Minerals

Chapter 2
Learning Goals
• Define a mineral
• Describe the atomic structure and bonding of
common minerals
• Categorize minerals based on composition
• Explain some mechanisms of formation
• Describe some techniques for identification
and the relationships between
• physical properties of minerals
• internal crystal structure
• identification

2
Definitions
Mineral:
1. Naturally occurring
2. Defined chemical composition
3. Repeating three-dimensional structure
4. Inorganic
5. crystalline solid

E.g., quartz, pyrite

Mineral vs Rock
• A rock is a consolidated aggregate of one or more
minerals
Granite (rock)

Quartz Hornblende Feldspar

Naturally Occurring
• Diamonds can be artificially made by growing them in
the lab
• Therefore natural diamonds are minerals, whereas lab
made diamonds are not
Repeating 3D Structure

• Repeating ordered arrangement

• 3D structure repeats to make a crystal

• No ordered arrangement of atoms = not mineral

• 3D structure does not repeat
• The 3D structure that repeats is known as a crystal
lattice.
• The lattice give minerals important properties such as
hardness
Graphite and Diamond are both pure carbon ( C ) yet
they are on opposite ends of the hardness scale. This
is a consequence of the different crystal structures
Crystal lattices also determine how a mineral grows
and breaks. The right angles in the lattice of halite
(NaCl) influences how the crystal grow into cubic
shapes.
Mineraloid
• Does not have a repeating 3D crystal structure
• Amorphous, not crystalline

Opal has ordered layers of silica pearls, but these are

not crystal structures
 Obsidian

• Obsidian and Opal

are mineral-like but
can not be classified
as such because
they do not have
ordered internal
crystal structures
• These solids are
amorphous not
crystalline

Opal
Atomic Structures and Bonding
Minerals ← Element ← Atom
← Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons
Types of Bonding in Minerals
In ionic bonds, one ion
donates one or more electrons
to an ion of opposite charge
Types of Bonding in Minerals
• Covalent bonds -
adjacent ions share
one or more
electrons

• (makes strong
bonds)

• e.g., diamond
Other Types of Bonding in Minerals
• Metallic – a weak covalent bond; occurs
in metallic elements, where outer
electrons travel freely between
adjacent atoms
• Van der Waals - weak bonds between
slightly polarized atoms
• Why is bonding important?
• Different types of bonds lead to
different physical properties - used to
identify minerals, and their properties
make minerals useful to society
 • In graphite the carbon
atoms within the sheets
are covalently bonded
• The individual sheets
are held together by Van
der Waals bonds which
are very weak

• Metallic bonds give

metals such as gold and
copper high ductility,
conductivity, and high
melting points
• The bonding properties of
diamond make it harder than
any other mineral
• Diamond is used in drill tips
to cut through any other rock
Mineral Groups
• There are over 5000 known minerals on Earth!
• We organize them into groups based on their
chemistry
• Minerals within groups often have similar
properties
• 4 elements make up the majority (>90%) of Earth’s
composition
• Most minerals are composed of these elements in
different ratios

Olivine
Enstatite

MgSiO3
Mg2SiO4
Most Minerals are in the Crust
• The lithosphere is dynamic and conditions are
incredibly diverse both across the surface and a few
km below the surface
1) Silicate Minerals
• Silicates are one third of all known minerals, but
make up 90-95% of the crust
• Silica tetrahedron SiO4-4, the basic building block
of all silicate minerals
• Silica refers to % SiO2
 Arrangement of Tetrahedra in
Silicate Structures
Silicate Minerals

Silicate minerals are grouped

Sheet structure in micas
according to how the tetrahedra
bond together

Six-sided ring
structure in beryl
NesosilicatesSilicate
(isolated silicate structure)
Structures
Anion is SiO4

Sheet structure in micas

Six-sided ring
structure in beryl
Mg2SiO4
 Olivine For some minerals, ions of similar size
can substitute for one another. This gives
a range of chemical formulae for the
mineral

Forsterite Fayalite

Mg2SiO4
Fe2SiO4
• Since Iron and Magnesium are similar in size, they can
substitute for one another
More Nesosilicates

Kyanite
Garnet (Pyrope)

Mg3Al2(SiO4)3
Al(SiO4)O
Inosilicates (Single Chain)

Anion is SiO3

Silica tetrahedra linked together in a single chain.

