Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tsep

Effect of spatially varying morphologies of metal foams on phase change T

process
⁎
K. Venkateshwar, S.H. Tasnim, H. Simha, S. Mahmud
School of Engineering, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The structural variation in metal foam in a specific direction yields a heterogeneous structure with variable
Graded Metal foam porosity. The heterogeneous structure of metal foams presents several advantages over homogenous structure
Heat Transfer Enhancement metal foam. The function of spatial porosity variation in a specific direction defines the morphology of the
Morphology Gradient graded metal foam. The effect of six different morphologies of aluminum foams on the heat transfer augmen-
Porosity Gradient
tation during the phase change process of n-octadecane is numerically investigated. A mathematical model based
Porous Media
Unidirectional Solidification
on the enthalpy technique is developed. Numerical techniques are applied to solve the modeled equation in
MATLAB for investigation. The progress of the solid–liquid interface, heat transfer rate, solidification time,
temperature distribution, and average heat transfer rate in different metal foam morphologies, at five different
mean porosities for each morphology, are analyzed. The graded metal foam enhances the heat transfer rate up to
12% and reduces the solidification time up to 10% when compared to the phase change process in a uniform
metal foam. The effect of graded metal foam on heat transfer enhancement reduces upon decreasing the mean
porosity. The study provides an insight into the effect of spatial variation in effective thermal conductivity and
heat capacities on phase change processes, which will assist in the development of efficient Latent Heat Thermal
Energy Storage (LHTES) systems.

1. Introduction performance [24]. Moreover, maintaining mean porosities of metal

Phase Change Materials (PCMs) have tremendous potential to be
employed in various applications ranging from energy storage to
thermal management systems. However, their intrinsic lower thermal
conductivity limits the realization of their true potential. Several
methods to enhance heat transfer during the phase change processes
have been proposed and studied in the past two decades [1–3]. Among
these techniques, the application of metal foam in PCM has been proved
to be one of the most effective techniques [4]. The impregnation of
metal-oxide nanoparticles enhanced PCM in metal foam has been stu-
died to further augment heat transfer [5–7]. Recently, several novel
approaches to augment phase change process have been proposed and
analyzed, such as application of gradient fins [8], tree-shaped fins [9],
fractal geometry of porous medium [10], and Y-shaped fins [11]. An-
other avenue of focus has been the usage of heterogeneous metal foams
with porosity varying with the distance from the boundary [12–23].
This approach allows to utilize the advantage of high thermal con-
ductivity near boundary while maintaining the mean porosity constant.
The constant mean porosity allows to maintain the thermal capacity of
thermal energy storage systems, which is essential for optimal
foam eliminates the increase in material cost.
Yang et al. [12] numerically analyzed the melting of sodium nitrate
in copper metal foams with linearly varying porosity along with the
height, exposed to an isothermal vertical wall. Yang et al. [13] ex-
perimentally studied the progress of unidirectional solidification front
of water in metal foams of different porosities, pore densities, and
materials stacked in the vertical direction with the isothermal bottom
surface. Joshi and Rathod [14] numerically analyzed the melting of
paraffin inside a rectangular cavity partially filled with copper metal
foams of two different porosities, with an isolux boundary condition.
Kumar and Saha [15] numerically studied charging and discharging
inside shell and tube heat exchanger with variable porosity aluminum
metal foam. Tao et al. [16] numerically compared the progress of melt
fractions with time in the copper metal foam of two different porosities
stacked with uniform porosity metal foam having an isothermal bottom
surface. Zhu et al. [17] numerically studied the progress of melting front
and average heat transfer rate during the melting of sodium acetate
with an isothermal vertical boundary in different aluminum metal
foams stacked in the direction away from the isothermal wall. Zhang
and He [18] numerically compared the melting of paraffin wax in

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: smahmud@uoguelph.ca (S. Mahmud).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2020.100667
Received 17 April 2020; Received in revised form 21 July 2020; Accepted 22 July 2020
2451-9049/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
K. Venkateshwar, et al.
Nomenclature
A Parametric constant (=0.35)
Cp Specific heat capacity (J⋅kg−1⋅K−1)
fl Liquid fraction
ft,s Ratio of solidification time in graded to uniform metal
foam
fq,s Ratio of average heat transfer rate in graded to uniform
metal foam
Fo Fourier number
H Enthalpy (J)

