Sociology – II

UNIT – I
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Descent: Patrilineal and Matrilineal, Comparative study of Northern and Southern Kinship
b. Concepts: Principles of Kinship, Consanguinity, Filiations, Incest Taboo and Affinity
c. Forms of Marriage; Monogamy/Polygamy; Endogamy/Exogamy; Sororate/Levirate
d. Forms of Family: Joint and Nuclear family

Descent: Matrilineal and Patrilineal

Descent system is one of the terms related to kinship system. Descent bind people of the same
lineage together.

Types:

There are many categories of descent system. They are the Unilineal, Bilateral and Ambilineal
descent system.

The Unilineal descent system

The Unilineal descent system could either be Patrilineal or Matrilineal decent system.

• Patrilineal Descent System

This descent system, also known as the “agnatic” descent system is the most common descent
system that traces an individual to the father’s side or lineage. Authority and economic survival
are vested on the men. The household in this type of society is male-headed which is also known
as the patriarchal household. Both the male and the female children belong to their father’s
lineage or kin and not the mother’s. This is why the children bear their father’s name, inherits
from their father side and have all the entitlements attached to their father’s lineage. The
residence is patrilocal, in patrilocal residency, the man with his immediate family members lives
in his father’s house. This system is found among the Yoruba and most Igbo people of Nigeria

• Matrilineal Descent System

This system is also known as “uxorial” descent system. This type of descent system is not
common as the patrilineal descent system. The children are traced to their mother’s lineage. The
means of survival is carried out mostly by the women. This system is not the direct opposite of
the patrilineal system in terms of authority. The authority is vested on the men but the economic
means of survival is by the women. The maternal uncle( brother of the mother) holds a vital role
in social responsibilities and inheritance. He is the social father and has a stronger relationship
with his sister’s children than the biological father of these children. The children pay more
respect to their social father (maternal uncle) than to their biological father. The children born
into such society inherits directly from their mother’s side, which is mostly from their maternal
uncle. Here, the king’s biological son does not inherit the kingship from his father but instead,
the king transfers his kingdom, title, and status to his sister’s son. The residence is matrilocal as
the male child marries and lives in his mother’s house or matrilineal descent. Some parts of the
Eastern Igbo in Abia state practice matrilineal descent system.

Principles of Kinship

Generation

Gender

Lineality Versus Collaterality

Consanguineal Versus Affinal Kin

Relative Age

Sex of the Connecting Relative

Social Condition

Side of the Family

Affinal Kinship:

The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. When a person marries, he establishes
relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a number of other people in the
girl’s family. Moreover, it is not only the person marrying who gets bound to the family
members of the girl but his family members also get bound to the family members of the girl.

Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. For example, after
marriage a person becomes not only a husband, but he also becomes brother-in-law and son-in-
law. Here it may be noted that in English language a number of relations created by marriage are
referred by the same term. Thus, the same term ‘brother-in-law is used for bahnoi, sala, jija and
sadahu. On marriage a person also becomes foofa, nandoi and mausa.
Likewise a girl on marriage becomes not only a wife but also becomes daughter-in-law, she also
becomes chachi, bhabhi, devrani, jethani, mami etc. Thus, marriage creates a host of
relationships which are called affinal kin.

Consanguinity kinship:

The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin are related through
blood whereas the affinal kin are related through marriage. The bond between parents and their
children and that between siblings is consanguineous kinship. Siblings are the children of the
same parents.

Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle (chacha), elder uncle (taoo), nephew and cousin are
consanguineous kin. i.e., related through blood. In this connection it may be pointed out that
blood relationship may be actual as well as supposed.

Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted child is treated as
if it were one’s own biologically produced child. Thus, blood relationship may be established not
only on biological basis but also on the basis of social recognition.

Filiations

Filiation can be defined as the relationship between child and his parents which is considered
equally important from the mother’s or the father’s side, irrespective of the fact whether the
lineage traced is patrilineal or matrilineal.

Filiation is essentially the bond between successive generations- a bond of compounded rights
and identifications epitomized in the rules of inheritance and succession on one hand, and of
differences and gaps symbolized in the incest taboo, and in customs of respect and avoidance.
Persons are siblings in the domestic union by virtue of common filiation and with polygynous
marriage, they are usually graded whether their common filiation is unilateral or bilateral.

