Name : Septiya Agestin Cahyaningrum

NIM : 6411421006
Specific Epidemiology
Nosocomial Infection
a. Definition
Nosocomial infections are infections that develop while a person is receiving medical
attention. Examples include pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTIs) and
gastrointestinal (GI) infections.
b. Causes
The causes of nosocomial infections vary. They depend on the type or source of
infection, the pathogen that caused it, and whether the infection is viral, fungal, or
bacterial.
c. Types
 central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI)
Symptoms
The symptoms of a CLABSI vary depending on the type of infection that has
entered through the catheter. Someone showing signs of infection requires
immediate medical intervention. These include:
at the site of the catheter:
o pain
- discomfort
- redness
- discharge
o fever and chills
o signs of inflammation
Diagnosis and treatment
To diagnose CLABSI, a doctor will perform blood tests and check for signs of
infection at the site of the catheter insertion and inflammation beyond the
insertion site.

To treat CLABSI, a doctor typicallyTrusted Source removes the catheter and

administers antibiotics.

They may also prescribe other appropriate medications, such as antifungal

medication, depending on the type of infection. Healthcare professionals may also
recommend topical or systemic antimicrobials to treat the area where the catheter
enters the body.

Potential complications
CLABSI is serious and can beTrusted Source fatal. The infection can cause severe
sickness and increase a person’s time in the hospital.
 CLABSI may also lead to sepsis, an extreme response by the immune system to
infection, which can damage organs and may be life threatening.

 catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI)

CAUTI is a UTI a person may acquire after a doctor inserts a urinary catheter.
Pathogens can travel along the catheter and enter the urinary tract. The bacterium
Escherichia coli is the most commonTrusted Source cause of CAUTI.

Symptoms
Symptoms of a UTI include:
 fever
 blood in urine
 pain or burning in the lower abdomen
 increased frequency of urination
 a burning feeling during urination
Diagnosis and treatment
A doctor will diagnose CAUTI by administering a urine test. To treat it, they will
remove or change the catheter and administer antibiotics.

Potential complications
Possible complications of CAUTI include:Trusted Source

 sepsis
 bacteremia, a bacterial infection of the blood
 upper urinary tract infection

 surgical site infections (SSI)

An SSI is an infection that occurs in the part of the body where the surgery took
place. The infection can be superficial and only affect the skin, or it can be more
severe and affect:
o organs
o tissues
o skin
o surgically implanted material
Symptoms
Symptoms of SSI include:
o fever
o drainage of cloudy fluid from the wound
o pain and redness around the area of surgery
 o Diagnosis and treatment
o A doctor will look for visible signs of infection and perform blood tests to
diagnose SSI. To treat it, they will prescribe antibiotics. A person may
also require further surgery to treat the infection.

Potential complications
SSIs can lead to life threatening conditions, such as sepsis, as well as:
 delayed healing of wounds
 abscesses
 the rejection of medical devices or prosthetics
 infections in body cavities

 ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP)

VAP can occur when a person inhales contaminated material through a ventilator.
Pathogens that travel through the ventilator can cause pneumonia after 48
hoursTrusted Source of intubation. Of people requiring manual ventilation, 5–
15% develop VAP.

Symptoms
Symptoms of VAP include:

o tracheal discharge containing pus

o fever
o difficulty breathing
Diagnosis and treatment
A doctor may diagnose VAP using:

o visible signs of infection

o chest X-rays
o samples of secretions from the lower respiratory tract
o blood tests
o biopsy
o Doctors typicallyTrusted Source treat VAP with antibiotics.