H Normalized solidification height (H/L)
hsf Latent heat capacity (J⋅kg−1)
k Thermal conductivity (W⋅m−1⋅K−1)
L Length of the LHTES system (m)
n Morphology parameter
q Heat flux (W⋅m−2)
−
q Average heat flux (W⋅m−2)
Ste Stefan number
Sh Solidification height (m)
T Temperature (K)
aluminum metal foam with porosity linearly varying from 85.9% to
95.8% to the uniform aluminum metal foams of porosities 85.9%,
91.3%, and 95.8%, respectively. Mahdi and Nsofor [19] numerically
compared the variation in melt fractions in three different combinations
of aluminum metal foams in the radial direction inside a shell and tube
configuration. Wei et al. [20] numerically compared the progress of
melting front of PCM in a uniform metal foam, and three different
porosities metal foam stacked inside a shell and tube heat exchanger.
Sardari et al. [21] numerically compared the effect of segmented metal
foam on the melting rate and temperature in an enclosure with isoflux
heating at the bottom. Zhang et al. [22] numerically compared the
melting with an isoflux bottom boundary in metal foam with porosity
varying from 0.85 to 0.95 with a metal foam of uniform porosity of 0.9.
Wang et al. [23] experimentally analyzed the temperature distribution
and liquid fraction variations in a shell and tube type heat exchanger
with uniform metal foam porosity and metal foam of four different
porosities in the radial direction.
Yang et al. [13] and Zhang et al. [22] observed that the arrangement
of metal foam with the porosity increasing away from the heat transfer
surface (i.e., positive gradient) enhanced the heat transfer during the
unidirectional phase change process. However, Tao et al. [16] proposed
the arrangement with higher porosity metal foam close to the hot
bottom surface (i.e., the negative gradient) for enhancement in heat
transfer. They showed that the negative gradient arrangement of 0.88
and 0.92 porosity metal foams led to early completion of melting than a
0.9 uniform porosity metal foam, while the positive gradient arrange-
ment of 0.88 and 0.92 porosities metal foams delayed completion of
melting. However, the negative gradient arrangement of 0.85 and 0.95
porosity metal foams also had an adverse effect on the melting time
compared to a 0.9 uniform porosity metal foam. Sardari et al. [21]
observed that increasing porosity along the height led to a faster
melting rate with an isoflux bottom surface. Yang et al. [12] showed an
arrangement of porosity increasing away from the vertical isothermal
surface enhanced the heat transfer during the melting process. They
observed the effect of non-uniform foam on the melting process to be
dominant at higher mean porosity. Zhu et al. [17] also observed that the
increase in the porosity along the height with the vertical isothermal
wall had a positive effect on heat transfer. As well, they observed the
metal foams stacked with porosity difference of 3% performed better
than 2% and 5%. Mahdi and Nsofor [19] observed a larger number of
segments of metal foam enhanced the heat transfer.
The studies have shown that heterogeneous metal foams have
2
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667
t Time (s)
ts Solidification time (s)
x Distance from isothermal surface (m)
x̂ Normalized distance from isothermal surface (x/L)
Greek Symbols
−
ε Average porosity
ε(x) Porosity at distance x
ρ Density (kg.m−3)
θ Dimensionless time,SteFo
Subscript
c Cold/ wall
eff Effective PCM-metal foam composite property
i Initial
l Liquid
m Melting
PCM Phase Change Material
s Solid
tremendous potential to augment phase-change processes. However,
these studies are limited to analysis of metal foam of different porosities
stacked or linearly varying porosity, which provides limited under-
standing of phase change processes inside heterogeneous metal foams.
Moreover, the findings of Yang et al. [13] and Zhang et al. [22] con-
tradict the recommendation by Tao et al. [16]. As well as, the ob-
servation made by Tao et al. [16] about the effect of the porosity gra-
dient on the melting rate contradicted for different combinations of
metal foam porosities. The existing studies provide limited insight into
the phase change process inside variable morphology metal foams. Few
analytical and semi-analytical studies have been conducted to analyze
the phase change problem in spatially varying thermal conductivity
media by extending the Stefan problem [25–27]. However, these stu-
dies are limited by the assumption of space independent thermal ca-
pacity. The fundamental understanding of the heat transfer phenom-
enon during the phase change processes in the non-uniform porous
medium is essential for the development of efficient systems in-
corporating optimized morphologies of metal foam.
Therefore, as an effort to develop a comprehensive understanding of
the unidirectional phase change process inside heterogeneous metal
foams, six different morphologies, including four novel morphologies,
have been studied at five different mean porosities. The effect of mor-
phology of metal foam on the progress of solid–liquid interface, heat
transfer rate, phase change duration, and mean heat transfer rate has
been investigated. The novel morphologies proposed and investigated
in the present study allows understanding the effect of different spatial
variation in thermophysical properties beyond the conventional limit of
linear variations. Furthermore, as subsequently observed, novel mor-
phology proposed leads to further augmentation of phase change pro-
cesses compared to metal foams with uniform and linearly varying
morphology.
2. Mathematical model and analysis
A mathematical model, based on the enthalpy technique [28], is
developed to analyze the unidirectional phase change process in a metal
foam. Numerical techniques are applied to solve the model in MATLAB.
The numerical model is validated using experimental results from the
literature. Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of the LHTES system
with metal foam embedded in PCM for unidirectional solidification
analysis. An isothermal boundary is applied at the bottom of the system,
and other surfaces are assumed to be adiabatic.
K. Venkateshwar, et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

