Suez University

Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Eng..

Dept. of Metallurgy & Materials Eng.

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

Drills & Lab
3rd year

Student Name : …………………………………

Section : …………………………………

1 1
Sheet 1
1. The following data were obtained in a tensile test using a 15 mm
diameter mild steel specimen with a 50 mm gauge length:

Load Length Load Length Load Length

kN mm kN mm kN mm
42.05 51.18 59.98 55.50 70.74 68.78
41.85 51.59 62.28 56.29 70.55 71.12
47.43 52.37 63.77 57.05 68.95 71.52
51.32 53.16 64.86 57.83 58.69 72.31
54.80 53.92 66.16 58.62 48.33 72.64
57.59 54.71 69.35 61.95

i) Plot the stress-strain curve in terms of true stress and

logarithmic strain .
ii) What would be the yield stress of this material after 20%
reduction of area?
iii) Find the strain hardening index and the strength coefficient
of the stress-strain equation.
iv) From the data of the maximum load point deduce the stress-
strain equation and draw the theoretical curve.
v) What is the maximum error in the theoretical values.

2. The following data were obtained in plane-strain compression

tests on (1) annealed and (2) 41% cold rolled 60/40 brass. The
platens were 5.0 mm broad and were well lubricated. The initial
dimensions of the test piece were chosen to be about 40 mm wide
and 5 mm thick.

Load Thickness Width Load Thickness Width

kN mm mm kN mm mm
Annealed 40/60 brass 41%Cold rolled 40/60 brass
0 5.00 39.4 0 5.61 36.3
5 5.00 39.4 75 5.59 36.3
50 4.88 39.4 120 5.46 36.3
70 4.62 39.4 130 5.05 36.5
80 4.47 39.4 135 4.60 36.5
89 4.29 39.4 140 4.04 36.6
100 4.09 39.6 145 3.43 36.6
120 3.61 39.6 150 2.51 37.1
149 2.51 40.1 170 1.30 38.1

2 2
175 1.17 41.4
199 0.66 42.2

i) Plot the stress-strain curves of these specimens using true

stress and (a) nominal strain,
ii) logarithmic strain.
iii) What is the yield stress of the material after 80% reduction
of area?
iv) How could the accuracy of the results be improved?

3 3
Sheet 2
1. In a plane-stress system x = 750 N/mm2, y = 150
N/mm2, z = 0 and xy =150 N/mm2. What are the
magnitudes and directions of the principal stresses?

2. Show that the normal stress on the planes of

maximum shear is equal to the mean of the principal
stresses
i) from first principles
ii) by constructing the Mohr circle

3. A compressive stress of 150 N/mm2 is applied

between opposite faces of a 250 mm steel cube.
Determine the normal forces on the other two pairs of
faces that would prevent the cube from expanding by
more than 0-050 mm. For steel E = 207 kN/mm2,  =
0.3.

4. What are the directions and magnitudes of the

maximum shear stresses in Example 1?

5. If x = 450 N/mm2, y = 450 N/mm2, z = 0 and xy

=150 N/mm2, what are the principal stresses and the
maximum shear stresses?

6. If the stress system of Example 1 just causes yielding,

what is the uniaxial yield stress y of the material,
according to (a) the Tresca criterion, (b) the von
Mises criterion?

7. If the same material is used as in Example 6, would

the stress system of Example 5 cause plastic flow?
Would the material yield if x = 450 N/mm2, y = 450
N/mm2, z = 450 N/mm2 and xy = 150 N/mm2?

4 4
Sheet 3
1. A 1-in-diameter hot-rolled steel bar was tested in torsion, with
the following results:

Torque, in-lb Number of ¼ Torque, in-lb Number of ¼

turns of bar turns of bar
6700 1 10600 12
7400 2 11000 15
8200 3 11400 18
8700 4 11800 24
9100 5 12400 32
9700 7 12600 38
10200 9 12800 39

If the length of the bar between chucks is 18 in, determine

(a) shear stress-shear-strain curve;
(b) modulus of rupture;
(c) shear-stress-shear-strain curve corrected for inelastic strain.
(d) If the twisting moment at the yield point was 4,500 in-lb and the
angle of twist was 2.6°, determine the torsional yield stress and the
modulus of elasticity.
(e) What is Poisson's ratio if E== 29.0 x 106 psi?

