solvent: This is a substance in which a solute dissolves

forming a solution

Solution: A uniform mixture which is formed when a solute

is dissolved in a solvent.

Dilute Solution: A solution with a small amount of https://www.google.com/search?q=separation+of

solute/dm3.

Concentrated Solution: A solution with large amounts of

solute/dm3.

Concentration: The amount of solute (in grams or moles)

that can dissolve in 1dm3 of a solvent.
There are two types of solid liquid mixtures, one in which
solute completely dissolves in solvent and gives clear solutions.
Such mixtures can be separated by techniques like
crystallisation, distillation, fractional distillation and
evaporation.

Those mixtures in where solid do not completely dissolve in

aplustore.com
solvent are separated by techniques like filtration,
sedimentation and decantation. Seperation of salt and water –
Evaporation
Those mixtures in where solid do not completely dissolve in
This is a good method to separate a mixture where solute
solvent are separated by techniques like filtration,
has dissolved in solvent . The process involves heating
sedimentation and decantation.

Seperation of two insoluble liquid mixture can be done with the

help of seperatory funnel while the use of solid- solid mixture
like the particles of black dye can be done by chromatography.

Let us do the following laboratory activities to understand the

purification of matter using the techniques mentioned above.
Crystallisation
Separation of sand and water using sedimentation This method is used to purify the substance which has soluble
and decantation impurities in
a. Set the apparatus as shown in the diagram
Do the set up for the separation as per the diagram shown b. Let the solution be heated on slow flame
below. The principle behind the technique is that impurities do c. When some amount of solvent is left, carefully remove
not pass through the filter paper and sediments down when the the china dish and let it cool
mixture is allowed to stand for some time . The liquid at the top d. You will see fine crystals at the bottom of the china
can be decant to carry out separation
18
 Simple Distillation

Have you ever thought how can you separate salt and
water on large scale or carry out separation of two
liquids which are completely miscible in one another?
The method used for the same is known as simple
distillation. Distillation apparatus is to be set up as
under:

http://ender.realtypark.co/how-to-separate-mi

The mixture to be separated is taken in round bottom flask

Let’s Try
The round bottom flask is sealed with rubber cork having
thermometer,
1. What does the following term mean? Give example
The other end of the flask is connected to condenser having
a. Solvent
cold water inlet and hot water outlet.
b. Filtrate
Receiver in form of graduated cylinder or beaker is kept
c. Residue
below the condenser to collect pure liquid and know the
2. You have solution of salt in water. You want to
amount of liquid collected
obtain salt
Heat is now supplied to R.B.F using Bunsen burner
a. Which method will you use for separation?
After sometime liquid begins to vaporise
b. Explain why simple filtration will not work here?
As soon as its boiling point is reached the temperature
3. Describe how can you obtain crystals of copper
becomes constant and the liquid turns to vapours.
sulphate
These vapours are allowed to pass through condenser
The cool water coming to the condenser through the inlet
will allow the vapours to cool and convert back to liquid
19
This liquid is free from impurity or other liquid since it
Let’s Try
is left behind in the flask.
The separated liquid which is pure is collected from the
end of the condenser in to the graduated cylinder or
flask
After some time the second liquid also separates out at

Fractional Distillation
When the boiling point difference between the two
liquid is less then 25 degree Celsius. The technique
of separation is fractional distillation. The entire set
up is similar to that of distillation with an exception
that fractionating column made of glass bead is
• Label the graph with phase at each points
• why does the graph become linear after some point?
• Define Melting and Boiling point of a substance.
• label the parts of the apparatus in the given figure A solid metal is heated until it turns to vapour. The graph
shows the temperature of the metal during this process.
• What is meant by the term condensation?
Which part of the graph shows the melting of the metal?
• In case of mixture of liquids which liquid will seperate
out first?
• What is the role of water inlet and water outlet?
• What change in apparatus should be made in case if
you have to seprate mixture of liquids with boiling
point difference less then 25 degree celcius. The states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
The diagram below shows how the molecules are arranged in
these three states.

State the name given to the change of state labelled

(i) A __________
(ii) B__________
(iii)C__________

The diagram above shows how to obtain pure

water from seawater. Where do water
molecules lose energy?

I
n the chromatography experiment shown above, which label
represents the solvent front?

21
An aqueous solution is coloured.
gas into another?
Which method of separation would show that the
solution contains ions of different colours?
A chromatography
B crystallisation
C distillation
D filtration
Complete the following
The smallest part of an element is called an
____________. All the __________ in an element
are the same. Atoms can’t be broken down into
_________ substances. Atoms joined, or bonded,
together chemically are called ____________. In a
____________ change, new substances are formed.
However, no new substances are made in a
____________ change
What is always true for a pure substance?
A It always boils at 100°C.
B It contains only one type of atom.
C It has a sharp melting point.
D It is solid at room temperature
Which statement is correct, about the diffusion of one
a Once the gases are fully mixed, the particles stop
moving.
b The particles of both gases continue moving in a
random way.
c The heavier gas sinks to the bottom of the
mixture.
Diffusion
If a cotton swab is dipped in HCl solution and
another cotton swab is dipped in ammonia solution.
Both are kept at end of a closed tube. After some time
we see brown ring formed. Answer the following
a.The brown ring is formed due to formation of
--------------
b.Write the formula of substance formed
c.Why is the brown ring formed near HCl Swab and
not near ammonia solution
d.Diffusion rate is less if ----------------- is more
e.Molecular weight of HCl is -------- gms which is
-------- then molecular weight of ammonia which is
-------- gms
22
Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

Use of Distillation

23
 M OVIE 4.1 World of atoms and molecules

Atoms and
Molecules

Learning Objectives:Student’s will be able to

1. Explain about atoms as basic unit of matter
2. Will be able to explain difference between molecules of www.mocomi.com
elements and molecules of compound
3. Will state the facts about discovery of subatomic particles.
4. Will be able to write chemical formulas, valencies and
electronic configurations of atoms of elements
5. Will be able to draw lewis Dot Structures
6. Will be able to explain structure of atom and understand
history of atoms www.mocomikids.com

7. Will be able to understand how atoms bond chemically.

 M ATTER Atoms and Molecules

• Have you ever observed a mason building walls, from these

• Classification of Matter
walls a room and then a collection of rooms to form a
bonlacsfood.com
building? What is the building block of the huge building?
What about the building block of an ant-hill? It is a small
grain of sand. Similarly, the building blocks of all matter are
atoms.
• What is a Molecule? A molecule is in general a group of two
or more atoms that are chemically bonded together, that is,
tightly held together by attractive forces. A molecule can be
defined as the smallest particle of an element or a
compound that is capable of an independent existence and
shows all the properties of that substance. Atoms of the
same element or of different elements can join together to
form molecules.
• The molecules of an element are constituted by the same
• Anything that occupies space and has weight is known as matter
type of atoms. Molecules of many elements, such as argon
• Matter is divided in to elements, compounds and mixtures
(Ar), helium (He) etc. are made up of only one atom of that
• Elements are the substances which are made up of only one kind of
element. But this is not the case with most of the nonmetals.
atoms e.g Copper, magnesium etc-
For example, a molecule of oxygen consists of two atoms of
• Compound are the substances which are made up of two or more
oxygen and hence it is known as a diatomic molecule, O2. If
different kind of atoms combined in fixed proportion e.g Hydrogen is
3 atoms of oxygen unite into a molecule, instead of the usual
an element but H20 is a compound of Hydrogen and oxygen
2, we get ozone. The number of atoms constituting a
• Mixtures are made up of two or more compounds which are combined
molecule is known as its atomicity.
but not in fixed proportion
• Atoms of different elements join together in definite
• Mixtures are of two types homogenous and heterogeneous mixtures
proportions to form molecules of compounds. Few examples
• Homogenous mixtures consists of two or more substances which are
are calcium carbonate
combined uniformly e.g sugar in water
• Heterogenous mixtures consist of two or more substances which are
25
not combined uniformly. e.g sand in water.
Elements, Atomic number and Mass Number G ALLERY 4.1 Lewis Dot Structures

The number of electrone present in an atom is its Atomic

number. For an atom to be neutral, number of electrones
are equal to number of protons. The mass of atom is Lewis Dot Structure represents the number of electrones
concentrated at centre and is given by mass number present in valence shell through dot or cross.