Oxygens are shared between tetrahedra, therefore O:Si

ratio lower than isolated (3:1 instead of 4:1)
Pyroxene Group
Pyroxenes can be:
MgSiO3 Or a combination of these...
FeSiO3 (Mg,Fe,Ca)SiO3
CaSiO3 Wollastonite Ferrosilite

Enstatite

CaSiO3
MgSiO3 FeSiO3

Diopside MgCaSiO3
Inosilicates (Double Chain Silicates)

In double chain silicates such as the amphibole group of

minerals, tetrahedra linked to a double chain.
Leads to more oxygen shared and a lower Si:O ratio than
the previous groups
Amphiboles such as the mineral hornblende can
have a very complex range of compositions…
(Ca,Na)2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22 (OH)2

Hornblende
Sheet Silicates
Silica tetrahedra arranged in sheets. This structure
leads to more sharing of tetrahedra and yet an even
lower Si:O ratio
The mica group
The sheet like silicate structure is evident in the
minerals which are part of the mica group

Muscovite Biotite
KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2 K(Mg,Fe) 3(A,Fe)Si3O10(F,OH)2
Framework Silicates
• Framework silicates make up more than 60% of the
Earth’s crust
• Includes light coloured minerals like quartz and
feldspars
• Each silica tetrahedron is bonded
to 4 other silica tetrahedra
• This results in quartz having a
high hardness and lack of
cleavage
• Quartz is very abundant and takes
a variety of appearances
• The feldspar group is another
solid solution solution series
with end members Anorthite
depending on presence of K, CaAlSi2O8
Na, or Ca

K-Feldspar
KAlSi3O8

Albite
NaAlSi3O8
Silicate Minerals
Dark silicates called
Mafic or
→ high Mg, Fe content
E.g., pyroxene,
amphibole amphibole, a chain silicate

Light-colored silicates
called Felsic
→ lack Fe, less Mg
E.g., quartz, feldspar
Ferromagnesian Minerals
• Ferromagnesian minerals are minerals with either
Fe, Mg, or both in their chemical formula
• These minerals are typically darker and denser than
non-ferromagnesian minerals
High More
density Mafic

Low More
density Felsic
Predicting mineral distribution
within the Earth’s layers
The Mantle Mantle
• O, Si, Fe, Mg dominate
• Mostly olivine and
pyroxene (mafic silicates
– leads to ultramafic
material)

Lava
flow

Mantle
Xenolith
The Crust
Crust

•Dominated by feldspar and

(wt. %) quartz (silicates)
O 46.6
Si 27.7
Al 8.1 •(Quartz is 45%, Feldspar is a
Fe 5.0 sub group which makes up
Ca 3.6 50%)
Na 2.8
K 2.6
Mg 2.1 • (note crustal abundances of
Other 1.5 elements)
The crust

Low density, felsic minerals

Quartz and Feldspar very

common

Granite
Other Mineral Groups
• Oxides Anion: O
• Sulfides Anion: S
• Sulphates Anion: SO4
• Halides Anion: Halogen (F,Cl,Br,etc.)
• Carbonates Anion: CO3
• Native Minerals No anion, single element
Carbonates
• End in CO3
• React with acid to varying
degrees Malachite
Cu2CO3(OH)2

Dolomite Calcite Azurite

CaMg(CO3)2 CaCO3 Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
 Pyrrhotite
Sulfides Fe(1-x)S

Cinnabar
• End in S HgS
• Typically metallic in lustre and
high density
• Many sulfides are ore Galena
minerals PbS

Pyrite Bornite
FeS2 Sphalerite
Cu5FeS4
ZnS
Sulphates
• End in SO4

Barite
BaSO4
Gypsum
CaSO4·2H2O
Halides
• End in a halogen group element (F, Cl, Br, etc.)

Fluorite
CaF2

Halite
NaCl
Native Minerals
• Native minerals are made up of just one element

Gold (Au)

Copper ( Cu )

Diamond ( C )
Identifying Minerals Using Physical Properties
amethyst
Examples of simple diagnostic
properties/tests done in the lab or in
the field to help identify minerals:
Amethyst

Each mineral has a unique set of citrine

physical properties:
Colour
Streak
Lustre rose quartz
Hardness
Crystal Habit
Cleavage / Fracture
Colour
• Colour is the first thing we see
• Some minerals have characteristic colours but many
minerals have a wide range of colours
• Colour alone is not reliable for identification

Azurite
Sulphur Malachite
Diamond like many other minerals can take on a wide range of
colours.

In many cases these colours are given by element impurities

Streak
• Colour is influenced by reflection of light and
surface alteration.
• When we look at the mineral powder we get a
better indication of “true colour”

Different forms of the mineral hematite both giving a red streak

Lustre
• How a mineral reflects light
• In general either metallic or non-metallic

Metallic
Non-metallic
Hardness
• We use a non-linear scale called the Mohs scale of
hardness. Scale is from 1-10.
Crystal Habit
• If minerals are allowed to grow freely
under the right conditions they can
form distinctive crystal habits.

• In most rocks these distinctive

mineral shapes are not obvious
• In reality minerals compete for space and grow
together, so distinctive mineral habits do not show…
Cleavage / Fracture
Cleavage and fracture refer to how a mineral breaks
Cleavage: Breakage along a specific plane of weakness.
Fracture: Breakage at random orientation.
Mineral Growth Requirements
• Fluid (water)
• Heat
• Pressure
• PH conditions
• Time!