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RESEARCH VARIABLES: TYPES, USES AND DEFINITION OF TERMS

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Research in Education

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Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
Research in Education

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 Research in Education

Chapter 4

RESEARCH VARIABLES:
TYPES, USES AND DEFINITION OF TERMS

Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of lbadan, Ibadan
olayemi.oyebanji@yahoo.com

Introduction
The purpose of research is to describe and explain variance in the world, that is, variance that
occurs naturally in the world or change that we create due to manipulation. Variables are
therefore the names that are given to the variance we wish to explain and it is very critical to
the research because the way the researcher uses or handles them in the research process
could determine the nature and direction of the research (Nwankwo and Emunemu, 2014).
Closely related to the understanding of what a variable is, is the idea of definition of terms.
This chapter explores the use of variables in research, types of variables and the definition of
terms, so as to help some of the students who have a problem identifying and clarifying the
variables they are working on in their project work.

Concept of Variable and Use of Variables in Research

The process of, undertaking a research entails the consideration of measurable factors that
are subject to change due to circumstances. These factors are called variables. The idea of
variable is central to research because the title of a research is made up of it and it is also
the focus of this study. Research often concerns relationships between variables and
according to Adegun (2005) most educational researches are concerned with establishing
interrelationships among variables and every aspect of research needs fundamental
characteristics and ingredient, and these are called variables. A variable is not only
something to be measured, it is what a researcher can also manipulate and control for as
obtainable in experimental research. Uzoagulu (1998) defined variables as a feature
 Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
possessed by the members of a population. It is something that varies or changes in value
according to situations or how treated (Nwankwo and Emunemu, 2014). Adegun (2005)
likewise saw a variable as something that is capable of taking different values and the value
of any particular variable depends on the condition under which it is undertaken. A variable
can be E, F, G, sex, attitude, age, experience, teaching method among others (Aderounmu
and Duyilemi, 1988).
Best and Kaln (1986) equally opined that variables are the conditions or
characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes. They are the main
ingredients of research and the basis of a research work. It therefore implied that, without
variables, there would be no research. A variable is an object, event, idea, feeling, time
period or any other category one is trying to measure. It is important to state that variables
may have the following characteristics such as: a period when they start or stop, they must
have a pattern such as daily, weekly, ad-hoc and monthly, they are quite detailed with an
overview of in depth among others.
To further understand what a variable is, it would be safe to briefly explain some
related terms like ‘concept’, ‘object’, ‘property’.
A concept is an abstract tag that typifies an aspect of reality, for example, a
phenomenon, problem or an object. Various disciplines have peculiar concepts, all research
endeavours begin with concepts and most theories are built around concepts. Research
occurs when the researcher is able to make the pivotal move from the abstract to the
concrete, from the conceptual to the observable and this is known as conceptualization.
Objects on the other hand are the persons, places, or things on which a research is carried
out, an object can also be referred to as the unit of analysis. Usually, the objects of a study in
educational research are people or persons, for example, students, parents/guardians,
teachers, administrators, policy makers; they can also be places such as schools, institutions;
or they may be things such as academic performance, learning outcomes and curriculum
among others.
Properties are the characteristics or attributes of an object, that is, they describe some
characteristics of an object in terms of size, colour, height, weight and so on. Although,
concepts can be qualitative, oftentimes, they are converted into variables through a process
called operationalization.
A variable is a property that takes on different values as circumstances and situations

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 Research in Education
change. A variable can be considered as an operationalised construct or a particular property
in which the researcher is interested. Variable refers to a property whereby the members of a
group being studied are different from each or one another. The primary focus of the
operationalisation process is the creation of variables and the subsequent development of a
measurement instrument to assess those variables. Inadequate operationalising of the
dependent variable is a threat to external validity in experimental research (Cohen, Manion
and Morrison, 2007).
A variable is a symbol or property that assumes different values taken from a
prescribed set of values at different times or in different circumstances (Bandele, 2004).
This prescribed set of values is known as the domain of the variable. To a reasonable extent,
the researcher reserves the right as to defining the delineations of the domain of the variable.
As such, a researcher might decide to include sub-values like, 'Never Married', 'Divorced' or
'Separated' to the common ones like, 'Married', 'Single' in contemporary times when marital
relations seem to be more complicated. The sub-values are also referred to as attributes of
the variable.
Variables are concepts that may be divided into two or more categories or groupings
known as attributes. The ability to divide the variables into categories enables us to study
their relationships with other variables. Attributes are the grouping into which variables may
be divided. As an example, "male" is an attribute of the variable, "gender," In this wise, the
variable can also be construed to be first and foremost a concept or a construct, but a
concept or a construct may not necessarily be a variable.
According to Adeleke (2010), there are two traits of variables that should always be
achieved namely, exhaustiveness and mutual exclusivity. As regards exhaustiveness, a
variable should include all "possible answerable responses". For example, attributes like
‘OND’, ‘HND’, ‘NIM’, ICAN’, ‘ACAA’ and ‘Masters’, ‘Ph.D’ in relation to a variable like
"Educational Qualification" under study in an accounting establishment might seem to be
exhaustive but this excludes the possibility of some members of staff who have acquired
certifications in accounting and finance or even unrelated disciplines which might be
seemingly unpopular in the clime where the research is being conducted. Mutual exclusivity
pertains to the feature that disallows respondents from being able to have two attributes
simultaneously. For example, a variable like, 'Highest Academic Qualification' could have
attributes like, ‘SSCE’, ‘NCE’, ‘First Degree’, ‘Master’ and 'Ph. D".
 Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.

