UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

MODULE 6: HOW SOCIETY IS ORGANIZED

PART II: CULTURAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS: KINSHIP,
MARRIAGE, AND THE HOUSEHOLD

INTRODUCTION:
This module tackles socio-cultural and political institutions focusing on kinship, marriage, and
the household. This specifically discusses the various forms of kinship (blood, marriage, and rituals)
and different types of families. The learner will learn how the politics of kinship formed and worked
in the Philippine setting.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• Define kinship, marriage, and household
• Explain the different forms of kinship based on blood, marriage, and rituals
• Discuss the different types of families
• Explain how the politics of kinship is formed in the Philippines

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KINSHIP
Kinship is a social institution that refers to relations formed between members of society. It
explains the nature and reason for the formation of the different types of bonds that exist within society.
Sociologists define kinship as the different forms of socially accepted relations among people
developed through blood or consanguineal relationships, marriage or affinal relationships, adoption,
and other culturally accepted rituals.
TYPES OF KINSHIP
Societies develop kin relationships in different ways. It can be based on birth or blood relations,
marriage, or through the acceptance of rituals.
Kinship by Blood
Consanguineal kinship or kinship based on blood is considered as the most basic and general
form of relations. The relationship is achieved by birth or blood affinity. The relationship existing
between parents and their children, between siblings, and between nieces/nephews and aunts/uncles
are examples of this type of kinship.
 In the study of consanguineal kinship, descent is an important key concept. Descent refers to a
biological relationship. Societies recognize that children descend from parents and that there exists a
biological relationship between parents and their offspring. Descent also often refers to an individual's
child or offspring or his or her parents and ancestry.
Lineage, on the other hand, refers to the line where one's descent is traced. An individual's
descent can be traced by studying either the person's paternal or maternal line or both the father's and
the mother's line. Principles of Descent
Kinship can be studied by analyzing the relationships that exist between persons.
Anthropologists develop diagrams to clearly explain and illustrate the different consanguineal
relationships. Below is an example of the different symbols used by anthropologists to visually explain
patterns of descent and kin groups.
Symbols Used by Anthropologists to Study Patterns of Descent and Kin Groups

Male Female Female

=
= Marriage Bond

| descent bond
Codescent bond Children

Unilineal Descent
Descent is usually traced by most societies through a single line of ancestors from either the
male or female line. This is called as the unilineal descent principle. In this principle of descent, both
males and females are members of a unilineal family, but their descent lines are recognized only
through the relatives of either the male or female member. Unilineal descent has two basic forms,
namely, patrilineal and matrilineal.
Under the patrilineal form of descent, both males and females belong to the kin group of their
father, but they do not belong to their mother's kin group. In this form of descent, only the males pass
on to their children their family identity. A woman's children are members of her husband's patrilineal
line. The red colored shapes in the diagram on the next page show how members are related to each
other through the patrilineal form of descent. In the diagram, you will notice that in this form of
descent, the male's patrilineal line includes his offspring and his male children's offspring only.
Matrilineal form of descent, on the other hand, focuses on the unilineal descent that is traced
through the female line. In this form of descent pattern, persons are related if they can trace their
descent through females to the same woman ancestor. Both male and female offspring are considered
members of their mother's matrilineal descent group but only the daughters can pass on the family line
to their offspring. The green colored shapes represent persons related through the matrilineal form of
descent. In the diagram, you will notice that in this form of descent, the female's matrilineal descent
includes all her children and her female offspring's children but not her male child's offspring.
Patrilineal Form of Descent

= = =

Legend

Male =
Fa Mo
Female

Male or Female Br ego si

Male Female Parents

=
 Matrilineal form of Descent

= = =

Legend

Male =
Fa Mo
Female

Male or Female Br ego si

Male Female Parents

=

Bilateral Descent
Some societies trace their descent through the study of both parents' ancestors. This is called
as the non-unilineal or cognatic descent principle. There are different forms of non-unilineal descent
principles, but the most common form of non-unilineal descent is the bilateral descent. In a bilateral
descent, kinship is traced through both ancestral lines of the mother and father.
 = =

= = = = =

Legend:
*Ego refers to a person to whom kinship relationships are referred to and that has no specific
gender.

Kinship by Marriage

Affinal kinship or kinship based on marriage refers to the type of relations developed when a
marriage occurs. When marriage takes place, new forms of social relations are developed. The husband
forms new relations with his wife and with his wife's family. In the same manner, the wife also
develops new relations with her husband and with her husband's family. Moreover, the families of both
the husband and wife also form new social relations with each other.

Marriage is an important social institution wherein two persons, a man and a woman, enter into
family life. During this process, the partners make a public, official, and permanent declaration of their
union as lifetime couples Article 1 of the Family Code of the Philippines defines marriage this way:

[It is a] special contract of permanent union between a man and a woman entered into in
accordance with law for the establishment of conjugal and family life. It is the foundation of the
family and an inviolable social institution whose nature, consequences, and incidents are
governed by law and not subject to stipulation, except that marriage settlements may fix the
property relations during the marriage within the limits provided by this Code.