26
 as sum of number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
Lewis Dot Structures atom

• Atomic mass is also known as atomic weight. Atomic mass is

• They are the structural representation
indicating number of electrones present in
valence shell
• G.N Lewis expressed the valence electrons in
form of dot or structures in form of Lewis Dot
the weighted average mass of an atom of an element based on
the relative natural abundance of that element's isotopes.
Mass number (A) is a count of the total number of protons
and neutrons in an atom's nucleus.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

• While the mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons
in an atom, the atomic number (Z)is only the number of
protons or number of electrone. The atomic number is the
value found associated with an element on the periodic table
because it is the key to the element's identity.
• e.g. Hydrogen exist in three isotopic forms H1 (99.98%)
H2 (0.02 %) and H3 trace . hence while calculating the atomic
number of Hydrogen is calculated as under
Atomic Mass and Mass number 1 * 99.98. + 2* 0.02/100. = 1.008. a.m.u
• Atomic number is defined as number of electrones or
number of protons
• There is a difference between the meanings of the chemistry • Mass number. = number of protons plus number of
terms atomic mass and mass number. One is the average neutrons
weight of an element and the other is the total number of • Number of neutrons = Mass number - number of protons
nucleons in the atom's nucleus. or
• Atomic Mass is defined as average of mass of istopic • Number of neutrons =Mass number - number of
abundance of the elements while mass number ( A) is defined electrones

27

Atomic Theory
• Atomic theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter,
which states that matter is composed of discrete units
called atoms. ... The word atom comes from the Ancient
Greek adjective atomos, meaning "indivisible"
• Democritus first suggested the existence of the atom but it
took almost two millennia before the atom was placed on a
solid foothold as a fundamental chemical object by John
Dalton (1766-1844). Although two centuries old, Dalton's
atomic theory remains valid in modern chemical thought.
Almost all his postulates holds true except a few.
All matter consist of indivisible particles called atoms
• Atoms are smallest particle that take part in chemical
reaction
• Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass,
but differ from the atoms of other elements.
• Atoms of same or different elements can combine to form
compound
Drawback of Dalton atomic theory
• The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong: an atom can
be further subdivided into protons, neutrons and electrons.
However an atom is the smallest particle that takes part in
chemical reactions.
• According to Dalton, the atoms of same element are similar in
all respects. However, atoms of some elements vary in their
masses and densities. These atoms of different masses are
called isotopes. For example, chlorine has two isotopes with
mass numbers 35 and 37.
• Dalton also claimed that atoms of different elements are
different in all respects. This has been proven wrong in certain
cases: argon and calcium atoms each have an atomic mass of
40 amu. These atoms are known as isobars.
• According to Dalton, atoms of different elements combine in
simple whole number ratios to form compounds. This is not
observed in complex organic compounds like sugar
(C12H22O11).
• The theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes; it does
not account for differences in properties of charcoal, graphite,
diamond.
28
Discovery of subatomic particles - Discovery of
electrones
J. J Thomson and discovery of electrone
• Thomson conducted the famous cathode ray experiment
• He took a discharge tube made up of hard glass
• one end of the tube was negative cathode and other end was
positive anode
• he coated the screen behind anode with phosphorous which
has the ability to glow when light falls on the same
• Thomson initially filled the tube with Helium
• later he remove some gas and passed the electric current
• In some time Thomson saw beam of particles coming out of
cathode
• Since they came out of negative cathode he named them as
negatively charged electrones
• Thomson placed charged plates across both the end and
found that negative rays were attracted towards positive
charged plates which confirmed that they were negative
Discovery of protons
Gold Foil Experiment
In his gold foil experiment, Rutherford bombarded a beam of
alpha particles on an ultra thin gold foil and then detected the
scattered alpha particles in zinc sulfide (ZnS) screen.
Results
1. Most of the particles pass through the foil without any
deflection.
2. Some of the alpha particles deflect at small angle.
3. Very few even bounce back (1 in 20,000).
Conclusion
Based on his observations, Rutherford proposed the following
structural features of an atom:
1. Most of the atom’s mass and its entire positive charge
are confined in a small core, called nucleus. The positively
charged particle is called proton.
29
M OVIE 4.2 Discovery of electrones Discovery of Protons

Cathode Ray experiment Anode Ray Experiment

Discovery of Neutron
• From the previous discussion, we can see that the gold foil
experiment gave a clear picture of the structure of an atom
which consists of protons (nucleus) and same number of
electrons outside of the nucleus.
• But scientists soon realised that the atomic model offered by
Rutherford is not complete. Various experiments showed that
mass of the nucleus is approximately twice than the number of
proton. What is the origin of this additional mass? Rutherford
postulated the existence of some neutral particle having mass
similar to proton but there was no direct experimental
evidence.
30
 The Isotope:
The Electronic Configuration of Atoms: Some elements have different versions of their atoms. These
Electrons are arranged in energy shells or energy levels. But versions are called isotopes. Isotopes of the same element are
each energy shell can hold up to a certain amount of electrons. similar, only that they have a different number of neutrons.
• 1st energy shell holds up to 2e, Chlorine for example has two isotopes, Chlorine-35 and
• 2nd energy shell holds up to 8e, Chlorine-37. Isotopes of the same elements do not differ in
• 3rd energy shell holds up to 18e, but stable with only Behavior or anything, only their masses differ, as a result of
8e. having a different number of neutrons.
If an atom has its 3rd energy shell holding 8e, if it receives 2 There are two kinds of isotopes, stable ones and unstable ones.
more they go to the 4th energy shell. If further 10e are received, Unstable ones have a lot of neutrons, and they are radioactive.
they go to the 3rd energy shell making it saturated with 18e. They are called radioisotopes.
Valence electrons are the electrons in the outer most energy
shell.
Ion:
G ALLERY 4.2 Ions
During chemical reactions involving two or more atoms, some
types of atoms lose one or more electron turning into a positive
ion. It is called a positive ion because when it loses electrons, the
number of positive protons becomes larger than the number of
negative electrons, so the overall charge of the particle is
positive. If it loses two electrons its charge will be +2. If it loses
3, its charge will be +3 and so on.
Other types of atoms gain the electrons lost by the positive ions.
In this case they become negative ions. This is because the
number of negative electrons becomes larger than the number of Formula and valency
positive protons, making the overall charge of the ion negative. If
it gains two electrons its charge becomes -2. If it gains 3
electrons its charge becomes -3, and so on.

31
Calculating the Relative Atomic Mass (Ar):
The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of all its isotopes compared to M OVIE 4.4 Lewis Dot Structures
one-twelfth the mass of an atom of Carbon-12.
The rule of calculating the Ar of an element is:

M is the mass number

If we have two isotopes of Chlorine; Chlorine-35 and Chlorine 37. The percentage of
abundance of these two isotopes in the world is 75% and 25% respectively. We could
calculate the Ar by:

M OVIE 4.3 Writing a chemical formula

Rules

http://youtube.com/watch?v=nxQL2r5Uebg

32
 Chemical
Bonding
Learning Objectives

1. Students will learn about reason why atoms bond to form

molecule?
2. Students will learn about difference between Physical and
Chemical bonding
3. Students will be able to draw Lewis Dot Structure for single,
covalent and triple covalent bond.
4. Students will be able to explain the difference between covalent
and coordinate covalent bond
pixbay.com
5. students will be able to give examples of molecules that falls
under these different kind of chemical Bonds.
6. Students will be able to explain about giant covalent bonds
7. Students will be able to draw structures of diamond and
graphite and explain the bonding
8.students will be able to explain why diamond is hard and
graphite is soft?
 S ECTION 1 Let’s Be Friend

Why do atoms bond? • Everyone wants to achieve stability in life

• Just as for human being criteria of stability is good job and
M OVIE 5.1 Chemical Bonding of atoms happy life and we work towards it our atoms are also very
similar to us
• Criteria of stability for atoms is 8 electrons in valence shell

• In case of atoms there are less or more then 8 electrons then

they prefer to loose, accept or share their electrons so that
they have 8 electrons in outer most shell.
• In the process they bond together
• This type of bond which is formed by electrone sharing,
donation is known as chemical bond
• Physical bond is formed by formation of electrostatic force
of attraction between outer electrone and nucleus.
Types of chemical Bond

On the basis of electron transfer chemical bonds are of the

Every atoms want to achieve stability. The criteria of following kinds
stability is 8 electrons in valence shell. To achieve that
atoms bond . These bonds are chemical bonds • Ionic Bond
• Covalent Bond
• Coordinate Bond

34
M OVIE 5.2 Types of Chemical Bonding
M OVIE 5.3 Coordinate Dative Bond

When stability is achieved by one atom at the cost of other

Ionic and Covalent Bond atom electrone share.