2. The following data were obtained for the same low-carbon steel
when tested in tension and in torsion:
Tension Torsion
True normal stress, True strain Shear stress Shear strain
psi in./in, psi in./in.
55,000 0.05 24,000 0.05
63.000 0.10 30,000 0.10
73,000 0.20 36,000 0.20
80,000 0.30 39,000 0.30
85,000 0.40 41,000 0.40
90,000 0.50 42,000 0.50
95,000 0.60 44,000 0.60
100,000 0.70 45,000 0.70

5 5
 105,000 0.80 45,500 0.80
116,000 1.00 47,000 1.00
126,000 1.20 48,500 1.20
131,000 1.30 50,000 1.50

(a) Plot the tension stress-strain curve and the torsion stress-strain
curve on the same axis.
(b) Apply Bridgman's correction for necking to the tension data.
(c) Plot both tension and torsion data as significant stress and
significant strain.
(d) Plot both sets of data as maximum shear stress vs. maximum
shear strain. Explain why necking is observed in the tension test
of a ductile material but not in the torsion test of the same
material.

6 6
Sheet 4
1. Construct a three-dimensional plot showing the relationship
between stress, strain, and time, for T = ½Tm.

2. Assuming that the mechanical equation of state is completely

valid, show how creep curves could be constructed from
stress-strain curves.
3. The following rupture times were obtained for stress rupture
tests on a steel alloy:

Stress, psi Temperature, F Rupture, time, hr

80,000 1080 0.43

80,000 1030 6.1
80,000 1000 22.4
80,000 975 90.8
10,000 1400 1.95
10,000 1350 6.9
10,000 1300 26.3
10,000 1250 84.7

Establish the validity of the Larson-Miller parameters.

4. Steady-state creep rate can be expressed in

dimensionless form by

n'
 s     HkT( )
  e
 0   0 

where o is an arbitrarily chosen strain rate and 0 is an

experimentally determined constant. Apply this relationship to the
creep of a steel support rod in a boiler operating at 1000°F. The rod
is stressed in tension to 8,000 psi and its creep elongation must not
exceed 10 percent. Using the data given below, evaluate the
constants in the creep equation and estimate the lifetime of the rod.

7 7
 Creep rate for medium-
carbon steel.

1/T, R-1

5. The following data were obtained in creep tests at

1500°F on an austenitic high-temperature alloy.

Stress, psi x 103 Minimum creep

rate, %/h
10 0.00008
15 0.0026
20 0.025
30 2.0
40 30
50 320

Use these data to evaluate this equation:

  B n'

8 8
Experiment 1

Tensile Test of Materials

Objectives:
To conduct a tensile test on some engineering materials such
as aluminum, copper, brass, mild steel and other available
materials. Upon the completion of this experiment, student
will be able to carry out the tensile test and calculate the
required properties which may be used by designer or metal
forming engineer.

Theory:
In this test the ends of a test piece are fixed into grips
connected to a straining device. If the applied load is small
enough, the deformation of any solid is entirely elastic. An
elastically deformed solid will return to its origional form as
soon as the load is released. However, if the load is too large,
the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of
the tension curve, which is recoverable immediately upon
unloading, is termed elastic, and the rest of the curve, which
represents the manner in which solids undergo permanent
deformation, is termed plastic. Sometimes an intermediate
case is encountered, when the solif recovers, but not
immediate upon unloading. The behaviour in this case is
termed “anelastic”.