Potential complications
Complications of VAP include:
o multi-organ failure
o deep vein thrombosis
o stress ulcers
o sepsis
 bacterial
A person may acquire a bacterial infection during healthcare. These include:
o Staphylococcus aureus:This bacterium, which people often call staph, is
typically present inside the nose and on the skin of about 30% of people. It
does not usually cause harm, and infections can appear as skin conditions.
o Streptococcus species: This bacterium can cause several infections,
including:
o sore throat
o toxic shock syndrome
o pneumonia
o Enterococcus species: This bacterium is the leading causeTrusted Source
of nosocomial infections in healthcare settings and is resistant to
antibiotics. It is most associated with the following types of infections:
o UTIs
o medical device infections
o soft tissue
Symptoms
Symptoms vary depending on the type of bacteria and infection that affect a

patient. They may include:

o a rash
o sore, red throat
o skin infection
o symptoms of pneumonia, such as cough, difficulty breathing, and rapid
heartbeat
o symptoms of UTI, such as a burning sensation when urinating or needing
to urinate more often
o symptoms of toxic shock syndrome, such as fever, diarrhea, and dizziness
Diagnosis and treatment
A doctor typically diagnoses bacterial infections by examining a person’s physical
symptoms and blood tests.

Antibiotics are generally effective treatments against bacterial infections. A doctor

may use different types to treat different infections.

Potential complications
Complications of bacterial infections include:

o sepsis
 o pneumonia
o endocarditis, a rare condition that involves inflammation of the heart’s
lining, muscles, and valves
o osteomyelitis, an infection and inflammation of the bone
o Other infections
 Fungal: Mold infections and candidiasis are common causes of nosocomial
infections. They most often lead to UTIs and bloodstream infections. Experts
often associate them with:
o a contaminated environment
o immunosuppression
o unclean catheters
 Viral: Viruses cause up to 5% of nosocomial infections. A person can acquire
them from respiratory, fecal, or hand-mouth routes. Viruses that may transfer
through healthcare settings include:
o hepatitis
o influenza
o rotavirus
 Gastrointestinal: Some bacteria can pass through the intestinal walls and cause
infection in susceptible people.
Symptoms
Symptoms of other types of infection include:
o fever
o chills
o rash
o headache
o muscle ache
o nausea and vomiting
o cough
o confusion
o diarrhea
Diagnosis
A doctor will diagnose these infections by examining the physical symptoms and
performing laboratory tests, including blood tests, to reveal which pathogens
affect the patient.
Treatment
Treatments vary according to the type of infection.
o Fungal: A doctor will treat a fungal infection with traditional treatments,
such as antibiotics and antifungal medications.
o Viral: Antibiotics cannot treat viruses. In some cases, doctors can only
treat symptoms, and antiviral drugs are available to treat certain kinds of
viruses.
 o Gastrointestinal: A doctor may prescribe antibiotics to treat a
gastrointestinal infection.
Potential complications
Infection can lead to more severe infections and complications such as sepsis.
Risk factors
Some people are at higher risk than others of nosocomial infection. These risk
factors include:
o prolonged hospital stay
o being of older age
o working in a hospital or healthcare facility, although people should follow
hygiene best practices to help avoid infections
o catheter insertion
o recent or frequent antibiotic use
o receiving healthcare in a developing country
o having a compromised immune system
o having other chronic illnesses
o malnutrition
o obesity
o using tobacco
o using certain medications, such as gastric acid-suppressing medication
o Doctors will inform people of the potential risk of developing infections
when receiving care.
Preventions
Healthcare workers and patients can help prevent nosocomial infection. Preventive
measures include:
o healthcare workers practicing good hand hygiene
o personal protective equipment for healthcare workers, such as gloves and
masks
o proper cleaning of all surfaces and clearing away of hospital waste
o antibiotic control policies to prevent overusing antibiotics, which can lead
to resistance
o patients cleaning, not shaving, relevant areas before surgery
o healthcare workers educating patients on proper care of medical devices
o patients trying to quit smoking, if applicable
o patients practicing good hygiene during the healing process
REFERENCES

Darragh O'Carroll, MD. (2023). Nosocomial infection: What to know.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/nosocomial-infection
Sikora A, Zahra F. Nosocomial Infections. [Updated 2023 Apr 27]. In: StatPearls [Internet].
Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559312/