Embedded Systems Assignment-5, S Raguraam, RVCE22BME036

1. Analog and Digital data:

The data that exists in the natural world is analog data. In general, analog signal is an
electrical signal that is directly related to physical quantity or data. For example, Sound signals
from microphone are converted to analog electrical signal which is then processed. Analog
signals are used in Audio systems, Radio telecommunication systems, etc. It is important to
note that most electronic sensors produce analog signals.

A signal which represents data using discreet values with set amplitude is called binary or
digital signal. Digital signals are used in computers, microprocessors, microcontrollers and
most other electronic devices due to their ease of computation and less noise.

2. Need for Data Conversion

Analog signals are the common signals that are produced by sensors in an embedded system.
Analog signals give the most accurate representation of physical data. Digital signals are the
easiest to mathematically manipulate and perform calculations by an arithmetic logic unit.
They are also easier to store and prone to less noise. Thus, there is a need to convert analog
signals to digital for best storage and accurate manipulation without loss of data. Analog to
Digital Converters (ADC) are used to convert the signals to digital. Once the digital output is
obtained in an embedded system, it is sometimes needed to convert the digital output back to
analog in order to drive various actuators. Digital to Analog Converters (DAC) are used for
this purpose.

3. Applications of ADC and DAC

Applications of ADC
(a) Used to convert Analog audio signals from microphone to digital signals for recording,
processing and editing.
(b) Used to convert data from sensors to computer readable digital format.
(c) Used in CMOS sensors in cameras to obtain digital images, Measurement devices such as
multimeter and oscilloscope, etc.
 Embedded Systems Assignment-5, S Raguraam, RVCE22BME036

Applications of DAC
(a) Used to control actuators and motors.
(b) Used in Digital Signal Processing.
(c) Used to reproduce sound from stored digital audio data to playback music, speech, etc.

4. Basic Steps in ADC

Analog Digital Conversion includes 3 steps:

(Step 1): Sampling of Analog Signal:

Analog signals are usually continuous, while digital signals are discrete. In order to convert
analog to digital, the signal must be discretized by sampling the signal values at different time
intervals to get a rough mapping of the data contained in the signal. The sampled signal
therefore contains the signal values at discrete intervals of time.

The rate at which the signal is sampled is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.
During sampling, the intermediate data of the signal is lost. To ensure faithful reproduction of
the original signal from the sampled signal in further processing stages without any errors, the
sampling frequency must be set high enough to avoid excessive loss of data.
The sampling frequency directly affects the quality of digital signal produced as well as the
size of data, complexity and cost.

The Nyquist Theorem states that the sampling frequency of a signal must be at least twice the
maximum frequency of the signal to reduce errors.

Fs ≥ 2Fmax
(Step 2): Holding of Sampled Signal
The process of converting the sampled Signal into a step function whose value remains
constant until the next value is called holding.
 Embedded Systems Assignment-5, S Raguraam, RVCE22BME036

The output of holding produces a step signal whose value remains the same until the next
value is sampled.

(Step 3): Quantizing of flat voltage levels

The Step function is fed to an encoder circuit, the encoder compares the value at each time
interval to the quantized binary values. Each data level corresponds to a unique binary code
which can be stored and manipulated. The decimal equivalent of the given data level is given
by:
Decimal equivalent = (2n-1)Va /Vref
The decimal is converted to binary code by encoder.

5. Quantizer
Quantizer is a device that converts the sampled input signal to a quantized signal with fixed
voltage levels. It approximates the signal voltage by choosing the closest quantized voltage to
the signal.
 Embedded Systems Assignment-5, S Raguraam, RVCE22BME036

The number of bits used by the quantizer has a direct influence on the accuracy and resolution
of the signal. A Quantizer with large no. of bits will produce a more accurate quantized signal
but will also require more storage to store the signal data. A lower bit quantizer will produce
lower quality quantized signal which takes up lesser space.

6. Working of Analog to Digital Converters

 Successive Approximation ADC:

A Successive approximation ADC consists of the sample and hold circuits, an op amp
comparator, a successive approximation register and a Digital Analog Converter. It follows
the successive approximation algorithm.
At the start of the cycle, the SAR sets the most significant bit (MSB) of the binary output to
HIGH and all other bits to LOW.
This output is converted into an analog signal by the DAC and sent to the comparator.
The comparator compares the voltage levels of the input voltage and the DAC voltage. If the
Input voltage is higher than DAC voltage, the SAR keeps the MSB of the output as high and
sets the next significant bit to high. If the input voltage is lesser than the DAC voltage, the
SAR sets the MSB of the output to LOW and the next significant bit to HIGH.
The corresponding voltage of the new binary output is generated by DAC and the process is
repeated until all the bits are exhausted. Through this iterative bit wise process, the
Successive Approximation ADC approximates the input voltage to the nearest binary value.

 Flash Type or Parallel ADC:

 Embedded Systems Assignment-5, S Raguraam, RVCE22BME036

A flash type ADC consists of three parts, Voltage divider network, comparators, and a
priority encoder.
The voltage divider network consists of a series of resistors of the same value. Each
comparator is connected to a different resistor to divide the reference voltage into quantized
chunks and provide each comparator with a unique reference voltage.
When the input voltage is fed to the circuit, the comparators simultaneously compare the
input with the different reference voltages. The comparators whose references are lower than
the input drive their respective outputs to HIGH.
The priority encoder detects the highest bit with a HIGH output from the comparator and
converts the value into corresponding binary code. The bit of highest significance with a high
output is prioritized by the encoder. The bits of lesser priority are not considered by the
encoder. This is called ‘don’t care’ condition and is represented by ‘x’ in the truth table.