While an autographic recorder normally draws a load-

extension diagram, or more recently a load-extension or
stress-strain diagrams can be directly obtained when using
computerized machien, for teaching purposes it is better to
draw a stress-strain diagram by using the following equations:

load F
engineering stress = S = = 1.1
area Ao

extension l 1  lo
engineering strain = e = = 1.2
Gauge. length lo

9 9
During plastic deformation of the test specimen there are two
opposing factors that determine the load required for a given
extension on deformation. The first is the strain hardening
which evidently leads to an increase of load and the second in
the decrease in area of cross-section as the specimen
elongates, which leads to a decrease of load. At small
extensions, strain hardening dominates and the load increases.
However, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot
compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load
passes through a maximum and then gegins to decrease. At
this stage the “engineering stress”, reaches a maximum
value.This value of stress in known as “ultimate tensile
strength”. The peak in the load-extension curve is obtained on
account of local weakness or stress concentration in some part
of the specimen. Possible causes of local weakness are local
increase in temperature due to adiabatic heating during
deformation, cavities and inclusions. Stress concentrations can
occur from nonuniform loading or nonuniform geometry.
Under the applied load the weaker portion of the specimen
will elongate to a greater extend than the rest of the specimen.
This will tend to decrease the area and thus increase the stress
in that region so that further elongation will occur in the
thinner portion resulting in a “neck” in the specimen. This is
called a point of instability and is followed by rapid and
catastrophic decrease in cross-sectional area leading to failure.
Necking is characteristic of ductile metals during tensile test.

As straining is increased beyond this point, elongation occurs

essentially in the neck. The cross-sectional area decreases
rapidly, under ever-decreasing load. Strain hardening
continuous up to the point of rupture but ordinary stress-strain
curves for ductile materials do not display this beyond
ultimate tensile strength. Conversely, it suggests work
softening. Therefore, ordinary stress-strain curve is
misleading in this respect. This deficiency arises from the fact
that in ordinary stress-strain curves determinations the stress
is calculated by dividing the load by the initial cross-section
area, Equ. 1.1. Considering the important of the behaviour of

10 10
metals under tension for those industerial processes such as
wire drawing and deep drawing which depend on the response
to this kind of force. A better, and more accurate indication of
stress is given by true stress, :

applied load at any instant

true stress =  =
cross  sectional area at that instant

Whilst applied load can be readily determined at any instant, a

measurement of the cross-sectional area is far more difficult.
It is, however, possible to obtain this information in another
way.
F
S=
Ao
F
= 1.3
Ai
where F is the applied force at any instant. Ao the origional
cross-sectional area of the tensile specimen and Ai its cross-
sectional area at any instant.

also engineering strain

l l
e= i o
lo
and true strain
l l
= i o
li
where lo is the original gauge length of the tensile specimen
and li is the length at any instant after deformation. Where the
change of dimension is so small that the instantaneous length
can be considered constant, then

dl
d = when dl  0
l
and for a finite increment of deformation
li li
dl li
 =  d =  = ln ( )
lo lo
l lo

11 11
It is possible to derive a relation between nominal stress and
strain and true stress and strain.
 = ln ( 1+e ) 1.4
 = S ( 1+e ) 1.5
Having construct the nominal stress-strain curve for a metal it
is possible to construct the true stress-strain curve from
equations 1.4 and 1.5.

Equipments:
Specimens of commercial pure aluminum, mild steel ( or
medium carbon steel ) and brass, universal tensile testing
machine, vainer, divider and ruler.

Procedures:
In this experiment a tensile specimen will be tested using
computerized Instron machine type 4208. In order to operate
the machine follow the instructions in the operating manual.

1. Determine the gauge length and diameter of the specimen.

2. Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine.
3. Set the zero point for extension of the test machine, see the
operating manual.
4. Calibrate the load cell of the test machine, see the operating
manual.
5. Begin the test and the load versus extension wil be
transmitted to the computer and the graph will be displayed on
the screen. During the initial stages of plastic deformation the
load rises rapidly. Later on when necking is approaching,
there is a large amount of extension for small increase in the
applied load.
6. Continue the test till fracture occurs. At fracture the
machine will stopped automatically and both the load-
extension graph and the tensile test results will displayed on
the screen.
7. Remove the broken halves of the specimen from the
machine. By joining them together, the final length and
diameter of the specimen can be measured.
8. Get a computer print of load-extension data.