Ionic Bond
Coordinate Bond

Bond formed when one atom gives electrone and other atom
The bond formed when only one atom gives electrons and
accepts electrone is known as ionic bond. for eg Na has 1
other atom accepts stability at the cost of other atom is known
extra electrone in valence shell and chlorine needs one
as coordinate bond
electrone hence they bond by electrone transfer. such bond is
known as Ionic bond
e. g formation. of NH4+ ions

Covalent bond
When both atoms are electrone rich or deficient they prefer to
share electrones. This kind of bond is known as covalent bon
e.g Cl2 molecule
35
COVALENT BOND G ALLERY 5.1 Single, Double and Triple covalent molecules

• A bond formed by sharing of electrone

is known as covalent bond
• Molecules having covalent bond are
known as covalent molecules
• Covalent molecules are of two kinds
• Simple covalent and giant covalent
covalent bond formed by sharing of electrones
molecules
• simple covalent molecules have single,
double or tiple bonds M OVIE 5.4 Allotropes of carbon - Giant covalent Molecules
• giant covalent molecules are made up
of millions of structure joined together
• Diamond, graphite and silicone are egs
of giant covalent molecules
• Diamond and graphite are allotropes of
carbon
• Allotropes have same chemical structure
but different physical properties Diamond and Graphite having same chemical properties but
different physical properties

36
 Formulae of Ionic Compounds:
M OVIE 5.5 Structure of Diamond , graphite and Fullerenes To find the formula for an ionic compound, we use a method similar to cross
multiplication. We multiply the valency (valency is the number of electrons an atom loses
or gains to form an ion) to the other atom as shown below:

Covalent Bonding:
This type of bonding occurs between non-metals only. In order
to obtain a full outer most energy shell, the atoms tend to share
the electrons of their outer most energy shell, some or all of
them.
Example #1: A hydrogen molecule:
Allotropes of carbon Each hydrogen atoms has 1 electron in its outer most shell. When
it bonds covalently, it shares this electron with another hydrogen
M OVIE 5.6 atom, which also shares its only valence electron. This causes
each atom in the molecule to have 2 electrons in its outer most
shell, which is also the 1st and only shell; this means it is holding
the maximum number of electrons making it stable.

If two atoms each share one electron, it is called a single covalent

bond, if each shares two electrons; it is a double covalent bond.
The single covalent bond above can be represented by H - H.
A double covalent bond between two carbon atoms can be
represented b C = C.

Physical and chemical Properties 37

 Diamond
Properties of Covalent Compounds:
Simple molecular structures are usually gases or liquids and
In case of diamond the chemical constituent is carbon. each
sometimes solids with low melting points; this is because of
carbon has 4 electrone in valence shell. each carbon joins with
weak forces of attraction between the molecules which can
other carbon atom through the valence electrone. All 4 electrons
be broken easily.
are occupied and there is no mobile electrone. The structure
Giant molecular structures have very high melting points
extends in three dimensional network. Because of this diamond
because the whole structure is held together with very
is hard and good conduct of electricity.
strong covalent bonds.
Most of them do not conduct electricity
Most of them are insoluble in water Graphite

In case of graphite each carbon is associated with three other

Allotropes carbon atoms. Thus each carbon has mobile electrones

When compound has same chemcial constituent but the Physical Properties of graphite
arrangement of atoms are different then the compound are Has a soft, slippery feel, and is used in pencils and as a dry
known as allotropes of each other. e.g lubricant for things like locks. You can think of graphite rather
like a pack of cards - each card is strong, but the cards will
In case of diamond and graphite both are made up of carbon but slide over each other, or even fall off the pack altogether.
arrangement of carbon is different . This gives them different When you use a pencil, sheets are rubbed off and stick to the
properties as explained below. paper,
Has a lower density than diamond. This is because of the
relatively large amount of space that is "wasted" between the
sheets,
Is insoluble in water and organic solvents - for the same
reason that diamond is insoluble.
Attractions between solvent molecules and carbon atoms will
never be strong enough to overcome the strong covalent bonds
in graphite,
38
Metallic Bonds
Pure metals have a very unique structure. Each atom lets go of the
valence electrons and become a positive ion. These electrons
altogether form a sea of delocalised electrons.
Since the electrons are negatively charged and the ions are
positively charged, an electrostatic force of attraction is formed
between the sea of delocalised electrons and layers of positive
ions.
The metallic lattice is the regular arrangement of positive ions
embedded in a sea of delocalised electrons.
The metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between
the layers of positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons.
M OVIE 5.7 Metallic Bond
Bond formed between delocalised electrones and
positive kernel
http://youtube.com/watch?v=Bjf9gMDP47s
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of metals or metals and non-metals.
Sometimes, and alloy is better than a metal because they
have better properties. They are harder, more resistant to
corrosion and have a more attractive appearance than the
metals they are formed of.
Alloys are harder than metals because they have different
sized atoms which prevent the layers from sliding over each
other.
And alloy is made by heating the metals or metals and
non-metals together until they all melt, and leaving them to
cool mixed.
Examples of alloys and their content:
• Brass: Copper-Zinc,
• Bronze: Copper-Tin,
• Steel: Iron-Carbon,
39
 Use of Metals
M ETALS

Learning Objective
• Students will learn about use of metals
and their relation with ancient
civilisation
• Will develop International Mindedness
by understanding about extraction and
mining industry all over the world and
social, economical, environmental
implications. http://youtube.com/watch?v=opj4px4vK9s
• Students will develop interdisciplinary
approach understanding about
chemistry and economics of extraction
of metals
• Students will learn about reactivity
series and its use in extractions.
 Where are metals formed? • Our ancestors never used iron till one day by mistake some
iron got heated up with carbon resulting in to formation of.
It became the most important and widely used metal on the
earth.
• by 1900 around 65 metals were known and Industrial
revolution started with that.
• By 2000 CE around 90 metals were known and the digital
age begins where metals have large number of application
and due to which need for extraction arised.

• Metals are found in the earths crust in the combined

formed known as minerals
• Those minerals from which metals can be extracted
profitably and successfully is known as ore
• E.g Aluminium occurs in earth crust as clay – Al2O3 SiO2
2H20 so clay is mineral. Bauxite and cryolite are ore of
aluminium
Need for extraction

• Since time immortal metals have huge applications in our

civilisation. Let us refer this timelines which explains
importance of metals and the need of extraction.
• About 20,000 years ago in the stone age early man made
use of stone and bones for hunting.
• About 3500 BCE begun Bronze Age, when someone
accidently mixed copper and tin which resulted in formation
41
of Bronze - a very useful alloy
 C HAPTER 5 REACTIVITY SERIES

• Reactivity series is really a list of the metals in order of their tendency

to form positive ions. That is the metal which is able to donate electron
easily and form positive ion which tends to be more reactive
• The metal which is at the top of reactivity series is highly reactive in
the middle are mediocrely reactive and at the bottom are least reactive
• This was based on the reactions of this metal with oxygen, water,
hydrochloric acid and carbon
• E.g potassium catches fire in cold water, sodium bursts with fizzing
sound
• Metal at the top of reactivity series displaces the metal at the bottom of
reactivity series

Reactivity Series and extraction of metals

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 W HERE ARE METALS FORMED ? Why metals needs to be extracted from earth crust ?

Since time immortal metals have huge applications in our

civilisation. Let us refer this timelines which explains
importance of metals and the need of extraction
Metals and civilisation

• The stone age- The early humans were hunters. They

used stone and bones as tool and weapons

• About 10,000 years ago , we began to farm

• The Bronze Age – by 3500 (5000 years ago) copper

IGCSE chemistry
• Metals are found in the earths crust in the combined formed known as
minerals
• Those minerals from which metals can be extracted profitably and
successfully is known as ore
• E.g Aluminium occurs in earth crust as clay – Al2O3 Sio2 2H20 so clay is
mineral. Bauxite and cryolite are ore of aluminium
and tin were found but their use was not muck
known,then someone mixed copper and tin to give
strong hard metal that could be hammered in to
different shapes. It was the alloy bronze
• Our ancestors never used iron till one day around
2500 years ago some iron got heated up with carbon
by accident in hot fire. The result was metal with high
potential. It became most widely used metal on earth
crust.

