Engineering

Measurements
2 ND YEAR – 3RD SEMESTER
2023 - 2024

Lecturer: Mr. Mohammed A. Sulaiman

ERBIL POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY

ERBIL TECHNICAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE
MECHANICAL AND ENERGY ENGINEERING TECHNIQUE DEPARTMENT
COURSE CONTENTS

UNIT - 1 Measurement Characteristics (Lectures 1 & 2)

UNIT - 2 Mechanical Variables Measurement — Thermal (Lectures 3 & 4)

UNIT - 3 Mechanical Variables Measurement — Solid (Lectures 5 & 6)

UNIT - 4 Mechanical Variables Measurement — Fluid (Lectures 7 & 8)

UNIT - 5 Radiation and Wave Measurements (Lecture 9)

UNIT - 6 Control Systems and Systematic Error Sources (Bias) (Lecture 10)

UNIT - 7 Calibration of Instrumentation and Measurement Uncertainty Model

(Lectures 11 & 12)

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

 TOPICS TO BE COVERED 1 LECTURE Eight
Definition- Basic Principles Unit 4 - Mechanical Variables
of Measurments Measurement — Fluid
▪ Velocity Flow Meters – Including Moving
Member Meters • Flow Measurement

▪ Positive Displacement Flowmeters • Point Velocity Measurement

▪ Variable Area Flowmeters • Viscosity Measurement

▪ Other Types Flowmeters • Surface Tension Measurement

▪ Viscosity Measurement
▪ Surface Tension Measurement
Velocity Flow Meters – Including Moving Member Meters
ii. Velocity Flow Meters:
Velocity flow measurement techniques allow for the measurement of total flow by measuring
the velocity of the fluid within a fixed area duct or pipe. The technique uses a measuring probe
to determine the velocity of the fluid in the center portion of the pipe.

Velocity Flow Meter Types:

1. Pitot Tube
2. Hot Wire / Film probes
3. Moving Member Meters

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Pitot Tube
Pitot Tube:
The Pitot tube is a simple device that allows for the measurement of the flow pressure in a
moving fluid. This device is a section of tube that measures the pressure at the tip and the
pressure at the side of the tube. Reading this differential pressure and applying Bernoulli’s
equation will allow for the calculation of the fluid velocity.

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Pitot Tube
The above diagram shows how the Pitot tube is constructed of two tubes, one inside the other,
to create a static pressure port and a flow pressure port. Applying Bernoulli’s equation we get:

If we solve for the velocity we get the following equation:

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Hot Wire / Film probes
Hot Wire / Film probes:
While Pitot tubes work well for high flow rates in gasses, and a variety of flow rates in liquids,
the technique fails for low air velocities in gasses. To solve this gap in velocity measurement
technology, the hot wire and hot film probes were developed. The accuracy of these devices is
typically around 1% or so and are generally designed for use in air, although most can be
calibrated for other gasses as well.

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Moving Member Meters
Moving Member Meters:
Another method of measuring the flow velocity in a duct or pipe is the special class of
transducers called “moving member” meters. These fall into two primary classifications,
turbines and paddlewheels. Both of these measure the velocity of the fluid in the tube or duct.
What makes them different from other velocity measurement devices is that they employ a
moving element to determine the flow, unlike the pitot tube and hot wire probes.
One example of moving member flowmeter is called Axial Turbine Flowmeter.

FIGURE Longitudinal section of an axial turbine flowmeter

depicting the key components. The flowmeter body is usually a
magnetically transparent stainless steel such as 304. Common end-
fittings include face flanges (depicted), various threaded fittings
and tri-clover fittings. The upstream and downstream diffusers are
the same in bidirectional meters, and generally supported by three
or more flat plates, or sometimes tubular structures, aligned with
the body, which also act as flow straighteners. The relative size of
the annular flow passage at the rotor varies among different
designs. Journal rotor bearings are frequently used for liquids,
while ball bearings are often used for gases. Magnetic reluctance
pickups (depicted) are frequently used. Others types include
mechanical and modulated carrier pickups. (1) End fitting — flange
shown; (2) flowmeter body; (3) rotation pickup — magnetic,
reluctance type shown; (4) permanent magnet; (5) pickup cold
wound on pole piece; (6) rotor blade; (7) rotor hub; (8) rotor shaft
bearing — journal type shown; (9) rotor shaft; (10) diffuser support
and flow straightener; (11) diffuser; (12) flow conditioning plate
(dotted) — optional with some meters.