12 12
Observations:
 Record the data in the following table.
Material: .......................................
Original dimensions:
Length................thickness.......width.........
Final dimensions:
Length................thickness.......width.........

L S N/mm2 l e mm/mm  
KN 2
mm N/mm mm/mm

 Calculate per cent elongation at fracture, per cent reduction

in area at fracture, yield strength (or 0.1% proof strength) and
ultimate tensile strength for the given material.
 Plot both nominal stress-strain and true stress-true strain
curves for the given material.
 Calculate the modulus of elasticity with the help of stress-
strain diagram.

Questions:
1. Explain the absence of a pronounced yield point in
aluminum specimen.
How does the presence of carbon influence the strength of
steels?
2. Why does a material harden on deformation?
3. What is the effect of grain size on the tensile strength of a
material? Explain.
4. Can you calculate the work done in deforming a specimen
with the help of available tensile data?
5. Two mild-steel specimens are plastically deformed
followed by the removal of the applied load. One specimen is
re-tested immediately and the other after heat-treatment for 1
hr at 150 C, what differences in stress-strain curve would you
expects to observe? Explain.

13 13
Experiment two

Compression Test

Objectives:
In compression tests the maximum shear stresses exceed
appreciably the maximum normal compression stresses ( max
/ Smax = 2 ). For this reason compression, uniaxial or three-
dimensional, is the most gental way of loading.

Compression test is very suitable for brittle materials which

break almost without plastic deformation, and therefore,
without expansion ( formation of a barrel ), in particular for
tool steels with a high hardness number ( when their yield
strength must be determined ), for white and low plastic grey
cast irons, components produced from metal powders ( i.e. by
powder metallurgy ) and also non-metallic materials such as
concrete, mineral rocks and wood.
Four common difficulties are met in compression testing:
1. the difficulty of applying a truly axial load due to centering
and aligning problems.
2. the restriction of lateral expansion by frictional forces
acting at the interface between anvil and the specimen-ends
which causes barrelling.
3. the tendency of the specimen to bukle under load. This
compression instability is largely overcome by using
specimens with a length-to-diameter ratio which does not
exceed 3:1.
4. specimens with larger diameters than are used for tensile
tests are required and these required greater loads.

Compression test are less suitable for plastic materials as they

cannot determine sufficiently the effect of material structure
on the mechanical properties. In addition, specimens of these
materials strongly deform, become barrel-shaped, and turnout
to be under conditions of non-uniform three-dimensional
compression, which complicates still more the determination
of their mechanical properties. Witha further increase in the
load, the specimens flatten, which in many cases makes it

14 14
impossible to break them and determine the ultimate strength
and the total plasticity. On other hand, the strength of plastic
materials in compression differs only slightly from that in
tension.

The usual test results quoted are the proportional limit stress
for ductile materials and the compressive strength for brittle
materials, these properties being defined in the same way as
the corresponding terms in tensile testing.

h1  ho h1
ecomp = = 1 - ve because h1 < ho
ho ho
 h1 
comp = ln   = ln [ 1 + ecomp ] - ve as above
 ho 
this can lead to confusion in the study of those mechanical
working processes which depend on compression such as
rolling, forging and extrusion, and it is normal to reverse the
convention, so that compressive strain are positive.

h1  ho h1
ec = = 1
ho ho
In metal-working processes the amount of deformation is not
normally given as strain but rather as the fractional or
percentage reduction in height, thickness or crosssectional
area,
Ao  A1
i.e. r=
Ao
Ao  A1
or R= x 100,
Ao
A1
r = 1
Ao
A1
or 1-r=
Ao
but since Ao lo = A1 lo
lo
then 1-r=
l1

15 15
 lo 1
 = ln = ln
l1 1 r

The following table shows values of strain for different values

of deformation:

e  r
10% elongation + 0.1 0.095 0.1
10% reduction - 0.1 -0.104 -0.11
Doubling length + 1.0 + 0.693 + 0.5
Halving height - 0.5 - 0.693 -1
Compression to zero - 1.0 ---

Equipment :
Copper (fcc), mild steel (bcc) and zinc (hcp) , ductile
specimens, and cast iron, brittle specimen, preferably
cyliderical, 10 mm diameter and height-diameter ratio
between 1.6 and 2.0. Four copper specimens in cubic shap
with 1 cm length. Universal testing machine and venire.