Incest taboo:

A Taboo is a prohibition of any actions or expression based on some belief is too sacred or too
accursed for ordinary people to do. If people doing that they will get some punishment based on
moral judgment and religious beliefs.

Marriage – Forms
Marriages are of different types across the world. Types of weddings are not to be confused with
types of marriages, as weddings can of be of different types as per the community even if the
type of marriage is Monogamous. Forms of marriage are also culturally driven and different
types of marriages in the world are prevelant among varient societies. The types of marriages in
sociology are as listed and explained below.

Polygyny

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries more than one woman at a given time. It is of
two types --- Sororal polygyny and non sororal polygyny

Sororal polygyny

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate.

Non-sororal polygyny

It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as sisters.

Polyandry

It is the marriage of one woman with more than one man. It is less common than polygyny. It is
of two types---- Fraternal Polyandry and non fraternal polyandry.

Fraternal polyandry

When several brothers share the same wife the practice can be called alelphic or fraternal
polyandry. This practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called
levirate. It is prevalent among Todas.

Non - fraternal polyandry

In this type the husband need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes
to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands; the
others have no claim over her.

Monogamy

It is a form of marriage in which one man marries one woman .It is the most common and
acceptable form of marriage.
Serial monogamy

In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse
or after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.
Straight monogamy:

In this remarriage is not allowed.

Group Marriage:

It means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the husbands are
common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the children of the
entire group as a whole.

Rules of Marriage

No society gives absolute freedom to its members to select their partners. Endogamy and
exogamy are the two main rules that condition marital choice.

Endogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which the life-partners are to be selected within the group. It is
marriage within the group and the group may be caste, class, tribe, race, village, religious group
etc.We have caste endogamy, class endogamy, sub caste endogamy, race endogamy and tribal
endogamy etc.In caste endogamy marriage has to take place within the caste. Brahmin has to
marry a Brahmin. In sub caste endogamy it is limited to the sub caste groups.

Exogamy:

It is a rule of marriage in which an individual has to marry outside his own group. It prohibits
marrying within the group. The so-called blood relatives shall neither have marital connections
nor sexual contacts among themselves.

Forms of exogamy:

Gotra Exogamy: The Hindu practice of one marrying outside one's own gotra.

Pravara Exogamy: Those who belong to the same pravara cannot marry among themselves.

Village Exogamy: Many Indian tribes like Naga,Garo,Munda etc have the practice of marrying
outside their village.
Pinda Exogamy: Those who belong to the same panda or sapinda( common parentage) cannot
marry within themselves.

Sororate and Levirate marriage:

Levirate marriage is the obligation of a surviving brother to marry the widow of his brother if
he died without having sired children. The outcome is that the widow must marry a brother-in-
law rather than anyone outside the family. The oldest of the surviving brothers had the first
obligation to perform this commandment, which also allowed him to inherit all of his dead
brother’s property.

Sororate marriage is the sociological custom of a man marrying or engaging in sexual activity
with his wife's sister, usually after the wife is dead or has proven infertile. From an
anthropological standpoint, this type of marriage strengthens the ties between both the wife's
family or clan and the husband's and preserves the contract between the two to provide children
and continue the alliance.

Forms of family:

Nuclear Family:

A nuclear family is a family which consists of husband, wife and their unmarried children. The
size of nuclear family is very small. It is an autonomous unit. There is no control of the elders
because newly weds crate a separate residence for themselves which is independent of elders. It
is also known as primary family. It is an ideal family. Murdock divides nuclear family into two
types such as (a) The Family of orientation and (b) the Family of procreation.

The family in which an individual is born and reared and socialized is known as the family of
orientation. It consists of father, mother, brother and sister. On the other hand the family of
procreation refers to the family established by the person through marriage. It consist of husband,
wife their sons and daughters.