Marriage Across Cultures

Different societies have different sets of cultural practices, norms, and rules pertaining to
marriage. Cultures across societies have developed traditions, customs, rules, and norms that determine
how marriage will be done.

Endogamy and Exogamy

Some societies practice endogamy, or compulsory marriage, in their own village, community,
ethnic, social, or religious group. Members of societies who do not follow or who disobey the
endogamous rules of marriage are sometimes penalized mildly, through others may receive more
severe sanctions like death or ostracism. This form of marriage is practiced by a number of ethnic
groups, religious groups, and the aristocratic classes. It was also practiced in India until the middle of
the twentieth century.

Exogamy or out-marriage, on the other hand, refers to a marriage custom where an individual
is required by society's norms and rules to marry outside of their own group, community, or social
classes. Exogamous marriage prevents incest or marriage within one's own family and clan.

Monogamy and Polygamy

Monogamy came from the Greek words’ monos and gamos which literally mean "one union."
It refers to the marriage or sexual partnering custom or practice where an individual has only one male
or female partner or mate.
Polygamy, on the other hand, refers to the practice of having more than one partner or sexual
mate. It can be polygyny (a man has multiple female partners or mates), or polyandry (a woman has
multiple male partners and mates).

Postmarital Residency Rules

Anthropologists are also interested in the rules of residence or location of the couple's
permanent residence after marriage. This new field of research of anthropologists focuses on
postmarital residency rules. In the study of postmarital residency rules, social scientists analyze the
intersection of both the consaguineal and affinal kinship relations. Traditionally, the residence customs
of most partners who just got married are based on well-established social traditions. They would most
often settle independently and build a home that is independent from the place of residence of both of
the newlywed's parents. This kind of set-up is often referred to as a neolocal form of residence. There
are forms of neolocal rules of residence. These include patrilocal, matrilocal, and biolocal rules of
residence.

1. Patrilocal rule of residence occurs when married couples stay in the house of the husband's relatives
or near the husband's kin.
2. Matrilocal rule of residence happens when the couples live with the wife's relatives or near the
wife's kin.
3. Biolocal residence happens when the newlywed couple stay with the husband's relatives and the
wife's kin alternately.
Referred Marriage and Arranged Marriages

In our society today, finding a partner can be done differently. Some find their partners through
other people like friends and relatives who act as matchmakers. These matchmakers help their single
friends or relatives to find their possible husband or wife by referring them to another man or woman
who is also interested in finding a life partner. This is called as referred marriage partners.

In some societies, marriage partners are not referred but they are arranged by the parents of the
groom and bride. This is usually called as fixed or arranged marriages. In this kind of marriage, the
man or woman's parents, community leaders, religious officials or leaders determine the marital partner
of the individual. This was done to ensure that the young man and woman will marry to the most
appropriate person according to the dictates and rules set by the family, community, or religious group.
There are a number of types of arranged marriages. These include the following:

1. Child marriage-It happens when parents arrange for the marriage of their child long before the
marriage takes place. The marriage will be consummated in the future.
2. Exchange marriage-In this form of marriage, there is a reciprocal exchange of spouses between
two countries, tribes, or groups.
3. Diplomatic marriage-This form of marriage occurs when an arranged marriage has been
established between two royal or political families in order to forge political or diplomatic alliances.
4. Modern arranged marriage-In this form of marriage, the child's parents, with the consent of the
child, choose from several possible mates. The parents organize a meeting with the potential partner
of their child. The two children will then be given a short time to get to know each other, after which
the child will choose whom he or she will marry. In the process of choosing the partner, the parents
would usually have a say in their child's choice.

Kinship by Rituals

Compadrazgo, literally translated as "godparenthood," is a ritualized form of forging co-

parenthood or family. Originating in the medieval Catholic church in Europe, this can be done through
the performance of Catholic rituals like baptism, confirmation, and marriage. Through the
compadrazgo set-up, a relationship between the child's biological parents, their children, and persons
close to the parents but not related by blood become a family. These people who were chosen by the
biological parents to act as witnesses during baptism, confirmation, or marriage, become the spiritual
parents of the child. The child's biological parents call the spiritual parents as co-parents. In the
Philippines, the spiritual parents are called by the child's biological parents as compadre or kumpare
for the male godparent and kumare for the female godparent. The godson or goddaughter is called
inaanak by the godparent, while the godson or goddaughter calls his or her spiritual parent or godparent
as ninong (godfather) or ninang (godmother). This type of kinship by rituals system is usually present
in Latin American countries and Catholic countries like the Philippines.
THE FAMILY AND THE HOUSEHOLD

The family is considered the basic unit of social organization. It is made up of a group of
individuals who are linked together by marriage, blood relations, or adoption. It constitutes a single
household that interrelates with each other and performs the social roles of a husband, wife, mother,
father, brother, and sister.

George Murdock, Talcott Parson, Kingsley Davis, and Bronislaw Malinowski define and
characterize a family differently. On the next page are the different definitions given by these
sociologists and anthropologists.