Proceddure :

1. Polish the specimens using emery paper up to grite 600.

2. Using graphite grease as a lubricant between the specimen
surface and the machine anvil .
3. Put the first specimen in the machine, see appendix A.
4. Start the test and measure the diameter of the specimens at
5% reduction in height intervals up to 50% reduction in height
or failure. At the end of the test save the obtained data.
5. Repeat operations 2-4 on specimens of mild steel, cast iron
and zinc.

Observations :
 Record the data in the following table.
Material:.......................................

16 16
Original dimensions: height..........mm diameter............mm
Final dimensions: height..........mm diameter ............mm

L  R  D diameter ratio
2
KN N/mm mm mm
mm/mm

 Calculate per cent reduction at fracture, per cent increase in

diameter at fracture, proportional limit strength ( or 0.1%
proof strength ) for un failed specimens ( ductile materials )
and the compressive strength for the failed specimens ( brittle
materials ).
 Plot the compressive stress-strain curves for the given
material.
 Calculate the diameter ratio and plot the height strain
against the diameter ratio. Determine the slop of the obtained
line.

17 17
Experiment three

Mechanical behavior of metals

Objectives:
To study the deformation behavior of fcc, bcc and hcp metals.

Theory :
In experiment one both elastic and plastic deformation terms
were explained. Plastic deformation is distinguished from
elastic deformation in that it is non-recoverable on the release
of load.

Plastic deformation can occur by:

i) slip, ii) twinning, iii)grain boundary sliding, and
iv) Nabarro-Herring creep.

Slip is the most important mechanism of crystal deformation.

Slip occurs most readily in specific directions on certain
crystallographioc planes Table 3.1. If a material subjected to
tensile or compressive load large enough to cause plastic
deformation, surface examination under the optical
microscope reveals a series of lines arising from steps on the
surface.

Table 3.1 Slip planes and slip directions for some

common types of structure

structure slip plane slip

direction
fcc {111} <110>
bcc {101} <111>
{112} <111>
hcp (0001) <1120>
{1010} <1120>

18 18
In fcc metals the slip plane {111} is the plane of greatest
atomic density and the direction of the nearest neighbor atoms
is the slip direction. Since the closest packed planes are also
the most widely spaced set of planes the resistance to slip is
comparatively less for these planes. Since there are four
{111} planes and each plane contain three <110> slip
direction there are 12 possible slip systems. The slip lines in
fcc crystals are straight, indicating that the lines are produced
by a glide on a single plane. Since slip results from the
dislocation movement, the slip lines will be straight if the
dislocations do not cross-slip frequently to other slip planes.
Cross-slip is a process whereby a moving screw dislocation
gilds into another slip plane having a slip direction in common
with the original slip plane. Cross-slip occurs easily in metals
with a high stacking fault energy because the partial
dislocations constituting a screw dislocation should constrict
over a minimum critical length before cross slip occurs. The
stacking fault energy of bcc metals is very high, therefore
screw dislocations freely cross-slip from one plane to another
sharing a common zone axis. This results in wavy slip traces
in these metals.

Equipment :
Four copper specimens (fcc), mild steel (bcc) and zinc (hcp)
in cubic shap with 1 cm length preferably cylindrical, 10 mm
diameter and height-diameter ratio between 1 and 1.6.
Universal testing machine and vernire.