Joint or Extended Family:

Extended or joint family is large in size. It consist of a number of nuclear family. It includes
members of three to four generations. It is an extension of parent child relationship. This family
is based on close blood ties. It is like the joint family of Hindu Society. The eldest male member
is the head of the family. Children of the family even after their marriage has little importance.
Extended family consists of father, mother, their sons and their wife, unmarried daughters, grand
children, grand father, grandmother, uncles, aunts, their children and so on. This type of family
found to exist in rural community or agrarian economy.
 Sociology – II
UNIT – II
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:
a. Sacred and Profane

b. Rites and Rituals

c. Communalism and Fundamentalism

d. Secularism

Religion:

Religion is one of the largest social institutions that sociologists study. Throughout history,
religion has been a central part of all known human societies. Sociologists study religion to
understand religious experiences around the world and how religion is tied to other social
institutions. They study religion objectively, and their purpose is not to judge. They do not
attempt to say whether any religion is right or wrong. Instead, sociologists try to determine why
religions take a particular form and how religious activities affect society as a whole.

Sacred and Profone

Religion can be defined as a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on the
sacred. To better understand this definition, let's also define two other terms: profane and sacred.
We define most objects or experiences as profane, which is an ordinary element of everyday life.
Objects, like beds, computers, and phones, are profane, as are experiences, like going to work or
brushing our teeth. Beyond the profane, most of us also consider some things sacred, which is set
apart as extraordinary or holy and worthy of honor. Objects, like the Bible and the cross, and
experiences, like taking communion, are sacred to some people.

Rites and Rituals:

Rituals are typically formal social ceremonies that take place in a prescribed way, often in a
sacred context. Rituals follow established customs, such as when those getting married say their
vows to one another. These rituals convey information about the culture and about the
participants of that culture. Those who attend recognize the ritual as having an important
meaning. Participating in a ritual provides an opportunity for an individual to fulfill a social
commitment to their community of people.

A rite generally refers to a religious ritual that is an important part of a particular faith tradition:
for example, the rite of baptism, or the rite of communion, which are both important to
Christians. Also, some sociologists also use the word in the phrase “rite of passage,” referring to
a ritual that marks a person’s transition from one part of their life to another— the Bar Mitzvah
and Bat Mitzvah ritual among Jews marks the transition from childhood to adulthood, for
example. In other words, a rite is something holy or sacred, often a long-standing tradition that is
supervised by a member of the clergy or by a person considered holy by that society or religious
group.

Fundamentalism and Communalism

Religious fundamentalism refers to the belief of an individual or a group of individuals in the

absolute authority of a sacred religious text or teachings of a particular religious leader, prophet,
and/ or God . These fundamentalists believe that their religion is beyond any form of criticism,
and should therefore also be forced upon others. Logical explanations and scientific evidences
have no place in these belief systems if they work against their religious fundamentalists. For
fundamentalists, religion dictates every sphere of their daily lives, and they also attempt to
involve the entire society into their own belief system, often by the use of force.

Communalism refers to a politics that seeks to unify one community around a religious identity
in hostile opposition to another community. It seeks to define this community identity as
fundamental and fixed. It attempts to consolidate this identity and present it as natural – as if
people were born into the identity, as if the identities do not evolve through history over time. In
order to unify the community, communalism suppresses distinctions within the community and
emphasizes the essential unity of the community against other communities. One could say
communalism nurtures a politics of hatred for an identified “other”—ex: “Hindus” in the case of
Muslim communalism and “Muslims in the case of Hindu communalism. This hatred feeds a
politics of violence. It is a particular kind of politicization of religious identity, an ideology that
seeks to promote conflict between religious communities.

Secularism

The separation of religion and state is the foundation of secularism. It ensures religious groups
don't interfere in affairs of state, and the state doesn't interfere in religious affairs.

Secularism seeks to ensure and protect freedom of religious belief and practice for all citizens.
Secularists want freedoms of thought and conscience to apply equally to all – believers and non-
believers alike. They do not wish to curtail religious freedoms. Secularism seeks to defend the
absolute freedom of religious and other belief, and protect the right to manifest religious belief
insofar as it does not impinge on the rights and freedoms of others. Secularism ensures that the
right of individuals to freedom of religion is always balanced by the right to be free from
religion.
 Sociology – II
UNIT – III
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:

a. Caste: Features, Mobility, Dominant Caste

b. Class and status: Marx and Weber

c. Gender: Equality, Neutrality and Third gender

Social stratification:

Caste: Features, Mobility, Dominant Caste

The word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese “casta”, means “race, lineage, or breed”.
Portuguese employed casta in the modern sense when they applied it to hereditary Indian social groups
called as ‘jati’ in India. ‘Jati’ originates from the root word ‘Jana’ which implies taking birth. Thus, caste
is concerned with birth.