(1 − A)
kl, eff (x ) = A [ε (x ) kl, PCM + {1 − ε (x )} kmf ] + ε (x ) [1 − ε (x )]
+
kl, PCM kmf (6)

(1 − A)
ks, eff (x ) = A [ε (x ) ks, PCM + {1 − ε (x )} kmf ] + ε (x ) [1 − ε (x )]
+
ks, PCM kmf (7)

keff = fl kl, eff + (1 − fl ) ks, eff (8)

where liquid fraction (fl ) is defined as the ratio of the PCM volume
in the liquid state inside the control volume and the total PCM volume
inside the control volume. The governing equation is discretized using
an implicit scheme for time and finite volume method for space and
solved using line by line TDMA. The discretized equation for tem-
perature and enthalpy update are

ap Tp
= aN TN + aS TS + ap° T p° − Ap (Hp) + Ap° (H p° ) − Bp (Hp )(Tp − Tm) + Bp°
(H p° )(T p° − Tm), (9)
Fig. 1. Schematics of LHTES system with isothermal cold wall at bottom and [(Hp )m {Ap + (Bp )m (Tp − Tm )m} + λap (Tp − Tm )m ]
adiabatic boundary condition imposed on other surfaces. (Hp )m + 1 = .
Ap (10)

2.1. Numerical modeling The coefficients in Eqs. (9) and (10) are calculated as suggested by
Patankar [31].
The solidification processes of PCM inside metal foam is modeled
using enthalpy technique [28] 2.2. Validation
and a set of assumptions to simplify the analysis. The assumptions
are: The numerical model, described in the previous section, is solved
using MATLAB. Initially, the results obtained from MATLAB is validated
(a) Phase transition occurs at a constant temperature. using the experimental analysis by Feng et al. [32]. Fig. 2 shows the
(b) Thermophysical properties are temperature independent progress of the solidification front with time during the water to ice
(c) Thermophysical properties in the mushy zone are linearly depen- phase change process without metal foam and with a copper metal
dent upon the liquid fraction. foam of porosity 0.96. The thermophysical properties reported by Feng
(d) Phase change process is unidirectional. et al. [32] are used for validating the model. The difference between the
numerically calculated phase front and experimental results reported
The governing energy equation is given by [28]: by Feng et al. [32] is limited. The difference is primarily contributed by
the time lag during the experimental work to reach the constant surface
∂ (ρeff Cp, s, eff T )
temperature and losses through the surface. Feng et al. [32] reported a
∂t time lag of 30 min to reach a steady-state isothermal surface tem-
∂ (fl ρeff hsf , eff ) ∂ [fl ρeff (Cp, l, eff − Cp, s, eff )(T − Tm )] perature of −8.4 °C and heat losses through the wall to be up to 5.6% of
= ∇∙ (keff ∇T ) − − .
∂t ∂t the energy transferred to the isothermal surface.
(1)
For the current analysis, n-octadecane and aluminum are selected as 2.3. Spatial porosity variation
PCM and metal foam, respectively, and their thermophysical properties
are given in Table1. The effective thermophysical properties of PCM- The porosities of metal foam are varied as different functions of
metal foam composite are calculated using the expressions given in distance from the isothermal surface ( x ). Porosity increases with the
[29]. The local porosity is used to calculate the thermophysical prop- increase in distance, as previous studies have shown that the metal
erties of PCM-metal foam composite, as shown in Eqs. (2)-(5): foam arranged with lower porosity close to isothermal surface leads to a
higher heat transfer when compared to the uniform metal foam. The
ρeff (x ) = [1 − ε (x )] ρmf + ε (x ) ρPCM (2) general expression for porosity variation with x analyzed in the present
study is
ε (x ) ρPCM Cp, s, PCM + [1 − ε (x )] ρmf Cp, s, mf
Cp, s, eff (x ) = ε (x ) = C1 + C2 x n (11)
ρeff (x ) (3)
where C1 and C2 are constants, and n is defined as the morphology
ε (x ) ρPCM Cp, l, PCM + [1 − ε (x )] ρmf Cp, s, mf
Cp, l, eff (x ) =
ρeff (x ) (4) Table 1
Thermophysical Properties of PCM and Metal foam [24].
ε (x ) ρPCM hsf , PCM
hsf , eff (x ) = Properties n-octadecane Al
ρeff (x ) (5)
Solid Liquid
The local effective thermal conductivity is calculated using the
empirical correlation proposed by Bhattacharya et al. [30]. The ex- ρ (kg.m−3) 770 2700
k (W⋅m−1⋅K−1) 0.358 0.148 218
pressions for effective thermal conductivity are provided in Eq. (6)
Cp (J⋅kg−1⋅K−1) 1934 2196 902
when PCM is in liquid-state and in Eq. (7) when PCM is in solid-state. Tm (K) 301.16 –
The effective thermal conductivity in the mushy zone is calculated h sf (J⋅kg−1) 243,500 –
using the expression given in Eq. (8).