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Positive Displacement Flowmeters
iii. Positive Displacement Flowmeters:
A positive displacement flowmeter, commonly called a PD meter, measures the volume flow
rate of a continuous flow stream by momentarily entrapping a segment of the fluid into a
chamber of known volume and releasing that fluid back into the flow stream on the discharge
side of the meter. Common types of PD meter are:

1. Sliding-Vane Type PD Meter

2. Tri-Rotor Type PD Meter
3. Birotor PD Meter
4. Piston Type PD Meter
5. Oval Gear PD Meter
6. Nutating-Disk Type PD Meters
7. Roots PD Meter

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Variable Area Flowmeters
iv. Variable Area Flowmeters:
There is a class of flow meters which use the pressure drop caused by an obstruction in the
flow in a unique way. These meters, call variable area flow meters depend on the flow of the
fluid to carry an object along. In a fixed diameter pipe, the object would be carried along with
the flow based on the resistance to that flow. If the flow is moving in a variable diameter pipe,
the force on that object changes with changes in the pipe diameter, and hence, the clearance
between the sides of the object and the sides of pipe. Common types of variable area
flowmeters are:
1. Rotameter
2. Movable Vane Meter
3. Notch or Weir

Rotameter:
The rotameter is a variable area meter that
employs a vertical tube of varying diameter, with
an object inserted in it. This object is known as the
float. This type meter is used only in a vertical
position, as gravity is a primary force involved in
the calibration of the device.

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Variable Area Flowmeters - Rotameter
• In the Rotameter the drop in pressure is constant and the flow rate is function of the area of
constriction. When the fluid is flowing the float rises until its weight is balanced by the up
thrust of the fluid.
Force balance on the float
Gravity force = up thrust force +(drag force)Pressure force
Vf ρf g = Vf ρ g+ (–ΔP) Af

Where,
A1 : cross-section area of the tube when the float arrived
A2 : cross-section area of the annulus (flow area)
Cd : discharge coefficient
V : volume
Q : volume flow
Subscript f : float
Ρ : density
Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman
Variable Area Flowmeters - Movable Vane
Movable Vane Meter:
The movable vane meter is a robust device suitable for the measurement of high flow rates
where only moderate requirements on the measurement accuracy are made. Dirty fluids can
also be metered.

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Variable Area Flowmeters - Notch or Weir
Notch or Weir:
It is an obstruction in the channel that causes the liquid to back up behind it and to flow over it
or through it. By measuring the height of upstream water surface, the rate of flow is
determined. The velocity with which the liquid leaves depends on its initial depth below the
surface. Many shapes of notch are available of which three shapes are given here as follows:

1. Rectangular Notch

2. Triangular Notch

3. Trapezoidal Notch

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Other Types Flowmeters
Other Types Flowmeters:
1. Electromagnetic Flowmeters
2. Ultrasonic Flowmeters
3. Vortex Shedding Flowmeters
4. Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
5. Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters
Figure Electromagnetic Flowmeters

Figure Ultrasonic Flowmeters Figure Vortex Shedding Figure Thermal Mass Flow Sensors
Flowmeters

Figure Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeters

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Viscosity Measurement
Viscosity Measurement:
An important mechanical property of fluids is Viscosity Physical systems and applications as
diverse as fluid flow in pipes, the flow of blood, lubrication of engine parts, the dynamics of
raindrops, volcanic eruptions, planetary and stellar magnetic field generation, to name just a
few, all involve fluid flow and are controlled to some degree by fluid viscosity. Viscosity is
defined as the internal friction of a fluid.