• Industrial revolution starts with 65 metals known by

1900 common era CE

43
 What is electrolysis?
This explains why extraction of metals is very important.
Chemical decomposition which takes place due to passage of
• The most unreactive metals such as silver and gold occurs in
electric current in the solution of ions is known as electrolysis
their earth crust in native form. All you need to do is separate
the metal from sand and other impurities like removing iron
impurities, sand stone etc-
• The moderately reactive metals present in the earth crust
mostly as oxide like Feo, Zno . They need to be separated
from their combined form for successful extraction. This is
done by reducing with carbon ( removal of oxygen) since
carbon is reactive then these moderately reactive metals it can
displace the metal from the combined form giving pure
metal. If they are present in other form like sulphide Zn S they
are roasted with oxygen so as to convert them to oxide which
is easily reduced.
• FeO + C= Fe + Co
• The metals at the top of reactivity series are highly reactive
and hence can not be extracted by C. The method used for this
is electrolysis
• For electrolysis of metal the compound of metal is melted and
converted to solution form.
• The solution of metal is known as electrolyte
• Electrodes which conduct electricity are placed in
electrolytic solution
• Cathode is negative charged and anode is positive
charged
• When electric current is passed the electrolytic solution
breaks in to positive and negative ions
• The negative ions migrate towards anode electrode and
positive ions towards cathode.
Remember
(In a galvanic (voltaic) cell, the anode is considered
negative and the cathode is considered positive. This
seems reasonable as the anode is the source of electrons
and cathode is where the electrons flow.
However, in an electrolytic cell, the anode is taken to be
positive while the cathode is now negative. However, the
reaction is still similar, whereby electrons from the anode
flow to the positive terminal of the battery, and electrons
from the negative terminal of battery flow to the
44
cathode.)
 Discharge of ion and electrolysis. • Aqueous NaCl - chlorine gas at anode and H gas
at cathode( 2H+ 2e ---- H2)
• Molten NaCl – only sodium and chloride ion are
• In electrolysis, cathode is negative and anode is positive. present so at cathode sodium and at anode chlorine gas
• During passage of electric current, the electrolyte • Aqueous CuSo4 all four ions hence at cathode OH
decomposes in to cation and anion. is discharged liberating O2 gas( 4 OH- ----- O2 +2H20 + 4e)
• Cation goes to cathode and there it accepts electron and and at cathode copper is deposited when electrodes are inert
metal is deposited. • ( Electron flows from anode to battery and from
• Anion goes to positive anode where mostly it is liberated in battery to cathode in electrolysis reaction) . Now when your
gaseous form anode is not inert but made up of reactive metals like copper,
anode will start loosing electrons and forms positive ions which
• Water is a weak electrolyte and can dissociate in to H+ and migrate and deposit on cathode as metals, Thus weight of
OH – ions. cathode increases and stage will come where all anode would
• Whenever there is an aqueous solution apart from the normal perish
ions it will dissociate producing H+ and OH – ions as well. • So when electrolysis of aqueous Cuso4 is carried over
• E.g. aq. NaCl will contain all the four ions, In this case copper electrode we have copper deposited at cathode and 02
whether Na+ or H+ will go to cathode or which anion will go gas at anode but the only difference is that anode losses
to anode depends on the order of positive ions as in electron and gets thinner. Cu --- Cu+2 + 2e
reactivity series and order of anion as given below

CATION ANION

K+ so4-2

Na+ NO3-

Mg+2 OH-

H+ Cl-
Cu+2 Br-
Ag+ I-

45
 Cao + sio2 ----- casio3 = slag

Iron ore is not pure iron oxide - it also contains an

assortment of rocky material that would not melt at the
temperature of the furnace, and would eventually clog it up.
The limestone is added to convert this into slag which melts
and runs to the bottom. The heat of the furnace decomposes
EXTRACTION OF IRON
the limestone to give calcium oxide.
CaCO3→CaO+CO2
This is an endothermic reaction, absorbing heat from the
furnace. It is therefore important not to add too much
limestone because it would otherwise cool the furnace.
Calcium oxide is a basic oxide and reacts with acidic oxides
such as silicon dioxide present in the rock. Calcium oxide
reacts with silicon dioxide to give calcium silicate.
CaO+SiO2→CaSiO3

Iron forms and trickles down – 400 degree Celsius

Carbon monoxides forms and rises 800 degree celsius
Carbon dioxide forms and rises 1400 degree celsius

46
 Extraction of Aluminium
The metals which are higher in the reactivity series can not be
separated from their ore by reduction through carbon and hence
extraction is carried out through electrolysis.
• As shown in the diagram aluminium oxide is taken in the
electrolysis tank
• negative terminal cathode and positive terminal anode is
made of graphite( form of carbon)
• on passing electric current decomposition of aluminium
oxide occurs, the aluminium metal forms at the negative
electrode and sinks to the bottom of the tank where it is
tapped off
• oxygen is formed at the positive electrode. This oxygen
reacts with the carbon of positive electrodes have to be
replaced frequently

• Aluminium is the most abundant metal on earth

• since it is extracted only through electrolysis a large
amount of electricity is used up in the process and
hence it is very expensive
• aluminium exist in earths crust in the form of Bauxite
ore
• first aluminium oxide is melted so that electricity can
pass through it
• since it is having a very high melting point of 2000
degree celsius it would be expensive to melt it, and
hence it is dissolved in molten cryolite
• cryolite (Na3AlF6)is an aluminium compound with a
lower melting point than aluminium oxide

47
 • This is used to plate one metal with another
• The general arrangement is as shown in diagram
• The metal which is used to electroplate is copper,
silver, chromium , nickel
• Two main reason for electroplating is to have shiny
appearance and protect from corrosion.
• The metal which is to be electroplated or coated is
taken as anode and salt of the same is taken as electrolyte
• The object which has to be coated, like in the above
case spoon has to be taken as cathode.
• On passage of current, the pure silver at anode
liberates electron and forms silver ion
• The silver ion are attracted to cathode where they
accept electron and forms silver which is deposited on the
cathode.
• Thus a coating of silver is formed on the spoon
Electrorefining
• Metals can be refined or purified by electrolysis
Electrorefining
• The impure metal is taken as anode
• And pure metal is taken as cathode
• Electrolyte is the aqueous solution of metal
• In the refining of copper for e.g the impure copper at
anode gives electrone to form Cu ions
• This copper ions along with the copper ion of
electrolyte migrate to cathode where they accept electron and
deposit as pure copper
• Thus at the end we see all pure cathode getting
transferred at cathode and impurities left on anode as anode
mud.

48
M OVIE 7.1 Extraction of Aluminium M OVIE 7.2 Extraction of Iron in Blast Furnance

Aluminium is highly reactive metal and is extracted by Iron is in middle of reactivity series is extracted by
electrolysis reduction through carbon
steel Making

Steel is made from Iron extracted in Blast Furnance

49
M OVIE 7.3 Haber’s Process

Manufacturing of ammonia

50
 Let’s Try

Think of the metals in the reactivity series as boys of
varying strength. The strength (and temper) of the
boys increases as you go up the table.
+ +
Let’s Try
1. What is the difference between ore and mineral?
2. When is carbon used for extraction?
3. When is electrolysis used for extraction?
4. What is the meaning of native metals?
5. What was the first useful metal?
6. Why is aluminium dissolved in cryolite?
7. what is the chemical formula for aluminium oxide?
8.why is limestone used in Blast furnace?
1. What would you expect if Zinc metal was placed in CuSO4?
What is the product of this reaction?
2. When iron oxide is heated with aluminium powder, the
following reaction takes place:
Aluminium + iron oxide → iron + aluminium oxide
When aluminium oxide is heated with iron no reaction takes
place.Why?Which of the two metals is more reactive?
3.Which is the most reactive metal?
a. Lithium
b. Copper
c. Zinc
4. Which metal can be displaced from its ore by heating with
carbon?
a. Calcium
b. Iron
c. Platinum
5.Which of the following combination will result in
displacement reaction?
a. Copper and Zinc Nitrate
b. Zinc and Magnesium Nitrate
c. Magnesium and copper sulphate

51
6. What has been reduced in the following reaction? 9. Why does Gold occur in native state but Zinc is present
Iron Oxide + Carbon ------ Carbon Monoxide + Iron in combined state in earths crust?
a. Iron Oxide 10. Write the chemical formula for the following
b.Carbon Monoxide a. Aluminium hydroxide
c. Carbon b. Copper sulphate
c. Zinc Nitrate
7.Which metal can be used for sacrificial coating of iron? d. Calcium carbonate
a. Magnesium e. Barium chloride
b. Tin f. Silver nitrate
c. Copper g. Aluminium Phosphate
h. Tin chloride
1. Give Reason: Aluminium does not corrode as
quickly as steel and iron?
2. Why does Gold occur in native state but Zinc is
present in combined state in earths crust?