3
K. Venkateshwar, et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

−
ε (x ) = ε (16)
1
− ⎡ x 2⎤
ε (x ) = 1 − 3(1 − ε ) ⎢1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
⎝ L⎠ (17)
⎣ ⎦
2
5 − ⎡ x 3⎤
ε (x ) = 1 − (1 − ε ) ⎢1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
2 ⎝L⎠ ⎦ (18)
⎣

− x 1
ε (x ) = 1 − 2(1 − ε ) ⎡1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎢
⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎥
⎦ (19)
3
5 − ⎡ x 2⎤
ε (x ) = 1 − (1 − ε ) ⎢1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎥
3 ⎝ L⎠ (20)
⎣ ⎦

3 − x 2
ε (x ) = 1 − (1 − ε ) ⎡1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
2 ⎢
⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎦⎥ (21)

2.4. Initial and boundary conditions

The PCM-metal foam composite is assumed to be initially at a uni-

form temperature of 0.1 °C above the solidification temperature. The
bottom surface is exposed to an isothermal temperature of 10 °C below
Fig. 2. Comparison of Numerically calculated Solidification Height and the phase change temperature at the onset of the study. The other three
Experimentally observed by Feng et al. [25]. surfaces are assumed to be adiabatic.

parameter. The increase in n increases the dependence of porosity on
spatial location. The constants C1 and C2 are calculated using the two
conditions imposed on the spatial porosity distribution. First, the por-
osity at distance x = L, i.e., near the opposite surface to the isothermal
surface, is 1. This condition is imposed as heat is no longer required to
be transported further along the direction, and thus no enhancement in
thermal conductivity is necessary. Imposing the first condition on Eq.
(11) gives the following relationship between the two constants,
C1 = 1 − C2 Ln (12)
3. Results and discussion
The effect of spatial variation in effective thermophysical properties
on the solidification processes is analyzed at different mean porosities.
The effect of metal foam morphology on overall phase change duration,
average heat flux, the progress of solidification height with the time,
and variation in the heat flux with time are studied.
3.1. Effective thermophysical properties

The second condition on the spatial porosity distribution is that the Figs. 4 and 5 show the variation in the effective thermal con-
−
mean volumetric porosity is equal to a mean porosity (ε ). It is essential ductivity of PCM-metal foam composites of different morphologies at
for the comparative analysis that the mean porosity of different mor-
phology metal foams is the same. The second condition translates in
mathematical form as,
L
∫0 (C1 + C2 x n) dx −
= ε.
L (13)

Solving Eqs. (12) and (13) for the values of the constants C1 and C2
furthermore, substituting them in Eq. (11) yields

n+1 − x n
ε (x ) = 1 − ⎛ ⎞ (1 − ε ) ⎡1 − ⎛ ⎞ ⎤.
⎝ n ⎠ ⎣ ⎝L⎠ ⎦ (14)

A dimensionless parameter normalized distance ( x )̂ is defined as the

ratio of the distance from the isothermal boundary ( x ) to the length of
the LHTES system (L ), as in Eq. (15),
x
x̂= .
L (15)