Viscometer Types:
The instruments for viscosity measurements are designed to determine “a fluid’s resistance to
flow,” a fluid property defined above as viscosity. The fluid flow in a given instrument geometry
defines the strain rates, and the corresponding stresses are the measure of resistance to flow. If
strain rate or stress is set and controlled, then the other one will, everything else being the
same, depend on the fluid viscosity.

1. Concentric Cylinders Viscometer

2. Cone-and-Plate Viscometers
3. Parallel Disks Viscometer
4. Capillary Viscometers
5. Saybolt Viscometer
6. Falling Objects Viscometer

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Surface Tension Measurement
Surface Tension :
▪ Surface tension is a fundamental property by which the gas–liquid interfaces are
characterized. The zone between a gaseous phase and a liquid phase looks like a surface of
zero thickness. The surface acts like a membrane under tension.
▪ It reflects in principle directly the strength of bonding within the bulk material. Due to very
different binding forces, hard solids (covalent, ionic, metallic) typically reveal “high-energy”
surfaces (surface tension ~500–5000 mJ/m2) in contrast to weak molecular solids and
liquids (soft matter) with “low-energy” surfaces (surface tension < 100 mJ/m2).
▪ Most polymers belong to the second class of materials where interactions between chains
are dominated by van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds.
▪ Surface and interfacial tensions of polymers play a key role in wetting and coating processes,
in biocompatibility or polymer blending, and in corrosion and adsorption processes. The
behavior of colloidal dispersions, adhesion, and friction is influenced by surface and
interface tension.
▪ A molecule in the bulk liquid is subjected to attractive forces(also known as cohesion forces)
from all directions by the surrounding molecules. It is practically in a uniform field of force.
But for the molecule at the surface of the liquid, the net attraction towards the bulk of the
liquid is much greater than the attraction towards the vapor phase, because the molecules
in the vapor phase are more widely dispersed.
Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman
Surface Tension Measurement

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Surface Tension Measurement

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Surface Tension Measurement

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

Surface Tension Measurements
Surface Tension Measuring Methods:
1. Capillary Rise Method
2. Wilhelmy Plate and du Noüy Ring Methods
3. Maximum Bubble Pressure Method
4. Pendant Drop and Sessile Drop Methods
5. Drop Weight or Volume Method
6. Spinning Drop Method
7. Specialized Methods

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman

HomeWorks
1- A rotameter tube of 0.3 m long with an internal diameter of 25 mm at the top and 20 mm
at the bottom. The diameter of float is 20 mm, its sp.gr. is 4.8 and its volume is 6 cm3. If
the coefficient of discharge is 0.7, what will be the flow rate water when the float is half
way up the tube?

2- A Pitottube is inserted in the pipe of 30 cm I.D. The static pressure head is 10 cm Hg

vacuum, and the stagnation pressure at center of the pipe is 0.981 N/cm2gauge. Calculate
the discharge of water through the pipe if u/umax= 0.85. Take Cp = 0.98.

3- A Pitottube is placed at a center of a 30 cm I.D. pipe line has one orifice pointing upstream
and other perpendicular to it. The mean velocity in the pipe is 0.84 of the center velocity
(i.e. u/ux=0.94). Find the discharge through the pipe if: -
i-The fluid flow through the pipe is water and the pressure difference between orifice is 6
cm H2O.
ii-The fluid flow through the pipe is oil of sp.gr. = 0.78 and the reading manometer is 6 cm
H2O. Take Cp = 0.98.

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HomeWorks
4- A rectangular notch has a discharge of 21.5 m3/min, when the head of water is half the
length of the notch. Find the length of the notch where Cd= 0.6.

5- A rectangular channel 1.5 m wide is used to carry 0.2 m3/s water. The rate of flow is
measured by placing a 90º V-notch weir. If the maximum depth of water is not to exceed
1.2 m, find the position of the apex of the notch from the bed of channel. Cd= 0.6.

6- A trapezoidal notch 120 cm wide at top and 45 cm at the bottom has 30 cm height. Find
the discharge through the notch, if the head of water is 22.5 cm. Cd1 = Cd2 = 0.6.

Mechanical & Energy Eng. Department M.A. Sulaiman