52
 P ETROCHEMICALS

Learning Objectives

• Students will learn about petroleum products

• Students will comprehend applications of petroleum products in
daily life
• Students will be able to understand separation of petroleum
products through fractional distillation
• students will be able to understand the scarcity of fossil fuels on
earth and need to use alternate source of energy
• students will be able to draw diagram of fractionating column

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 T HE FORMATION OF PETROLEUM M OVIE 8.1 Fractional Distillation of petroleum in
refinery

http://petrolyte.blogspot.in/2011/03/fractional-distillation-of-crude-oil.html Formation of different petroleum Products- creative comments

Fractional Distillation
I NTERACTIVE 8.1 Fractional distillation

• Petroleum is mixture of different hydrocarbon molecules

• Petroleum extracted is not only used as fuel but as raw material
for various industries.
• Various Hydrocarbons are made up of different number of
carbon atoms.
• Each of this fraction has different utility and hence a need for
separation arises
• Separation is done in refinery through fractional distillation
method
• Petroleum is preheated to 400 degree celsius and passed through
towers,It passes through series of bubble caps and cools. As the Petroleum Fractions - creative comments
vapour condenses at various temperatures, petroleum product of
54
catalytic cracking
• Petroleum Products are of various number of atoms.
• Their extraction need not necessarily match the demands of
society
• for e.g lighter fractions like petrol and gasoline are high in
demand
• heavier fractions like kerosene and diesel are often broken to
smaller molecules which has huge reality in daily life.
• This process is known as catalytic cracking
• It takes place in reactors where mixture of Hydrocarbon,
catalyst like zeolites, aluminia and silica are passed at 500
degree
M OVIE 8.2 Catalytic Cracking
Products have various utility
Blending gasoline
Often when vehicles are not used for longer time or in winters it
is difficult to start vehicle immediately. This is known as
knocking. To prevent this often gasoline is added. But it has
several environmental impacts. A great research has been going
on use of crops like jatropa, urine, orange peel etc to produce
biofuel and make environment cleaner . However there are
several other implications as they take up the cultivation land
for production of crops.
M OVIE 8.3 Biofuels for cleaner environment
55
56
C HAPTER 9

Periodic Table
Learning Objectives: Students will be able to
1. know history of classification of element
2. Acknowledge importance of classification
3. learn about the new elements discovered in recent time
4. Predict periodic trends in various properties
5. Classify the elements in groups and periods
6. Understand Physical and chemical properties of
elements
7. know about periodicity of elements in the periodic
table
8. Explain why classification of elements based on atomic
number is better then based on atomic mass.
 S ECTION 1

Classification of elements
• Matter can be classified as elements , compounds and mixtures
• Elements are substances which are made of only one kind of
atom
• Although Gold, silver, copper elements were known since
ancient times, the first discovery of scientific element took http://chemistry.tutorcircle.com/inorganic-chemistry/law-of-
place in 1649 by Henning Brand when he discovered octaves.html
Phosphorous
• Gradually more elements were discovered
Newland’s law of octaves
• as large number of elements were discovered it was a chaos to
predict their physical and chemical properties
dOAr
• The attempts of Döbereiner encouraged other chemists to
• and hence arised a need for systematic classification
correlate the properties of elements with their atomic masses.
• Various attempts were made for classifying the elements after
• In 1866, John Newlands, an English scientist, arranged the then
known elements in the order of increasing atomic masses.
History of classification - Doberaniar Triads
• He started with the element having the lowest atomic mass
(hydrogen) and ended at thorium which was the 56th element.
• He grouped the elements in the group of three according to
• He found that every eighth element had properties similar to that
similarity in their properties
of the first.
• He proposed that the atomic weight of the middle element is
• He compared this to the octaves found in music. Therefore, he
nearly the same as average of the atomic weights of other two
called it the ‘Law of Octaves’. It is known as ‘Newlands’ Law of
elements.
Octaves’.
• His famous law of triads had two major limitations
• In Newlands’ Octaves, the properties of lithium and sodium were
• Not all groups obeyed the Law ofTriads. For example, nitrogen
found to be the same. Sodium is the eighth element after lithium.
family does not obey the Law of Triads
Similarly, beryllium and magnesium resemble each other
• Not all elements fitted in the law of Triads

58
 Features

• Mendeleev’s did an important contribution in classification of

elements in periodic table
• He classified elements in the increasing order of atomic mass
• His periodic table has 6 horizontal rows called periods and 8
vertical rows called periods
• Newland predicted that when elements are arranged in • Groups 1 to 7 has two sub groups A and B
increasing order of atomic masses, the properties of eighth • Elements with similar properties were placed in same group.
element resembles the first one • Empty spaces were left for the elements which would be
• However limitation of his classification was he could discovered in future.
arrange only elements till calcium(20) out of total elements Merits of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
discovered at that time which were 56
• After calcium every eighth element did not have properties • Elements were classified on basis of atomic mass and
similar to that of first element. properties
• The periodic table did not include inert gases as they were • Empty spaces were left for the elements that would be
not discovered. discovered in future
Mendeleev’s Periodic Table • It could help in explaining similarity of properties of elements
• There was provision for placing inert gases separately in group
when discovered without disturbing table.
Limitations of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

• some elements are not arranged in the increasing order of

atomic mass e.g cobalt is placed before Nickel
• Position of Hydrogen is not clear as it shows properties similar
to that of metals and non metals
• The basis of element was increasing order of atomic mass in
that case it could not clearly explain position of Isotopes which
has same atomic number but different mass number.
59
 Modern Periodic Table
thoughtco.com
• In 1913 scientist named Henry Moseley predicted that atomic
number is more fundamental property then atomic mass for
classification of elements.
• When Elements were arranged like this in increasing order of
their atomic number there was Periodicity – Element with
similar properties appears at regular interval e.g Li, Na, K all •
can give one electrone and have + 1 valency)
• Modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns called groups
and 7 horizontal rows called periods
• The heavy Zig Zag line above separates metals from
non-metals, with the non-metals on right side (except H)- H is
a non-metal but is placed with alkali metal because of its
electronic configuration and resemblance in property
• The elements on the line - are metalloids
Alkali Metals
• We see that element in one group has same valence shell
electronic configuration, like here the first group also known
as alkali metals have one electrone in outermost shell hence
they have valency of +1 as they give electrone they are
metallic in nature.
• And are good conductor of heat and electricitySince all can
give one electrons and chemical properties depends on
electrone transition.
The properties of all elements in group 1 is similar like they
have valency of +1, metallic nature, colour in the flame, low
melting and boiling, usually soft like Na cut with knife, very
reactive, reacts with water, air,low density. As we move down
the group the valence electrons is added in new shell so
atomic size increases .
• Alkali metals have only one valence electrone so low binding
to nucleus and hence boiling and melting point is low now as
we move down the group atomic size is increasing so distance
from the nucleus also increases and hence attraction towards
• Also as we move down atomic size is more and so the metallic What’s New ?
bond becomes weaker and hence metal is softer down the group
• First group elements are generally the largest. Larger the size We have studied that matter can be classified as elements,
larger is the density because there is large increase in mass with compounds and mixtures. Elements are substances which are
considerable increases in volume. Hence density increases made up of only one kind of atom. Do you know how many
down a group as size increase down the group.Such kind of elements are discovered till date? 118 elements are discovered.
pattern is known as trend IUPAC is the organisation which names the element either
after the name of the discoverer or after the name of the place
General Features where they were discovered.
Which are the latest elements named by IUPAC?
• Elements in same group have same physical and chemical They are …..
properties due to their similar electronic arrangements
• Group 3 to group 12 elements are known as transition
elements. They show transition of properties between s and p
block hence are transition elements
• Group 17 are known as halogens
• Group 18 are inert gases.
• There is clear relationship between electron arrangement and
position in periodic table. E.g All elements in group 1 has 1
electron in valence shell.
• Elements in same group have same number of electron in
outer shell
• As we move from left to right in period we see that though the
element do not have same number of electrons they have
same valence shell or orbit
• Li Be B 2 1 2 2 2 3 and you observe that the number of
electrone increases by one unit in valence shell thus the

61
 Halogens The smaller the atomic radius, the more influence the nucleus
has on reactivity. Since the nucleus of an atom contains
positively charged protons, it also attracts electrons.
Halogen atoms already want to gain electrons, so the added force
of nuclear pull makes them more reactive.Thus fluorine has
more tendency to gain electron and hence more reactive and
reacts faster to gain electrons. As we move down the group a new
orbit is added and distance from nucleus decreases and hence
reactivity decreases.

http://chemistry.tutorcircle.com/inorganic-chem Why melting and boiling Point increases down the

• The halogens are located on the left of the noble gases on group?
the periodic table.
• These five toxic, non-metallic elements make up Group 17 In case of halogens down the group atomic size increases and
of the periodic table and consist of: fluorine (F), chlorine hence vanderwal force of attraction between nucleus and outer
(Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). electrone increases. This results in increase in melting/boiling
• Although astatine is radioactive and only has short-lived point down the group as more energy is to be supplied to break
isotopes, it behaves similar to iodine and is often included the bonds.
in the halogen group. Nobel Gases
• Because the halogen elements have seven valence
• Group 18 of modern periodic table are known as Nobel gases or
electrons, they only require one additional electron to
form a full octet inert gases
• They have complete electronic configuration and hence they
• This characteristic makes them more reactive than other
Why fluorine has smaller atomic radius then chlorine, are non reactive
though down the group Atomic size increases? • since they do not form bond their atomicity is one
• they are gas at room temperature
• Down the group the vanderwal force of attraction increases
and so density is more

62

• Helium is lightest of all so used in balloons
• Krypton is heavy and hence can not be used in
balloons
• Inert gases are non reactive and hence mainly used in
bulbs as they do not damage Tungsten filament of the
bulb.
Transition Elements
• Group 3 to group 12 of modern periodic table are
transition elements
• They are pure solids
• They do not show clear periodic trends as alkali group
• They have large surface area and free electrons and
hence they act as catalyst. E.g In Haber’s Process of
ammonia Fe(iron is used as catalyst)
• They are ductile and malleable and hence have wide
day to day life applications
• Due to presence of free electrons they are coloured.
63
M OVIE 9.1 Noble Gases and their uses M OVIE 9.2 Alkali Metals

Group - Zero of periodic Table Group -I of Periodic Table- shows Flame test

Flame Test - Group I of periodic Table G ALLERY 9.1 Groups of Periodic Table

Alkali metals of group I of periodic table shows unique flame.