The analysis in terms of normalized distance ( x )̂ allows the study to

be independent of the LHTES system’s dimension. Six different mor-
phology parameters (n ) are analyzed, ranging from 0 to 2 (i.e., 0, 1/2,
2/3, 1, 3/2, and 2). n = 0 implies spatially independent porosity, i.e.,
uniform metal foam morphology, as shown in Eq. (14). n = 1 symbo-
lizes linearly varying morphology of metal foam. The functions of
porosity variation with distance from the isothermal surface are given
in Eqs. (16) - (21). Fig. 3 shows the porosity of different metal foam
morphologies as a function of normalized distance at a mean porosity of Fig. 3. Variation of Porosity for different expressions expressed in Eqs. (16)-
0.95. (21) having mean porosity of 0.95.

4
K. Venkateshwar, et al.
Fig. 4. Variation of effective thermal conductivity with normalized height in
different morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 95%.
Fig. 5. Variation of effective thermal conductivity with normalized height in
different morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 98%.
mean porosities of 95% and 98%, respectively. Results plotted in Figs. 4
and 5 assume that the PCM is in its solid-state. A similar trend will be
observed under the assumption that the PCM is in liquid-state, with the
only difference being in the values of effective thermal conductivity.
The effective thermal conductivity will be lower as the thermal con-
ductivity of PCM in liquid-state is lower than in solid-state.
Figs. 4 and 5 show that the ks, eff of graded metal foams decrease
with an increase in x .̂ The ks, eff of graded metal foam near isothermal
boundary increases with decrease in n , whereas at x ̂ = 1 the ks, eff of
graded metal foams are same and equal to ks, PCM . Therefore, the rate of
decline in ks, eff with an increase in x ̂ is higher in graded metal foam
with smaller n . The ks, eff of metal foams increase with decreases in mean
5
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667
Fig. 6. Variation of effective volumetric latent heat capacity with normalized
height in different morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 95%.
porosity irrespective of the morphology of metal foam, as observed
upon comparing Figs. 4 and 5. However, the rate of change in ks, eff with
the change in mean porosity varies with the morphology of metal foam
and spatial location. The ratio of ks, eff of graded metal foam with
n = 1 2 to uniform metal foam at x ̂ = 0 increases approximately from
2.6 to 2.8 upon reducing the mean porosity from 98% to 95%, whereas
at x ̂ = 1 it reduces approximately from 1/5.3 to 1/11.7. The decrease in
mean porosity has a limited effect on the difference in ks, eff of uniform
and graded metal foam near isothermal boundary whereas it has a
significant effect near the opposite surface to the isothermal boundary.
The rate of decline in ks, eff of graded metal foam with an increase in x ̂
increases with the decrease in mean porosity and n . However, the ks, eff
of different graded metal foams intersect at specific x ̂ between 0.25 and
0.35, irrespective of the mean porosity. The graded metal foam with a
smaller n has lower ks, eff after the intersections. The ks, eff of different
graded metal foams reach below that of uniform metal foam at specific
x ̂ between 0.4 and 0.6, irrespective of mean porosity. The ks, eff of
graded metal foam with smaller n reaches below the ks, eff of uniform
metal foam at smaller x .̂
Fig. 6 represents the spatial variation in effective volumetric latent
heat capacity ( ρeff hsf , eff ) of LHTES system filled with different mor-
phology metal foams having mean porosity of 95%. The spatial varia-
tion in ρeff hsf , eff is directly proportional to the spatial variation in the
porosity, as observed upon comparing the Figs. 3 and 6. ρeff hsf , eff in-
creases with an increase in x ̂ in graded metal foams and at x ̂ = 1 it is
−
equal to ρPCM hsf , PCM irrespective of ε and n . The variation in ρeff hsf , eff
with x ̂ increases with the decrease in n and mean porosity, as observed
for the ks, eff .
3.2. Temperature distribution
Fig. 7 shows the effect of metal foam morphology on the tempera-
ture distribution upon the completion of the solidification process,
which is defined as the liquid fraction reaching zero. The temperature
in different morphology metal foams varied from isothermal wall
temperature to solidification temperature. The boundary temperature
imposed on the isothermal surface bounds temperature on one side. The
completion of the solidification process defines the other bound on the
temperature, i.e., the solidification temperature at x ̂ = 1. As expected,
the temperature distribution in the uniform metal foam is linear, while
K. Venkateshwar, et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