ORIGIN OF CASTE SYSTEM IN INDIA

There is no certain date when the caste system came into existence in India. But according to the
Manusmriti, the caste system in India was, in the beginning, a system of prescribing codes of conduct for
people to suit the requirements of their occupation. Thus, it was based on their occupation. But gradually
the occupation of people became hereditary and the caste system also changed from occupation to birth
and heredity. Now caste of a person got fixed at the time of his/her birth and so was his/her social status.

As far as theory of origin of caste system is concerned, the religious theory explains that according the
Rig Veda, which is one of the most sacred religious texts of Hindus, different Varnas were created from
different parts of the primal Purusha’s (the First Person) body; the Brahmans were created from his head,
the Kshatrias from his hands, the Vaishias from his thighs and the Sudras from his feet. Some theories
also believe that the primal Purusha was nothing but the God Brahma himself. So according to them,
different Varnas originated from lord Brahma.

CLASSIFICATION OF CASTES IN CASTE SYSTEM

Castes were first classified according to their occupation. But due to access to wealth, power, and
privilege, two of the upper castes viz Brahmins and Kshatriyas started to use religious sanctions to
monopolize their position. History tells us the same that the dominant position in society was
monopolized by two main upper castes.
More or less, the situation is still the same. These two upper castes are considered as superior to
the lower castes. And the sanction or validity to this superiority was provided by various
religious writings so that no one should question this position. Such people in position of power
like to perpetuate their strategic position by means of force or ritualistic customs.

As far as social stratification is concerned, the Brahmins, generally priests and scholars, are at
the top. Next strata consist of the Kshatriyas, the ruling class and soldiers. Usually, the
Kshatriyas collaborated with the Brahmins as they governed over their empire. A Kshatriya is
branded by physical and martial strength.

Next in the hierarchy are the Vaishyas, or merchant class. It was the duty of the Vaishyas to
ensure the community’s prosperity through agriculture, cattle rearing, trade and business. The
Vaishyas were considered to be weak in comparison. And they were exploited for by their rulers.
The luxurious lifestyle of the ruling class and wars etc were maintained on the cost of Vaishyas.

Then there were Shudras, the lowest in four Varnas. They are labourers, peasants, artisans, and
servants. Shudras were believed to not have any special abilities and were considered only
capable of serving as slaves to the upper three classes. They were having no rights or privileges,
and were not permitted to perform any sacrifices or homa, read or learn the Vedas or recite the
mantras. They were also not allowed even to enter into the temples and to participate in any
religious rituals.

These discriminatory practices against so-called Sudras are still prevalent in our society in large
measure.

Apart from these four Varnas, another section was there which was considered lowest of them
all. They were ‘untouchables’, the outcastes; because they were not considered part of any of the
said four Varnas. These ‘untouchables’ were there to perform such occupations that were
considered unclean and polluting, such as scavenging and skinning dead animals. These were the
most discriminated and exploited ones; all the four Varnas maintained distance from them. And
it was considered as sin even if a shadow of an outcaste lied on anyone.

Caste Mobility:

Indian social reality has been analysed by social scientists in terms of social categories like caste,
class, tribe and religious and linguistic groups. The same categories have been used for getting
an insight into the process of change in the society. While earlier it was maintained that caste
system keeps Indian society as a closed system, now it is said that the triangle of endogamy,
hierarchy and pollution is breaking down (K.S. Singh, 1992:23).

The problem of social mobility is directly linked with the system of social stratification.
Yogendra Singh is of the opinion that the tradition-modernity dichotomy in the studies of social
mobility has often led to a confusion of perspectives. Such confusion was found among western
scholars. It led them to contend that mobility was absent in the social system of traditional India
which was said to have a closed system (ascriptive-oriented) of social stratification.