Procedure :
1. Ground and polish the one side of the cubic copper
specimens as prepared for metallographic observations.
2. Measure the hardness of one of the cubic copper
specimens.
3. Examine the microstructure of the polished surfaces using
metalographic microscope
4. Using graphite grease as a lubricant between the specimen
surface and the machine anvil .
5. Put one of the copper specimen in the machine in such a
way that the polished surface is not in contact with the anvil

19 19
and deform the specimen approximately 10% in compression,
see appendix A.
6. One specimen of copper is lightly etched and operation 5 is
repeated to observe the change in deformed structures from
grain to grain.
7. Repeat operation 5 on specimens of mild steel and zinc.
8. The remaining two specimens of copper are deformed 25
% and 50% respectively.
9. Examine the microstructure of the polished surfaces of the
deformed specimens using.
10.Measure the hardness of the deformed copper specimens.

Observations :
1. Examine the strain marks formed on the etched
surfaces of deformed material.
2. Compare between the deformation mechanisms
operated in each material.
3. Plot the stress-strain and the hardness-strain diagrams.

Questions:
1. Discuss the mechanical behaviour of each material.
2. Calculate the work hardening rate of each material after
strain of 0.20, 0.25, 0.30 and 0.35.
3. Dose the work hardening rate of each material increase,
decrease or unchanged with strain? Why?

20 20
Experiment 4
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth

Object
 Using scanning differential calorimetry to detect the
stored energy during cold working.
 Investigated the effect of recovery, recrystallization,
and grain growth on microstructure and mechanical properties
of commercially pure copper.

Theory
A small percentage of the energy expended in plastically
deforming a material remains stored in the metal as an
increase in internal energy. This increment in internal energy
is associated with lattice defects such as vacancies,
interstitials, dislocations, and stacking faults, generated during
the deformation. The distribution of dislocations through the
bulk of the metal is very in-homogeneous and consists of
relatively strain-free cells in which the dislocation density is
low, separated by boundary regions of high dislocation
density in which the dislocations are arranged in tightly
packed tangles.

There may be many of these cells in each grain. If the

deformation occurs at a sufficiently low temperature, many
dislocation tangles will be retained in the material. The
processes of recovery and recrystallization can occur in such
materials during further working or on heating. These are
thermally activated mechanisms, usually depending upon
atomic diffusion, which repair the structural damage caused
by mechanical deformation.
Recovery involves changes in the number and distribution of
point defects and dislocations. At low temperatures this is
generally caused by the clustering of point defects like
vacancies and interstitials, and migration of point defects to
dislocations, grain boundaries, and external surfaces. At
sufficiently high temperature, the dislocations may eventually
gain appreciable mobility and move by both glide and climb
to relieve the internal strains. The tangled dislocations in the

21 21
walls of the cells that formed during deformation rearrange
themselves. The dislocations climb out of their slip planes
with the aid of vacancies (Fig. 1), and some dislocations of
opposite sign annihilate each other. The cell walls become
more clearly defined and are called sub-boundaries.
Throughout this process the dislocation density in the interior
of the cells decreases. During the later stages of recovery, the
cells increase slightly in size. Small changes in hardness,
which are sometimes observed during recovery, can be due to
decrease in dislocation and point defect density and to growth
of subgrains.

If increased thermal activation is available (i.e., if the

temperature is raised), further decrease in the free energy of
the material can be brought about by the formation of new
strain-free grains. This process is termed recrystallization.
These grains initially form in regions where the local degree
of deformation is highest. Such sites include grain boundaries,
sub-boundaries, deformation bands, twin intersections, and
free surfaces. If inclusions or precipitates are present, they
may also act as preferential sites for the nucleation of new
grains. These new grains grow at the expense of the deformed
structure until the whole matrix has been consumed. The
process occurs either by migration of original grain
boundaries or by subgrain growth. The recrystallized matrix
has much lower dislocation density than the deformed
material. The driving force for boundary migration is the
decrease in free energy resulting from the decrease in the
density of imperfections. Above a minimum critical strain the
rate of formation of recrystallization nuclei increases sharply
with increasing strain.