Types of Variables
The classification of variables is largely an issue of choice. Mere listing of types of variables
may be as much confusing as listing types of research, it is therefore very necessary to make
some classifications, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Classification of
variables could therefore be done based on different typologies. These categories will be
examined below:

1. Categorical and Continuous Variables

Categorical variables are also known as discrete variables or classificatory variables or
qualitative variables. A categorical variable has a limited number of distinct values, that is,
they can be classified into distinct limited categories. The attributes (or sub-values or
subsets) of a categorical variable vary in kind rather than in degree, amount or level or
quantity (Nwankwo and Emunemu, 2014). In categorical variables, the variations of the
variables are associated with specific categories. As such, the variance in the subsets of a
categorical variable is a function of the placement of these values or attributes in different
categories rather than with respect to a scale of measurement. For example, sex can be
classified into two distinct categories of male and female. Here, all members of category or
subset are recognized as the same and assigned the same values.

Categorical variables are further divided into nominal, ordinal, dichotomous and
polychotomous variables.
(a) Nominal variables: These have two or more categories which are not in an intrinsic
order. Classification of the values of this variable type is based on equality or
sameness or difference. No category can be said to be greater than or less than the
other. A nominal variable does not actually .show measurements. Rather it names the
characteristics of the sub-groups. A variable like 'Mode of study' could have values
like 'full-time', 'part-time', and 'distance learning'. Other examples of such variables
include religion, gender or nationality.
(b) Ordinal variables: These variables like nominal variables have two or more categories
but they can be ordered or ranked. Consequently, a category can be said to
be greater or less than another. A plant's height for example can assume any
value within a certain range. Other examples include test scores, income level.
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 Research in Education
(c) Dichotomous variables: These variables have only two categories or levels. A
dichotomous variable may have similar features of nominal variables in terms of not
having intrinsic orders. An example is gender. The categories are likely to be male
and female. Another example is a variable like 'cadre of staff whose subsets could be
'senior staff and 'junior staff. In other instances, a dichotomous variable may assume
the feature of rank ordering. For example, test scores which normally have multiple
values can be dichotomised as categories like 'high' or 'low' based on a boundary
score set by the researcher to delimit one category from the other. However, it is not
possible to convert a true dichotomous variable to a polychotomous one (Aworh,
Babalola, Gbadegesin, Isiugo-Abanihe, Oladiran and Okunmadewa, 2006).
(d) Polychotomous variables: These variables have more than two categories of subsets.
An example is a variable like ‘computer proficiency level’ which could have subsets
like 'beginner', 'intermediate' and 'advanced'. Other examples include educational
qualifications, religion.

Continuous Variables
Continuous variables can be measured by scales such that the subsets or groupings are
different from each or one another on the basis of quantity, degree, level or amount. They
vary on the basis of magnitude along an ordered continuum. Such variables can take an
infinite number of values, that is, they can assume an unbounded range of values along a
specific continuum. They are also known as quantitative or measured variables, and they
have the feature of rank-ordering. Continuous variables can be further divided into classes
like: interval or ratio variables.
(a) Interval variables: An interval variable can be measured along a continuum in a scale.
In addition, its subsets have a numerical value. As such, we can talk of the size of the
interval between the subsets of an interval variable. The feature of rank ordering can
be found in this type of variable. Temperature (measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit) is
an example of an interval variable. Equal intervals on a scale typify equal amounts of
the attribute being measured. For example, the difference between 20°C and 30°C is
the same as that between 30DC and 40°C. Interval variables do not have a true or
absolute zero point. A reading of 0°C does not indicate a complete lack of
temperature.
 Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
(b) Ratio variables: A ratio variable is first and foremost an interval variable but not all
interval variables are ratio variables. For example, temperature (measured in Celsius
or
Fahrenheit) is an interval variable but not a ratio variable. Ratio variables have the
features of magnitude and order. In addition, a ratio variable has an absolute or true
zero point Examples of ratio variable include test scores, height, and weight.
Temperature measured in Kelvin can be said to be a ratio variable because 0 Kelvin
indicates that there is no temperature whatsoever.