Caste mobility at different levels:

(i) Through warfare,

(ii) Through serving rulers,

(iii) Through census commissioners at different levels,

(iv) Through social processes of sanskritisation and westernisation, and

(v) By use of politics.

Dominant Caste:

A caste may be said to be dominant when it preponderates numerically over other castes and
when it also wields preponderant economic and political power. A large and powerful caste
group can be more easily dominant if its position in the local caste hierarchy is not too low.” —
M.N. Srinivas

McKim Marriott viewed that the concept of dominant caste in various studies of anthropological
research lies on the political power which traditionally called as juridical power in village
community and at times yields religious and quasi-divine power and the power to employ
physical force.

“A caste to be dominant, it should own a sizable amount of the arable land locally available,
have strength of numbers and occupy a high place in the local hierarchy. When a caste has all the
attributes of dominance, it may be said to enjoy a decisive dominance.” —M.N. Srinivas

Dimension of Functions of Dominant Caste:

1. The dominant caste often acts as a reference model to the lower caste group. The lower caste
people imitate their behaviour, ritual pattern, customs etc. In this way, they help in cultural
transmission.

2. The dominant castes of a particular locality act as watch dogs of pluralistic culture and system.
They set norms and regulations for social life. Anyone who violates the norms Is severely
punished. Anil Bhatt has pointed out that the leaders of the locally dominant caste may arbitrate
in village disputes. They decide the mode of rewards and punishment. They may determine civic
and economic privileges.

3. Dominant castes are the main power holders. They establish contacts with the outside
government officials, elected representatives and political leaders. They influence the political
process.

4. Dominant castes because of their dominant position exploit all the developmental sources in
their favour. They act as agents of rehabilitation programmes. They accelerate the process of
socio-economic developments.

5. The Dominant castes set values and norms for the community. Traditionally, its primary
functions were Judicial, executive and legitimacy. They form the vital link between the villages
and the other world. They also help in the socialisation process.

6. Due to dominant position in rural society, they control the rural economy in various ways and
means.

7. Dominant castes play a greater role in the process of modernisation.

Class and status: Marx and Weber

A social class may be defined as a stratum of people of similar position in the social status. The
social status of a janitor is not the same as that of the college president; a student will not greet
them in exactly the same manner. People afford differential treatment owing to different classes.
The members of a social class view each other as equals, while holding themselves to be socially
superior to some and socially inferior to others. They are classified as similar in terms of values,
norms and worldviews in life and also their economic status in term of their position in market
economy.

Social classes arise out of consequences of ‘division of labour’. Each class defines social and
economic position in community, including wealth and income, occupation, education, self-
identification, hereditary prestige, groups’ participation and recognition by others.

KARL MARX

Class: a form of social stratification which is defined in purely economic terms. The
relationships are analysed in terms of ownership and non ownership of means of production. The
owners are the haves and the non owners are the have nots. Marx looked at classes as tangible
collectives, as real social forces capable of changing the society. In a capitalist society Marx
identified two classes of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.

Class consciousness: originally used by Marx to describe a situation when the proletariat
becomes aware of its ‘objective class position’ vis a vis the bourgeoisie. The proletariat will
develop from a ‘class in itself’(simple collection of workers sharing a common class position but
with no collective awareness) to a ‘class for itself’ (workers with collective awareness).

MAX WEBER

Class and status groups

Unlike Marx, Weber believed that classes in society could be divided into more than just two. He
argued that classes were divided on the basis of two similarities among people

1. Their market situation: where is a person located in the economy of a society

2. Their life chances: chances of a person to achieve certain materialistic and non
materialistic goals which are highly valued in society.

Instead of getting polarised into two extreme opposites of the have and the have nots, Weber
argues that the rise of the middle class takes place as a result of dissatisfaction with the economic
structure. According to him classes in society can be roughly classified into:

1. The propertied upper class

2. The property-less white collar workers

3. The petty bourgeoisie

4. The manual worker class

He says that these classes are distributed based on their market situation in a particular economy.
This stratification does not necessarily entail their identification with each other leading to class
consciousness and eventually a revolution.