This flame test is used as mark for identification of group I
elements of the periodic table. Since chlorides of group I are
volatile the alkali metals are dipped in conc HCl. The paste is
kept on platinum wire and put up in oxidising flame of
Bunsen Burner. Each substance will show different colour
flame as shown in the video below. The reason behind the
flame test is that the alkali metals have one outer electron
which goes to higher state on energy supply. when it return Properties
back to ground state it gives flame of different colour.
64
 Let’s Try
1. Answer the following
a. Sodium belongs to which group of periodic table?
b. Why is sodium stored under kerosene?
c. What is the trend in the periodic properties like Atomic
size, metallic size and melting point in this period of the
modern periodic table?
d. Which three elements in the period are metals?
e. Is in group I of periodic table?
f. Has two isotopic forms?
g. Is an inert gas?
h.Sample of each of the elements of this period were burnt in
oxygen and they formed oxides. Write chemical formula for
oxides of sodium, Magnesium and Aluminium
2.Farhan has three balloons each one filled with different
gases, namely- He, Ar and Ne. Answer the following questions
a.To which group of the periodic Table does these gases belong?
b. Predict what would happen to a balloon filled with Krypton?
c.Draw the electrone structure of Helium
d.Explain how the electronic structure is related to the chemical be used to make pans.
property of Helium?
e.Give two reasons why Helium is a good choice to fill in the
balloons ?
f.Neon, Argon and kryptons are uses in light bulbs. Why?
3. John has three salts. Sodium chloride, lithium
chloride and Potassium chloride. Answer the following
questions
a. Which group does the cation of this salt belongs to?
b. Which test is used to identify the cations of the given
group of periodic table? Describe the test with the colour of
the flame given by each salt
4. Carbon a non metal with Atomic number 6 in the periodic
Table has tendency to form a large number of organic compounds.
Answer the following questions
a. One such organic compound is ethanoic acid and its lewis dot
structure is as above. What are lewis dot structures? Draw such
structure for methanoic acid(HCOOH)
b. Between carbon and oxygen there are how many bonds in
ethanoic acid
c. Will solution conduct electricity when dissolved in suitable
solvent?
5. Which organization is responsible for naming the
elements? Write the names of elements recently given by
this organization.
6.Iron and copper both are transition elements and both can
a.Give two physical properties which makes them suitable for
making pans.
b.Why is copper not often used for making pans
c.Copper is often used to make wires. Why?
65
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

learning Objectives:

• Students will learn about carbon compounds

• students will be able to define tetravalency and catenation
• students will be able to explain why carbon form millions of
organic compounds
• students will be able to define Hydrocarbon
• Students will be able to write general formula of alkane,
alkene and alkynes
• students will be able to write molecular formulaType
and to
draw
enter text
structural formula and Lewis Dot structure.
• Students will be able to draw isomeric structures
• students will be able to explain formation of alcohol
• students will be able to explain chemical reactions of alkane
and alkenes

www.byjus.com
 M OVIE 10.1 organic chemistry Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen : Hydrocarbon

• Compounds of Hydrogen and carbon are known as hydrocarbon

• Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are general types of Hydrocarbon

World of carbon- Creative Comment

Et• Carbon is a non metal in group IV of periodic table

• Atomic Number is 6 and configuration is 2 4
• Thus presence of 4 electrones in valence shell makes carbon www.caltech.com
tetravalent
Alkanes
• Due to tetravalency carbon has tendency to bond with other
carbon atoms through covalent bonds • Saturated Hydrocarbon are known as alkanes
• In case of alkanes each carbon is bonded with four other
• This Property of carbon is known as catenation
atoms forming long chain compound
• Due to catenation and Tetravalency carbon can form
millions of compounds • There is presence of only single bond between two carbon
atoms
• compounds of carbon and Hydrogen are known as
Hydrocarbon or organic compound • The general formula , naming and structural formula is as
above
• Branch of chemistry which deals with study of carbon
compound is organic chemistry 67
 Let’s Try :Draw structural , molecular and lewis dot Let’s Try : Criterion B and C
formula of first 10 alkanes
• If we see each alkane differ by -CH2 group. These is known as Select Hydrocarbon from the given list and determine their
homologous series. boiling points in laboratory.Select variables you will vary to
• Alkanes are joined by covalent bond observe the change in boiling Point.
• As the length of chain increase there is increase of inter
molecular force of attraction
• This shows increase in boiling point of gas Lewis Dot structures of alkanes
• In the first member of alkane there is weak intermolecular
vanderwal force of attraction and hence first member of chain
are gases
• as we move down the group there is increase of force of
attraction and boiling point increases so lower members are
liquid
• It is summarised through the image below

Chemical reactions of alkanes

• Combustion Reaction
• Substitution Reaction

68
Combustion Reaction of alkanes

Substitution Reaction of Alkenes

Alkanes burns in presence of oxygen to produce carbon Alkenes

dioxide, water and large amount of energy
• In this type of Hydrocarbon , carbon carbon covalent bond is
M OVIE 10.2 Demonstration of burning of alkanes joined through double bond
• double bond indicates their valencies are unsatisfied and hence
the alkenes are more susceptible to addition of another
molecule or atom in stead of substitution
• Presence of double bond in alkenes can be detected through
unsaturation test .
• In the unsaturation test Alkene is poured in Alk. KMnO4 and
Br2 water.
• If the pink and Brown colour disappears respectively it
indicates presence of unsaturation

Laboratory Test

69
M OVIE 10.3 Detection of unsaturation

Addition of Bromine to Alkenes

Decolorisation of pink colour of Potassium

Permangemnate Combustion of Alkenes

M OVIE 10.4 Addition reaction of Alkenes - creative M OVIE 10.5 Burning Alkenes - creative comments
comments

Bromination of alkenes
70
Hydrogenation of alkenes
Criterion D

Task : Unsaturated fat is healthier then saturated fat.

Vegetable oil is unsaturated but when hydrogenated to
Vanaspati Ghee results in to saturation. Such saturated fat is
very harmful for human body but in some Asian countries
there is a myth on health benefit of eating saturated fat in
form of Ghee. As student of science do your Research on this
and write essay of around 500 words as how will you break
this Myth to common people

M OVIE 10.6 Application of Hydrogenation reaction in Hydration of Alkenes

daily life

Preparation of vegetable ghee

71
Functional Groups Alcohols

• A series of organic compounds containing the functional group

• Group of atoms when replaces Hydrogen from -OH is known as Alcohol
Hydrocarbon chain will result in to change in property of • As shown earlier Hydration of ethene results in formation of
ethanol
• Alcohol by fermentation:
• It is anerobic process where there is no oxygen available
• ethanol produced by this method comes from renewable source
and is carbon neutral.