Figure 1 An edge dislocation climbs out of its

slip plane with the aid of vacancies.
Atom • Vacancy o

The lowest temperature at which stress-free grains appear in

22 22
the structure of a previously plastically deformed metal is
termed the recrystallization temperature. This depends upon
the grain size, the severity of plastic deformation, and the
presence of solute atoms or second phase particles.
If a recrystallized material is further annealed at the same
temperature, or at a higher temperature, grain growth usually
occurs. Boundaries between annealed grains migrate and
larger grains grow by consuming smaller ones, which
disappear. Grain growth depends upon the fact that the grain
boundary energy of the material is reduced due to the decrease
in grain boundary area for a given volume of the material. In
the absence of complicating factors, e.g., second phase
particles, this energy reduction leads to a relationship
governing grain growth which can be expressed as

Dt –D0 =Ktn 1
where
Dt is the average grain diameter after time t
D0 is the initial grain diameter
K is a constant
The value of n is experimentally observed to be  ½.

The presence of precipitates or inclusions drastically reduces

the grain growth. The particles have a pinning effect on the
grain boundaries.
During grain growth a curved grain boundary usually migrates
towards its center of curvature. This is in the opposite
direction to that usually observed in recrystallization. When
grain boundaries in a single phase meet at angles other than
120°, the grains included by the more acute angle will be
consumed, and all angles approach 120° during the grain
growth. When grain shapes in actual specimens are studied
metallographically it is often seen that the approach is not
very close.
Since dislocation density increases on plastic deformation,
dislocation-dislocation interactions occur more readily in
deformed materials. The motion of dislocations, therefore,
requires larger applied stress in specimens which have higher
dislocation density. Thus cold work increases the hardness of

23 23
a material. Since recovery and recrystallization involve a
reduction in density of imperfections, these processes are
generally accompanied by a decrease in hardness of the
material. In polycrystalline materials, the grain boundaries
also offer resistance to the motion of dislocation. The size of
the grains can thus markedly affect the mechanical properties
and grain growth softens the material. Hall and Fetch have
found that
y = o.+Kd-1/2
where
y is the lower yield stress
O and K are constants, characteristic of the material and
d is the average grain diameter.
The effect of annealing a plastically deformed metal on its
grain size, internal stress, and strength is shown in Fig. 2.

Equipment
Six specimens of commercially pure copper (approximately 1
cm diameter, 1 cm long). Two furnaces for annealing at 400°
C and 800°C. Boiling water bath at 100°C. Hardness testing
machine. Polishing equipment. Metallurgical microscope.

Recovery Recrystallization Grain growth

Annealing temperature

Figure 2 The effect of recovery, recrystallization, and grain

growth on grain size, internal stress, and strength of a
plastically deformed material

Procedure:
1. You are given six specimens of commercially pure

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 copper in cold-worked state. These specimens have
undergone the following heat-treatment and
mechanical working:
The specimens were annealed in a furnace at 800°C for 1
hr. Then they were taken out of the furnace and allowed to
cool in air. The annealed specimens were given two
different per cent reductions by cold working (plastic
deformation at room temperature) by rolling or forging.
2. Specimen 1 should be annealed for 2 hr at 800°C.
3. Specimens 2, 3. 4, and 5 should be annealed at 400°C for
10 min, 30 min, 1 hr and 2 hr respectively.
4. While specimens 1 to 5 are being annealed, the specimen
6 is polished. Measure its hardness and examine the
microstructure.
5. After metallographic examination, anneal specimen 6 at
100°C for 2hr.
6. After the specified times the samples should be removed
from the furnace (or boiling water bath) and allowed to
cool in air.
7. When the specimens have been cooled, measure their
hardness and examine their microstructures.
Examine cold specimen at DTA up to 800C at heating rate of
20C/min.

Observations
Record the hardness of specimens after different annealing
treatments.

Hardness of deformed specimen

Specimen No Annealing Annealing Hardness
Temperature, C Time, min. HRA

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