Gender: Equality, Neutrality and Third gender

People tend to use the terms “sex” and “gender” interchangeably. We assign a newborn’s sex as
either male or female*, based on their genitals. Once a sex is assigned, we presume the child’s
gender. Someone born with a penis will be a boy and someone with a vulva will be a girl. For
many people, this is cause for little, if any, concern or further thought.



Dimensions of Gender


While our gender may begin with the assignment of our sex, it doesn’t end there. A person’s
gender is the complex interrelationship between three dimensions:

– Body: our body, our experience of our own body, how society genders bodies, and how others
interact with us based on our body.
– Identity: our deeply held, internal sense of self as male, female, a blend of both, or neither; who
we internally know ourselves to be.

– Expression: how we present our gender in the world and how society, culture, community, and
family perceive, interact with, and try to shape our gender. Gender expression is also related to
gender roles and how society uses those roles to try to enforce conformity to current gender
norms.

Each of these dimensions can vary greatly across a range of possibilities. A person’s comfort in
their gender is related to the degree.

Gender Neutrality

The state or condition that affords women and men equal enjoyment of human rights, socially
valued goods, opportunities and resources, allowing both sexes the same opportunities and
potential to contribute to, and benefit from, all spheres of society (economic, political, social, and
cultural.

Example: A family has limited funds, and both daughter and son need new pair of shoes for the
new school year, but only one can get new shoes this year. If the family decides (and who in the
family decides?) which child will get the new shoes based on the child’s NEED, and not on the
child’s sex, this is an example of gender equality.

Third Gender

According to the World Health Organization, term gender refers to “socially constructed
characteristics of women and men – such as the norms, roles and relationships that exist between
them”. The organisation also emphasises the recognition of individuals that do not fit into the
binary male or female sex categories and comprise the “other” group, often called “third gender”.

This term broadly refers to individuals being categorised as neither man or woman, either by
society or themselves. It is often used as a social category when more than 2 genders are
recognised and means “other” – the one apart from “male” and “female”. It has been used among
many populations with alternative gender identities, such as muxes in Mexico, hijras in South
Asia, kathoeys in Thailand, fa'afafine in Polynesia and more.

“Third gender” is frequently used to conceptualise “transgender” and represents a third option
apart from ‘male’ and ‘female’. In 2014 India Supreme Court declared transgender to be a 'third
gender' in Indian law.
 Sociology – II
UNIT – IV
NOTES FOR B.A LLB STUDENTS
Topics:

a. Theories: Positivist Approach, Labelling Theory, Functionalist Theory, Subculture Theory

b. Social Problems and Social Legislation: Women and Children

c. Sexual Violence against Women & Children: Myths and Realities

d. Marginalised Groups: Differently abled.

Marginalised Groups and Deviants

Theories: Positivist Approach, Labelling Theory, Functionalist Theory, Subculture Theory

2) Labelling theory: The labelling Theory of Crime is associated with Interactionism – the Key
ideas are that crime is socially constructed, agents of social control label the powerless as deviant
and criminal based on stereotypical assumptions and this creates effects such as the self-fulfilling
prophecy, the criminal career and deviancy amplification.

Interactionists argue that people do not become criminals because of their social background, but
rather argue that crime emerges because of labelling by authorities. They see crime as the
product of micro-level interactions between certain individuals and the police, rather than the
result of external social forces such as socialisation or blocked opportunity structures.

Four Key concepts associated with Interactionist theories of deviance

1. Crime is Sociology Constructed – An act which harms an individual or society else only
becomes criminal if those in power label that act as criminal.

2. Not everyone who is deviant gets labelled as such – negative labels are generally
(deviant/ criminal) are generally given to the powerless by the powerful.

3. Labelling has real consequences – it can lead to deviancy amplification, the self-fulfilling
prophecy and deviant careers.

4. Labelling theory has a clear ‘value position’ – it should aim to promote policies that
prevent labelling minor acts as deviant.

3) Functionalist theory:

Its central idea is that society is a complex unit, made up of interrelated parts. Sociologists who
apply this theory study social structure and social function. French sociologist Émile
Durkheim based his work on this theory.