M OVIE 10.7 Fermentation of Glucose- creative

comments

72
 Oxidation of ethanol results in formation of acids
Ethanol as fuel
Carboxylic acids

• Ethanol burns in air producing large amount of energy

• Brazil which has large amount of sugar started producing
ethanol based fuel from 1973
• These are preferred due to their renewable nature
• They are thus known as biofuels

Esterification reaction of ethanol

73
M OVIE 10.8 Esterification in lab Isomerism

Preparing fruity esters from alcohol and acids- creative

comments

74
 C HAPTER 11

Chemical
Investigation
and Analysis
Learning Objectives

• Students will perform chemical tests to identify unknown

substance
• students will be able to identify group one element through flame
test
• students will be able to identify several cations through
precipitation tests
indiamart.com
• students will be able to understand collection of gas by different
methods
• students will learn about various dehydrating agents
• students will be able to perform chemical tests to identify various
anions and gases.
 Flame Test
M OVIE 11.1 Test to identify group I alkali metals
• Substance + 2-3 drops of Conc HCl. Dip platinum wire in the
paste and put in the oxidising flame to observe the colour of
the flame. Group I and II – Alkaline and alkaline earth metal
give characteristic flame as the outer electron gets excited to
higher energy level.
• Only HCl is used as the metallic chlorides are very much
volatile. When heated in the flame the elements of the metals
of the compounds become excited and go to higher energy
levels. ... As a result flames of different colors are formed for
different metals.
• Following are the characteristic colour flames given by this Flame Test
group metals
Test for cations - Formation of precipitates

Substance + Sodium Hydroxide solution + Ammonia

solution ---- Different coloured PPT obtained. On the basis
of the colour of PPT you can identify cations.
Reason : metal ion reacts with NaOH to form precipitate of
metal hydroxide
e.g Cu+2 +2 NaOH ---- Cu(OH)2 + 2Na
If metal can form soluble complex with ammonia solution
precipitate form will dissolve and it it cant form soluble
complex ppt remains as it is

76
Upward displacement of air ( downward
delivery of gas)- Density of gas high then air

77
The gas produced in a chemical reaction is passed through a COLLECTION OF GAS OVER WATER
delivery tube into the gas jar, where it sinks and pushes the air
out of the top. This works well for carbon dioxide and chlorine,
which are both denser than air.. This collection of gas at the
bottom by displacing the air upward is known as UPWARD
DISPLACEMENT OF AIR

Downward displacement of air( Upward delivery of

gas)- Density of gas low then air
This works well for insoluble gases such as hydrogen,
The gas produced in a chemical reaction is passed through a
or gases that do not dissolve easily in water, such as oxygen and
delivery tube into the gas jar, where it rises and takes up the
carbon dioxide. Ammonia and chlorine are readily soluble
space at the top of the jar - pushing the air in the jar down, and
in water and are not collected this way.
out at the bottom. This works well for hydrogen and ammonia,
which are both less dense than air.
Collection of gas in syringe is done when volume of the gas
collected needs to be measured

78
Methods of drying the gases
Common drying agents used
1. Con H2SO4 is used to dry all gas except ammonia
2. Anhydrous calcium chloride is used for all gases except
ammonia
3. Calcium oxide to dry ammonia and neutral gas.

Test the presence of water

The presence of water in a compound is detected using
anhydrous copper sulphate and cobalt chloride. Water
turns anhy. copper sulphate from white to blue and anhy
cobalt chloride from blue to pink
To test whether liquid is a pure water you need to see
whether Boiling Point is 100 degree celcius.

Test for ethanol and ethanoic acid

79
M OVIE 11.2 What is electrolysis

Electrolysis of copper sulphate

M OVIE 11.3 Application of electrolysis

Electroplating

80
 ACID BASE AND SALT

Learning Objectives :

• Students will learn about acid, base and salts

• Students will be able to differentiate between strong and weak
acids
• Students will be able to explain about pH and pOH
• students will be able to explain why insect bite stings
• students will be able to write neutralisation reaction
• students will be able to explain day to day life application of
neutralisation reactions
• students will be able to form soluble and insoluble salts in
laboratory
• The word acid was originally used for substances which
are sour in taste like in vinegar, lemon or citrus food M OVIE 12.1 Acids in daily life
• These are acids present in plants or animals and hence
are known as organic acids
• Acids are corrosive in nature. They are so powerful they can
eat away surface of skin, clothes, metals also .Such powerful
acids are known as mineral acids
• Organic acids:
1. Ethanoic acid – CH3COOH – Weak - in vinegar
2. Methanoic acid – HCOOH – Weak- In ants and stings of
some insects
3. Lactic acid - C3H6O3- Found in milk – Weak acid
4. Citric acid – C6H8O7- Weak – Citrus fruits
• Mineral acids

1. Carbonic acid – H2CO3 – Weak- soft drinks

2. HCl - dilute acid of stomach, cleaning metals
3. H2SO4 – car batteries, used in making fertilisers
,detergents
4. HNO3- fertiliser , explosive
5. H3P04- anti rust, fertilisers.
Why some acids are strong and some are weak?
Acidity or basicity is related to dissociation of H+ (H3O+) or
OH- ions in the water (solution). Strong acid like HCl
dissociates or breaks completely in water and liberates H+ ions
and hence they are strong acid. While the weak acid cannot
dissociate completely some remain dissociated and hence
large number of H+ not released similarly NaOH is strong
The world of acids
Strength of acids - pH
• Strength of acid or base can be measured in terms of PH
which is power of Hydrogen or Potenz of Hydrogen
• Sorenson gave the term PH
• Higher the concentration of H+ stronger is the acid same
for Base higher concentration of OH ion stronger the base
•A pH value is a number from 1 to 14, with 7 as the middle
(neutral) point. Values below 7 indicate acidity which increases
as the number decreases, 1 being the most acidic. Values
above 7 indicate alkalinity which increases as the number
increases, 14 being the most alkaline
82
 Let’s have fun : pH analysis of different brands of
cold drinks
• pH values helps us to find out whether a particular
substance is acidic or alkali
• Global soft drink market has shown sudden boom in last
decade
• young generation specially teens are more prone to have
soft drinks without realising that pH of most of the brands
of cold drink is so acidic that it can even damage your
stomach wall and cause tooth decay. some cold drinks are
acidic to the extent that they can be used as toilet cleaners.
M OVIE 12.2 Analysis of different brands of cold drinks
Criterion - D
Task: You will have an opportunity to research how scientific
investigations can help in identifying the harmful effects of
cold drinks and use this knowledge to spread the awareness in
the community.
Problem :
Soft drink is a drink which usually contains carbonated water
and sweetener. The global carbonated soft drink market is
steadily rising and is expected to increase at the rate of 5.62%
during the period 2017-21. These sugary drinks are heavily
promoted amongst youth and children through various
promotional activities and campaign. Huge amount is spent
on Branding and packaging so as to attract more customers.
One trend in the market is rise of super- premium drinks.
Premiumization of soft drinks is one of the important factors
driving the sales of global soft drinks market. The demand for
premium products is increasing in tandem with the
flourishing economic conditions. A greater number of
consumers are looking for high-quality, authentic, and more
sophisticated drink experiences. This has led to an increase in
the consumption of mocktails, cocktails, and other mixers.
Thus, premiumization has helped to increase the on-trade
sales of soft drink
83
However there is another side of the glitz and glory. The
magic of the fizz seems to sooth nerves and mind but at the
cost of health and well-being. There are several side effects of
having cold drinks as they are loaded with sweeteners.
Task:
• As science student analysis different brands of cold
drinks with regard to presence of phosphate, glucose,
sucrose, alcohol and acid content.
• Research on the Global soft drink market and sudden
boom it has witnessed in the last decade also highlight about
harmful effects of cold drinks
Indicators
• Discuss and document social, economical ,and
Are the substances which shows different colour in acidic
environmental impact of consumption of these sugar loaded
and basic medium and thus they help in detecting presence
beverages.
of acid or base
• Using appropriate scientific language write your
• Red cabbage, flowers, litmus from lichen plant are
research findings on the above aspects.
examples of natural indicators
• Document the sources used for research completely using
• There are synthetic indicator like methyl orange and
in text citation (MLA-8) and Bibliography at the end.
phenolphthalein They are also known as PH indicator
• With the help of knowledge of chemistry analyse different
• The color change of a pH indicator is caused by the
brands of cold drink to find out the sugar, phosphate,
dissociation of the H+ ion from the indicator itself. Recall
alcohol, sucrose content in them. Write your results in form
that pH indicators are not only natural dyes but also weak
of observation table
acids. The dissociation of the weak acid indicator causes the
Explain role of science to spread the awareness about the
solution to change colour
harmful effect of cold drinks and sensitizing community to
• Their colour change in acidic or basic medium is shown
avoid having cold drinks.
below in the diagram.
• Explain social and economic implications of the solution
science provides for the problem
• Write advantages and disadvantages of the solutions to the
problem
84

• Litmus or above indicators shows whether a substance is
acidic or basic but they cannot tell whether weak or strong
since they do not show colour change over a range. For this
universal indicators are used
• Universal indicator can show us exactly how strongly acidic
or alkaline a solution is. This is measured using the pH scale.
The pH scale runs from pH 0 to pH 14. Universal indicator
has many different colour changes, from red for strong acids
to dark purple for strong bases
Acid Base Indicators
Acidic reactions of everyday life
1. Acidity and neutralisation – Dil HCl in our stomach
helps in digestion of food. However excess acid cause
indigestion which can be painful and result in ulcer. To ease
this we take an antacid
2. Antacid are group of compounds with no toxic effect on
body. They are used to neutralise effect of acidity. E.g milk of
magnesia
85
which is common in most antacid is made up of base magnesium
hydroxide M OVIE 12.3 Importance of soil pH

Soil PH and Plant Growth

Describe and explain importance of controlling acidity in soil

If the soil is too acidic, then plants ability to absorb nutrients becomes
weak , which may result the stunted growth or yellowing of leaves in
plant. Acid rain, fertilisers can be cause of acidity of soil.