Different Definitions of Family According to Sociologists and Anthropologists

Sociologists and Definition of family

Anthropologists
George Peter Family is a social group that has the following characteristics:
Murdock 1. Share common residence
2. Presence of economic cooperation
3. Reproduce offspring
4. Include adults of both sexes wherein at least two of whom uphold a
socially approved form of sexual relationship
5. Responsible for the socialization of infants and children
Kingsley Davis Family is a group of individuals wherein the relationship is based on
consanguinity and kinship.
Talcott Parsons Family is a factory that develops and produces human personalities.
Bronislaw Malinowski Family is an institution that passes down the cultural traditions of a
society to the next generation.

Sociology Guide.com. 2016. "Family." http://www.sociologyguide.com/marriage-family-

kinship/Family.php

Families are also interpreted differently by structural functionalists, conflict theorists, and
symbolic interactionists. These different interpretations are shown below.

Assumptions of Major Sociological Perspectives about Family.

Theoretical Perspective Assumptions about Family

Structural Functionalism Family is important because it performs different roles for society.
Theory 1. Agent of socialization
2. Provides emotional and practical support for family members
 3. Controls sexual activity and sexual reproduction
4. Provides family members with social identity
Conflict Theory Family is a cause of social inequality because it strengthens
economic inequality and allows the continuity of patriarchy.
Symbolic Interactionist The family members' interaction can produce a shared
Theory understanding of their situations.

Families and households are two related concepts. The United Nations (2014) defines a family
within the household as "those members of the household who are related, to a specified degree,
through blood, adoption, or marriage." A household, on the other hand, can either be a one-person
household or a multi-person household. A one-person household refers to "an arrangement in which
one person makes provision for his or her own food or other essentials for living without combining
with any other person to form part of a multi-person household." A multi-person household refers to a
"group of two or more persons living together who make common provision for food or other essentials
for living."

NUCLEAR FAMILY AND EXTENDED FAMILY

A nuclear family is a type of family that is made up of a group of people who are united by
social ties. It is usually made up of two adults and their socially recognized children. Most of the time,
it is made up of a married couple and their biological or adopted child or children. An extended family,
on the other hand, is a type of family whose members go beyond the nuclear family made up of parents
and their offspring. An extended family household may be in any of the following forms:

1. A single nuclear family and other persons related to the nucleus (e.g., a father living with his child
or children and other relative/s; a married couple living with other relatives)
2. Two or more nuclear families related to each other without any other persons. (e.g., two or more
married couples with child or children)
3. Two or more nuclear families that are related to each other, plus other persons related to at least one
of the nuclear families. An example would be two or more married couples with other relatives only
-United Nations, 2014.

BLENDED OR RECONSTITUTED FAMILIES

A blended family is a type of family where the parents have a child or children from previous
marital relationships, but all the members stay and congregate to form a new family unit. It is
sometimes called a stepfamily, reconstituted family, or a complex family.

In this type of family, the parents may or may not have children with each other. Most often,
parents of a blended family remarry after experiencing a painful divorce or the demise of a spouse,
while some modern blended families do not marry and would usually stay and live in one house
without the sanctity of marriage.

KINSHIP OF POLITICS: POLITICAL DYNASTIES AND ALLIANCES

Politics have also been influenced by kinship relations. In the Philippines, most politicians
elected in public offices and government positions are relatives. This is known in politics as political
dynasties. In the pending Anti-Political Dynasty Bill in the House of Representatives, the House
proposal states that a political dynasty exists when "two or more individuals who are related within
the second degree of consanguinity" or "those relatives of a person who may be the latter's brother or
sister, direct ascendant or direct descendant, whether legitimate or illegitimate, full or half blood,
including their spouses" hold elected government positions (David 2014). According to Roland
Simbulan (2013 as cited by the University of the Philippines 2016. n.p.), there are 250 political families
that have dominated the Philippine political arena in both the national and local levels of government.
There are 73 out of 80 provinces or 94% of the provinces throughout the country have political
dynaties. About 56% of the political dynasties in the country "come from the old political elites" and
about 44% came to power after the 1986 EDSA I People Power. According to PhilStar Global (2015),
the top ten provinces with the largest number of family members elected in local government positions
are Maguindanao (68.18%), Apayao (64%), Sulu (57.69%), Tawi-Tawi (54.55%), Ilocos Norte
(48.33%), Abra (47.69%), Negros Occidental (47.06%), Ilocos Sur (45.12%), Quirino (43.48%), and
Cebu (42.64%). Despite the provision of the 1987 Philippine Constitution that prohibits political
dynasties in government, it continues to exist because there are no enabling laws that will prevent it
and prohibit politicians from exercising it until the present time.

Political alliances are also common in the Philippines. Political parties tend to align and forge
cooperation with other stronger parties or with the administration party to ensure victory in the
elections or guarantee the passage of a legislation. By creating alliances, politicians would continue to
receive more funds, resources and support from the ruling party or administration party.

REFERENCE/S:
Contreras, A. P., Dela Cruz, A. R. D., Erasga, D. S., Fadrigon, C. C. (2018). Understanding Culture,
Society, and Politics. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. Quezon City, Philippines