3.3. Solidification time and mean heat transfer rate

Figs. 9 and 10 show the variation in the solidification time (ts ) and
−
average heat flux (q ) with porosity, respectively, during the solidifi-
cation process of n-octadecane in metal foams of six different
morphologies. The solidification time (ts ) is defined as the time required
for the conversion of the PCM inside the LHTES system to solid-state.
The average heat flux is calculated using the following equation:

∫0L ρeff {hsf , eff + Cp, l, eff (Ti − Tm) + Cp, s, eff (Tm − T )} dx
q =
ts (22)

The decrease in mean porosity of metal foams leads to a decrease in

−
the ts and an increase in q , irrespective of morphology. However, the
−
change in the ts and q with mean porosity is different based on the
morphology of metal foams. The solidification time of PCM inside dif-
ferent graded metal foams is less than in uniform metal foam at 99%
mean porosity. Similarly, the average heat flux is higher in graded
metal foams compared to uniform metal foam at 99% mean porosity.
However, comparing at 95% mean porosity, the solidification time of
PCM in some graded metal foams is higher than in uniform metal foam.
Therefore, it is essential to understand the trend of change in the effect
of morphology of metal foam on the solidification process with the
mean porosity.
As an effort, two parameters, i.e., solidification time fraction ( ft , s )
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution along height after completion of solidification
and average heat flux factor ( fq, s ) are introduced and analyzed. ft , s and
in different metal foam morphology, having mean porosity of 95%.
fq, s are calculated using Eqs. (23) and (24), respectively, as presented
below:
non-linearity is clearly visible in the temperature profiles inside the
graded metal foams. As x ̂ begins to increase from 0 the temperature ts (n)
ft , s = ,
difference between different morphology metal foams increases, and ts (n = 0) (23)
then begins to decrease. The temperature difference in different graded −
metal foams reduces to nearly 0 at approximately x ̂ = 0.9, and then q (n)
fq, s = − .
brief temperature difference arises between x ̂ = 0.9 and x ̂ = 1. The q (n = 0) (24)
temperature is lower in graded metal foam with smaller n until x ̂ = 0.9,
Figs. 11 and 12 show the ft , s and fq, s for different metal foam
after that temperature in graded metal foam with larger n is lower
morphologies at different mean porosities. The solidification time of
compared to other graded metal foams.
PCM in metal foam with n = 1/2 is 7% less compared to in uniform
The higher thermal conductivity limits the need for temperature
metal foam at mean porosity of 99%, while at 95% mean porosity so-
gradient since the ks, eff near the isothermal surface is higher in graded
lidification time is 4% higher than in uniform metal foam. The
metal foam with smaller n the temperature gradient is less in graded
metal foam with smaller n . Therefore, the temperature is least near the
isothermal boundary in graded metal foam with the smallest n . The ks, eff
in graded metal foam reduces with increase in x ̂ and the rate of change
is higher for graded metal foam with smaller n . Therefore, the tem-
perature increases exponentially in graded metal foam with an increase
in x ,̂ and the rate of increases is higher in graded metal foam with
smaller n . This results in temperature in the graded metal foam with
smaller n being highest among different graded metal foams after
x ̂ = 0.9 and before reaching to the same value at x ̂ = 1. The smaller n
allows the isothermal boundary temperature effect to penetrate deeper.
Therefore, the usage of graded metal foam with smaller n will lead to a
more uniform temperature distribution.
Fig. 8 shows the temperature distribution upon completion of soli-
dification processes in graded metal foam with n = 1/2 at different
mean porosities. The temperature varies between the two bounds, as
discussed. The effect of the isothermal boundary temperature pene-
trates deeper, i.e., the temperature of PCM-metal foam composite re-
mains close to the isothermal surface temperature for larger x ,̂ at lower
mean porosity. As the effective thermal conductivity increases, the
behavior of the LHTES system approaches that of a lumped system. In a
lumped system the temperature of the PCM-metal foam composite will
remain constant throughout and the same as isothermal boundary
temperature and close to x ̂ = 1 spikes to the solidification temperature.
Therefore, it is concluded that the temperature distribution becomes
more uniform upon decreasing the mean porosity and morphology
Fig. 8. Temperature distribution along height after completion of solidification
parameter of graded metal foam. 1
in different porosity metal foam having morphology as function of x 2 .