2. Dependent and Independent Variables

In a bid to solve a given problem, the researcher in an experimental research focuses on
causal relationships also known as functional relationship and so, manipulates a variable so
as to see its effect(s) on another variable. Such a research work begins with an effect and
then makes a search for its causes. The manipulated variable which in some instances could
be more than one in number is referred to as the independent variable while the variable
which is expected to be affected by the manipulation is called the dependent variable. The
independent variable is also known as the input variable and it typifies the presumed .cause,
predictor or an antecedent while the dependent variable, which is also known criterion or
outcome variable represents the presumed effect or consequence. Its value depends on
another variable.

Independent Variable
An Independent variable is the input variable, which causes, in part in total, a particular
outcome. It is a stimulus that influences a response, an antecedent or a factor which may be
modified (e.g. under experimental or other conditions) to affect an outcome. On the other
hand, a dependent variable is the outcome variable, which is caused, in total or in part, by the
input, antecedent variable. This is a major assumption among researchers and statisticians.
However, there are instances in which what was perceived as the independent
variable eventually turns out to be the dependent variable. An example is a study which seeks
to investigate the effect of study habits on academic performance. Typically, study habits
would be designated as the independent variable while academic performance is conceived
as the dependent variable. Conversely, the incidence of failure in an examination can either

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 Research in Education
spur a student to study harder or resign to fate giving up hope in doing better in subsequent
examinations. As such, the direction of causality could be foggy at times or in some
instances, bidirectional. It is also possible that there could be some other unidentified causes
(independent variables) behind the identified causes (independent variable) that have a
substantial bearing on the dependent variable understudy.
No variable is automatically apportioned to be dependent or independent. In an
attempt to ascertain which of the variables in a research work would be rightly designated as
dependent or independent of the other, a major clarification is with respect to which one
comes before or happens before the other. The variable which occurs before the things
'described by another variable is taken to be the independent variable while the other
variable is designated as the dependent variable (Kalof, Dan and Dietz, 2008). For example,
in a research topic like, 'Quality of instruction and academic performance of students in
universities in Southern Nigeria', the independent variable is, 'Quality of instruction' while
'Academic performance of students in universities in Southern Nigeria' is the dependent
variable. For a dependent variable to be adjudged to be good, it must be objective and
quantifiable, that is, it must be accurately recorded and reliably measured. Furthermore, it
must be amply sensitive to detect small changes in the independent variable; nevertheless,
this sensitivity should be balanced in that the dependent variable should not be affected by
the slightest uncontrollable factors in the environment of study.
Furthermore, there are other kinds of variables which could affect the relationship between
the dependent variable and the independent variable. Oftentimes, such variables are not
recognized to be present at the onset of the investigation. They are said to be ubiquitous
variables (Bandele, 2004). These include the moderating variable, the intervening variable,
and the extraneous or confounding variable.

Moderating variable: This is a variable that has a conditional influence which is strong
enough to modify the original relationship between the dependent and independent variable.
As the name implies, it moderates the strength of the relationship or association between the
dependent and independent variables. It affects the direction and/or strength of the relation
between an independent and a dependent variable. For example, a research into the effect of
quality of instruction on academic performance of students may have a moderating variable
like interest of students. This implies that students who have an interest in a particular
 Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
subject area are likely to perform better academically while students without such an interest
may not do well academically irrespective of how good the quality of instruction is.

Intervening variable: In more complex causal relationships, the intervening variable acts like
a link between the dependent and independent variable, and in a way, accounts for the causal
relationship between them. The intervening variable cannot be directly measured or
controlled and have direct and strong effect on the result or end product of a study. The
intervening variable is also known as the mediating variable explains the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables; it does not change the relation but
explains it. For example, a research work which focuses on the association between
management practices and staff productivity may have an intervening variable like job
satisfaction. It could be argued that good management practices would lead to job
satisfaction on the part of the members of staff which in turn may lead to high staff
productivity. As such, the intervening variable functions like a dependent variable to the
independent variable (management practices) and at the same time like an independent
variable to the dependent variable (staff productivity).

Extraneous variable: This is a variable which is either assumed or excluded from the
investigation but has to be controlled because it interferes with the relationship between the
dependent and independent variable. This is practicable in experimental research, Extraneous
variables are variables that may affect research outcomes but have not been adequately
considered in the study. They exist in all studies and have the potential of affecting the
measurement of study variables and the relationship among these variables. That is,
extraneous variable is that which originally is conceived to be important during an
experiment but which affects the outcome of the experiment probably in a hidden manner.
Many of these extraneous variables could preclude valid conclusions of the study. That is
why many research conclusions are highly questionable because of the influence of these
extraneous variables.