Durkheim argued that deviance is a normal and necessary part of any society because it
contributes to the social order. He identified four specific functions that deviance fulfills:

1. Affirmation of cultural norms and values: Seeing a person punished for a deviant act
reinforces what a society sees as acceptable or unacceptable behavior. Sentencing a thief
to prison affirms our culturally held value that stealing is wrong. Just as some people
believe that the concept of God could not exist without the concept of the devil, deviance
helps us affirm and define our own norms.

2. Clarification of right and wrong: Responses to deviant behavior help individuals

distinguish between right and wrong. When a student cheats on a test and receives a
failing grade for the course, the rest of the class learns that cheating is wrong and will not
be tolerated.

3. Unification of others in society: Responses to deviance can bring people closer together.
In the aftermath of the attacks on September 11, 2001, people across the United States,
and even the world, were united in their shock and grief. There was a surge in patriotic
feeling and a sense of social unity among the citizens of the United States.
 4. Promoting social change: Deviance can also encourage the dominant society to consider
alternative norms and values. Rosa Parks’s act of deviance in Montgomery, Alabama, in
1955 led to the U.S. Supreme Court’s declaration that segregation on public
transportation was unconstitutional.

Subculture Theory:

A Subculture is a group that has values that are different to the mainstream culture. Subcultural
theorists argue that deviance is the result of whole groups breaking off from society who have
deviant values (subcultures) and deviance is a result of these individuals conforming to the
values and norms of the subculture to which they belong.

In contrast to Social Control theorists, it is the pull of the peer group that encourages individuals
to commit crime, rather than the lack of attachment to the family or other mainstream
institutions. Subcultural theory also helps explain non-utilitarian crimes such as vandalism and
joy riding which strain theory cannot really explain. Deviance is a collective response to
marginalisation.

Social Problems and Social Legislation: Women and Children

Social issues (also social problem, social evil, and social conflict) refers to any undesirable condition
that is opposed either by the whole society or by a section of the society. It is an unwanted social
condition, often objectionable, the continuance of which is harmful for the society.

India is facing a large number of social issues such as caste system, child labour, illiteracy, gender
inequality, superstitions, religious conflicts, and many more. It is high time that the society gets relief
from these undesirable social evils.

Major Social Issues: We have prepared a list of major social issues in India. They are briefly
discussed below in the following order:

1. Caste system
2. Poverty
3. Child labour
4. Child marriage
5. Illiteracy
6. Low status of women
 7. Gender inequality at work
8. Dowry system
9. Sati practice
10. Alcoholism
11. Superstition
12. Sanitation and cleanliness
13. Religious conflicts
14. Beggary
15. Juvenile delinquency

Laws related to women in India:

• The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

• The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986
• The commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1987
• The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005
• The Sexual Harassment Women at Workplace (Prevention. Prohibition and Redressal)
Act, 2013

Laws relating to children in India:

• The Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act 2012

• The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
• Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2000
• Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986
• Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976
• Prohibition of child Marriage Act, 2006
Marginalised Groups: Differently abled

In general, the term ‘marginalization’ describes the overt actions or tendencies of human
societies, where people who they perceive to undesirable or without useful function, are
excluded, i.e., marginalized. These people, who are marginalized, from a GROUP or
COMMUNITY for their protection and integration and are known as ‘marginalized groups’. This
limits their opportunities and means for survival.

Usually a minority group has the following characteristics

1) It suffers from discrimination and subordination.

2) They have physical and/or cultural traits that set them apart, and which are disapproved of, by
a dominant group.
3) They share a sense of collective identity and common burdens.
4) They have shared social rules about who belongs, and who does not.
5) They have a tendency to marry within the group.

Thus, marginalization is a complex as well as shifting phenomenon linked to social status.

People with disabilities :

People with disabilities have had to battle against centuries of biased assumptions, harmful
stereotypes, and irrational fears. The stigmatization of disability resulted in the social and
economic marginalization of generations with disabilities, and, like many other oppressed
minorities, this has left people with disabilities in a severe state of impoverishment for centuries.
The proportion of disabled population in India is about 21.9 million. The percentage of disabled
population to the total population is about 2.13 per cent. There are interstate and interregional
differences in the disabled population. The disabled face various types of barriers while seeking
access to health and health services. Among those who are disabled women, children and aged
are more vulnerable and need attention.

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