6
K. Venkateshwar, et al.
Fig. 9. Variation of Solidification Time of n-octadecane with porosity in metal
foam of different morphology.
Fig. 10. Variation of Average Heat Transfer Rate with porosity in metal foam of
different morphology.
difference in the solidification time of PCM in the metal foam with
n = 2 compared to in uniform metal foam is reduced by only 1.5%,
approximately from 9.5% to 8% upon reducing the mean porosity from
99% to 95%. The effect of linearly varying morphology (i.e., n = 1) on
solidification time compared to uniform metal foam reduces approxi-
mately from 9% to 4% upon reducing the mean porosity from 99% to
95%. The average heat flux is observed to be approximately 9%, 11%,
and 11.5% higher in graded metal foams with n equal to 1/2, 1, and 2,
respectively, compared to uniform metal foam at mean porosity of 99%.
While comparing at 95% mean porosity, the average heat flux in graded
metal foam with n = 1/2 is 2% lower than in uniform metal foam. The
average heat flux in graded metal foams with n being 1 and 2 is
7
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667
Fig. 11. Variation of ratio of Solidification Time of n-octadecane in different
graded metal foam and uniform metal foam with porosity.
Fig. 12. Variation of ratio of average heat transfer rate in different graded
metal foam and uniform metal foam with porosity, during solidification.
approximately 5% and 10% higher compared to in uniform metal foam,
respectively, at 95% mean porosity. Therefore, it is concluded that the
heat transfer enhancement due to spatial morphology reduces with the
decrease in mean porosity. The rate of change in the heat transfer en-
hancement with the mean porosity is higher in graded metal foams with
smaller n . The reasons for the observations made are explored in sub-
sequent sections.
3.4. Heat transfer rate
Figs. 13 and 14 show the heat flux (q ) as functions of dimensionless
time (θ ) in different metal foams of 95% and 98% mean porosities,
K. Venkateshwar, et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

porosity of metal foams affect the q at the onset of the solidification

process, the rate of change in heat flux with θ , and q upon completion of
the solidification process. As the solidification progresses, the solid–li-
quid interface departs from the isothermal boundary, which leads to an
increase in the thermal resistance and, in turn, a decrease in q with
time. The higher effective thermal conductivity reduces the thermal
resistance, hence increases the q . Therefore, the q at the onset of the
solidification process is higher in metal foams with lower mean por-
osity. As well as, at the same mean porosity, the q at the onset of the
solidification process is higher in graded metal foam with smaller n
because of higher effective thermal conductivity near the isothermal
surface. The effective thermal conductivity in graded metal foams re-
duces with the increase in x ,̂ as observed in Figs. 4 and 5. Therefore, the
rate of decrease in q with the increase in θ is higher in graded metal
foams compared to uniform metal foam. The ks, eff reduces at a higher
rate with an increase in x ̂ in graded metal foam with smaller n , as
observed in Figs. 4 and 5. Therefore, the rate of decrease in q with an
increase in θ is higher in graded metal foam with smaller n , as observed
in Figs. 13 and 14. As a result, the q in graded metal foam with smaller
n reaches below that of graded metal foams with larger n before θ
reaches 0.1 at both mean porosities, as observed in Figs. 13 and 14.
Although the q is initially higher in graded metal foams with smaller
n , it reduces rapidly with an increase in θ and reaches below that of
Fig. 13. Variation of heat transfer rate with dimensionless time in different graded metal foam with larger n in a short time interval after the onset
morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 95%. of solidification process (θ < 0.1). Further onwards, the q in graded
metal foams with smaller n remains lower until the completion of the
−
solidification process. Therefore, the average heat flux (q ) of graded
metal foams with larger n to be higher, as observed in Fig. 10. The q in
graded metal foams are higher than in uniform metal foam at the onset
of the solidification process whereas, the q is higher in the uniform
metal foam at the later stage. However, the initial difference in q , the θ
after which q is higher in uniform metal foam, and the difference in q
upon completion of the solidification process varies with the n of
graded metal foam and mean porosity of metal foams. Therefore, the
−
relationship between the q in graded and uniform metal foams depends
upon the mean porosity and n of graded metal foams.
The q is initially higher in graded metal foams, and the difference in
q between graded metal foams and uniform metal foam increases with
the decrease in mean porosity, due to higher ks, eff in graded metal foams
and an increase in the difference of ks, eff with the decrease in the mean
porosity. The q after 10 s of the onset of the solidification process is
approximately 43.8% higher in graded metal foam with n = 1/2 than
in uniform metal foam at 98% mean porosity, whereas at 95% mean
porosity the difference is approximately 45.4%, as observed from
Figs. 13 and 14. The difference in q is higher in graded metal foams
with smaller n ; however, the rate of decay of q with θ is also higher,
particularly at lower mean porosity, due to higher rate of decline in ks, eff
with x ̂ as discussed in section 3.1. The q is higher in uniform metal
foam than in graded metal foam with n = 1/2 after θ approximately
0.125 and 0.135 at mean porosity of 95% and 98%, respectively, as
observed in Figs. 13 and 14. Similarly, the q is higher in uniform metal
Fig. 14. Variation of heat transfer rate with dimensionless time in different
morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 98%. foam compared to graded metal foam with n = 2 after θ approximately
0.24 and 0.245 at mean porosity of 95% and 98%, respectively, as
observed in Figs. 13 and 14. Therefore, it evident that the q in graded
respectively. The heat flux (q ) is calculated as: metal foam with smaller n reaches below that of uniform metal foam in
∂T significantly smaller θ . As well as the θ at which the intersection of q
q = −keff . occurs reduces with a decrease in the mean porosity. Besides, the effect
∂x x=0 (25)
of mean porosity on θ at which intersection takes place is more domi-
The dimensionless time (θ ) is defined as the product of Stefan nant in graded metal foams with smaller n . At θ = 0.45, the q is 30% and
number (Ste ) and Fourier number (Fo ) as: 35% lower in graded metal foam with n = 1/2 than in uniform metal
foam at 98%, and 95% mean porosity, respectively, as observed in
Cp, s, eff (Tm − Tc ) ⎤ ⎛ ks, eff ⎞ t Figs. 13 and 14. The q is 20% and 25% less in graded metal foam with
θ = SteFo = ⎡ ⎛ ⎞.
⎢ hsf , eff ⎥ ⎜ ρ Cp, s, eff ⎟ ⎝ L2 ⎠ n = 2 compared to uniform metal foam at mean porosity of 98% and
⎣ ⎦ ⎝ eff ⎠ (26)
95%, respectively, at θ = 0.45, as in Figs. 13 and 14.
The q reduces with an increase in θ irrespective of metal foam At 98% mean porosity, q is approximately up to 43.8% higher in
morphology and mean porosity. However, morphology and mean graded metal foam compared to uniform metal foam at the onset of the