In order to neutralise acidity of soil liming is carried out

The pH of soil can be increased by liming. This is why people

sometimes spread white powder on their lawns or gardens. This white
powder is lime. Calcitic limestone (CaCO3 ) provides a good source of
Calcium (Ca) and helps neutralise soil acidity.

Dolomitic limestone functions similarly but also adds Magnesium (Mg).

The best limestone will have the greatest calcium and magnesium
content and will be ground into very tiny particles.

The smaller particles allow the limestone to correct soil acidity more
rapidly.

The chemistry to liming is quite simple.

Hydrogen ions (H ) are attracted to soil and organic material which

have a negative + charge.

When lime is applied, these hydrogen ions are exchanged for calcium or
magnesium (Ca or Mg ) ions which are alkaline earth metals having
basic nature

This also helps to increase the pH. This reaction demonstrates the
process of liming

86
2. Acid reacts with carbonates to form salt, water and liberate What are oxides?
carbon dioxide Oxides are compound containing oxygen along with other elements
3. Reaction of acid with base to form salt and water is known
Neutralisation reaction METAL OXIDE - BASIC
4. Hard water consist of calcium and magnesium ions. When • When metal are reacted with oxygen they form metal oxide. The
the water is boiled calcium carbonate is formed . This is metal top of reactivity series reacts vigorously forming metal oxide e.g
known as limescale and mostly formed in vessels can be when you burn magnesium ribbon in flame and put in jar of oxygen it
removed by treatment with acid which react with carbonates burns with white flame leaving white ash knows as magnesium oxide
. It removes limescale but not damage kettles • 2Mg + O2 ---- 2Mgo
5. When we eat sugary food the PH of the mouth drops and • Mostly metal burning in oxygen gives solid product
becomes acidic. The PH of sugar solution is 7 however • When these metal oxide are dissolved in water they turn red litmus
bacteria in mouth breaks it down to form acid like lactic blue. That is they form basic oxides.
acid. Tooth decay starts if the pH drops below 5.8. To prevent • Mgo + H2O - Mg (OH)2
this it is recommended to do the brush after eating sweet as • These basic oxides can react with acids and neutralise it
the toothpaste have alkaline PH and they help to bring up the • Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl --- Mg Cl2 +2 H20
PH. The PH of saliva is also alkaline 7.4 so it counterattacks Base + acid --------- Salt + Water
the acid and thus prevents tooth decay
6. Effluent and waste treatment [cao, Mgo, cuo, K2o, Na2O, Feo, Fe2O3]
Liquid waste from factories is often acidic. If such waste gets in
to river it may kill aquatic life in same way when toxic gases NON METAL OXIDE - ACIDIC
like SO2 liberated from chimney may pollute air. To prevent
this slake like [ Ca(OH)2} added or sprayed which wil • Non metals like carbon and sulphur when burnt in oxygen supply
neutralise acid. forms non metallic oxide
7. Metal + acid ---- Salt + Hydrogen • C+ O2 ---- CO2
Mg + 2HCl ---------- MgCl2 + H2( Hydrogen gas with • S+ 02 --- So2
Pop sound) • These oxides when slightly dissolved in water form acidic oxides
• E.g CO2 + H20 --- H2CO3
• SO3 + H2O --- H2SO4
• NO2 + H20—HNO3
87
Making salt from soluble base

NaoH + HCl ----- NaCl + H2O

In the above case there is no gas bubbling off so how do we

know as whether reaction is complete and whether salt is
formed? This is done by carrying out titration.

In titration acid is slowly added to base in presence of

Indicator like phenolphthalein. The indicator changes colour
from pink to colourless once reaction is complete and salt is
formed. From burette reading you can know how much of acid
is actually required to neutralize base. Now you add that much
amount to the base without indicator and then finally heat the
88
MAKING INSOLUBLE SALT BY PRECIPITATION

e.g BaCl2 + MgSO4 --------- Ba SO4 + MgCl2

89
Chemical analysis and investigations
Test for cations:
1. Flame Test
• Substance + 2-3 drops of Conc HCl. Dip platinum wire in
the paste and put in the oxidizing flame to observe the colour of
the flame. Group I and II – Alkaline and alkaline earth metal
give characteristic flame as the outer electron gets excited to
higher energy level.
• Only HCl is used as the metallic chlorides are very much
volatile. When heated in the flame the elements of the metals
of the compounds become excited and go to higher energy
levels. ... As a result flames of different colors are formed for
different metals.
• Following are the characteristic colour flames given by
this group metals

2.Test for cations - Formation of precipitates

• Substance + Sodium Hydroxide solution + Ammonia
solution ---- Different coloured PPT obtained. On the basis of
the colour of PPT you can identify cations.
• Reason : metal ion reacts with NaOH to form precipitate
of metal hydroxide e.g Cu+2 +2 NaOH ---- Cu(OH)2 +
2Na
• If metal can form soluble complex with ammonia solution 90
C HAPTER 13

Polymer
M OVIE 13.1 The world of polymers

Polymer is a giant molecule formed by combination of large

number of monomer units- creative comments
W HA T IS POLYMERISATION ?

• Polymer is a giant molecule formed by combination of

millions of repeat unit called monomers
• The process by which monomers add to form polymer is
known as polymerisation
• When monomers are of same kind it is known as
homopolymers e.g poly ethylene. When monomers of different
kind it is known as co polymer e.g styrene Butadiene Polymer

M OVIE 13.2

How monomers add in Addition Polymerisation?- creative

comments
92
condensation Polymerisation Let’s Revise

• When monomers just dont add to form polymers but there Smaller molecules are eliminated in?
is elimination of smaller molecules like H2O, CO2 etc- the
technique is condensation polymerisation.

A. Addition

B. Condensation

C. None

Check Answer

M OVIE 13.3 Condensation Polymer

93
M OVIE 13.4

Biomolecule - Protein

94
Polyester - Condensation Polymer M OVIE 13.5 Bio Polymer

95
Addition Polymers

When monomers just add to form polymer the technique is known as addition
polymerisation

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Boiling Point

The temperature at which liquid changes phase to gaseous state is its Boiling point

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Brownian motion

The erratic random motion due to collision of molecules amongst each other

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Catenation

The ability of carbon to bond with other carbon atom due to tetravalency is known as
catenation

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Condensation Polymerisation

When there is removal of small molecules like H2O, CO2 , the technique is known as
condensation polymerisation

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Coordinate Bond

When both the atom achieves stability by sharing the electrone donated by one atom
the bond formed is known as coordinate bond

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Covalent bond

Bond formed by sharing of electron is known as covalent bond

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Diffusion

The random kinetic motion of particles is known as diffusion

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Fractional Distillation

Method used to separate mixture of liquids having boiling point difference less then
25 degree celsius .

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Global Warming

Global warming is the increase of the temperature of the earth due to the increase of
levels of greenhouse gases.

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Groups

Vertical columns in periodic table . The elements in the same group have same valency

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Ionic Bond

Bond formed where one atom donates electrone and other atom accepts electrone is
ionic bond

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Kinetic Energy

The energy possessed by any body in motion is known as kinetic energy

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Melting Point

The temperature at which a solid changes to liquid state is known as melting point

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Metallic Bond

The bond formed between positive kernel and mobile electrone is known as metallic
bond

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Metallic properties

The tendency of an element to donate electrone and behave as metal

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Organic compounds

Compounds of carbon and Hydrogen are known as organic compound

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Periods

Horizontal rows in periodic table where elements are arranged in increasing order of
the atomic number

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Pollution

Pollution is the presence of harmful substances. Air pollution is the presence of

pollutant gases in the air

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Polymer

When several small molecules called monomer joins by covalent bond forming long
chain compounds known as polymers

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Sublimation

The change of phase of substance directly from solid to gaseous state is sublimation

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Tetravalency

Carbon atom having four electrone in outermost shell can form long chain covalent
bond with other carbon atom having similar configuration. This is known as
tetravelncy

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The rain water getting polluted due to presence of nitric acid and sulphuric acid in it due to
environmental pollution

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Valency

The number of electrone in outermost shell is the valency

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Bibliography
Bishop, Steve, and Steve Bishop. “Steve Bishop.” Slideshare, www.slideshare.net/sbishop2/c21-structure-and-bonding.

“Chemical Analysis.” Online Math Learning.Com, 2017, www.onlinemathlearning.com/chemical-analysis.html.

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