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 Research in Education
Definition of Terms
Definition of terms is an essential subsection of the introductory chapter of a research report.
It concerns the meaning and measure of term(s) that is defined. Terms or concepts whose
meanings are not obvious in the context of a study are defined or explained under the
definition of terms.
This is necessary so as to "pin down" the particular concept which is used in the study and
it is based on observable characteristics of that which is being, defined (Uzoagulu, 1998).
By virtue of this, there is no room for obscurities and ambiguities. Also, the researcher and
the readers are brought into a common ground for effective communication of research
reports.
Definition of terms could be conceptual, constitutive or operational. Conceptual definition
of terms is based on dictionary, encyclopaedic or literature definition of concepts. In
constitutive definition of terms, a researcher uses other constructs to explicitly define a
given construct.
According to Bandele (2004), operational definition of terms allows the researcher
give meaning to a construct, concept or term by specifying the activities or operations to
measure it. As such, a construct or concept thus defined is said to be operationalized. This is
also known as the 'working definition' of that term, construct or variable. Operational
definition of terms is very vital as it can aid individuals from other disciplines or fields of
study to understand the usage of terms that go beyond the common language. Operationally
defining a term gives the researcher the privilege of attaching a peculiar meaning to that
term in such a way that would be appropriate for the purpose of the research work being
undertaken. In contemporary times, the boundary lines delineating the usage of certain terms
within certain fields have gradually-thinned out in response to the emergence of
interdisciplinary studies. This has made it necessary to operationally define terms especially
the major ones used in a study. However, the researcher is also at liberty to coin terms for
use in a study albeit, such a coinage must be logical, coherent and correspond with what
readers are willing to accept as true or fact (Nwankwo and Emunemu, 2014).
A number of criteria may be used for choice of terms to be operationally defined.
Such criteria according to Ajayi (2005), may include the following:
• Are the terms pertinent to the study?
• Are interpretations of the terms prone to ambiguity in the mind of the readers if
definitions are not provided?
 Abiodun-Oyebanji, Olayemi J.
• Can the terms be defined as observable samples of behaviour or are they measurable?

If the answers to the above questions are in the affirmative, definitions should be provided in
simple and clear language, but if the answers are in the negative, then definitions might not
be necessary.

Importance of Definition of Terms

According to Ajayi (2005), a researcher must define or explain certain terms used in a
research work so as not to confuse the reader of the research work, This is pertinent in order
to guide against any doubt as to the intended meaning of the terms used so that the reader
could have better understanding of the research work.

Definition of term brings the researcher and the reader into a common ground or the same
page for effective communication of research report. When terms used in a research work are
not defined or not properly defined, they lend themselves to divergent meanings to the
readers, thereby distorting the research report.

Some common errors being committed by many researchers under the definition of terms in
their research works have been classified according to Owuamanam (1997) and Ajayi (2005)
as: giving full meaning of abbreviations such as PTA, SPEB, ASUU, G&C among others,
incomplete definitions of terms, defining unnecessary terms and defining unrelated terms.
They stated further that if abbreviations have to be used, they should be used scantly or
sparingly. They have to be written in full the first time they appear in the work and
subsequently the words can be abbreviated.

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 Research in Education
Conclusion and Recommendation
Variables are basic ingredients of every research and the new entrant to the field should
study this aspect of research very critically because failure to have well defined variables at
the beginning of the studies will definitely lead to blind alley along the line.
Also to further achieve the fundamental purpose of research by making enquiry into
the unknown with a view of finding solution to the problem, effective communication of
research report must be done by researcher. To the end, it is therefore very essential to define
terms or concepts that are subject to different meanings in a research work so as to guide
against confusion of intended meaning.

References

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Ajayi, 1. A. 2005. Variables in Educational Research. In Bandele, S.O., Seweje, R. O. and

Alonge, M. F. (Eds.) Lagos; Premier Publishers Aworh O.C., Babalola J.B.,
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2006. Design and Development of Conceptual Framework in Research.
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Raji-Oyeladi and I,P, Farai. Ibadan: Postgraduate School, UI.

Bandele, S.O. 2004, Educational Researching Perspectives. Ibadan: Niyi Communication and
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Best, J. W. and Kaln, J. V. 1986. Research in Education, New Delhi; Prentice Hall of India
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Cohen, L, Manion, L. and Morrison, K. 2007. Research Methods in Education. 6th ed.
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Owuamanam, D. O. 1997. General Issues in Theses Writing; The Elite. 1(2), 38-42.

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