8
K. Venkateshwar, et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 19 (2020) 100667

solidification process. q in uniform metal foam reaches above that in Initially, the solidification height and average heat transfer rate are
graded metal foam in θ interval of 0.135 to 0.245, and the maximum higher in graded metal foam with smaller morphology parameters,
−
difference is less than 30% at θ = 0.45. Therefore, the q in graded metal while at the later stage, it is vice-versa. The overall solidification is less
foams is higher than in uniform metal foam. The decrease in mean in graded metal foam with a larger morphology parameter.
porosity leads to limited enhancement in the q in graded metal foam The temperature distribution after completion of the solidification
compared to uniform metal foam at the onset of the solidification process is more uniform in graded metal foam with smaller morphology
process. However, it leads to higher q in uniform metal foam than parameters and at lower mean porosity.
graded metal foam within smaller θ, and a significantly larger differ- The study provides insight into the effect of spatial variation in ef-
ence in q occurs at the later stage of the solidification process. fective thermal conductivity and heat capacities on phase-change pro-
−
Therefore, upon reducing the mean porosity, the enhancement in q in cesses, which will assist in the development of efficient LHTES systems.
the graded metal foam is less than in uniform metal foam, particularly However, the effect of spatial variation in permeability on heat transfer
those with smaller n , as observed in Fig. 10. This leads to fq, s less than 1 in the presence of convection and spatial variation of porosity such that
at lower mean porosity, particularly in graded metal foams with smaller the porosity at x = L is less than one needs to be further examined to
n , as in Fig. 12. provide a comprehensive understanding of spatial morphology of metal
foam.
3.5. Solidification height
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Figs. 15 and 16 show the progress of normalized solidification
height (H ) with dimensionless time (θ ) in different morphologies of
K. Venkateshwar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation,
metal foam at mean porosities of 95% and 98%, respectively. The Writing - original draft. S.H. Tasnim: Methodology. H. Simha:
normalized solidification height (H  ) is defined as the ratio of solidifi-
Supervision. S. Mahmud: Supervision, Funding acquisition, Formal
cation height (Sh ) to the length of the LHTES system (L ). analysis.
 = Sh
H
L (27) Declaration of Competing Interest
 increases initially with increase in θ at a higher rate due to higher
H
q as observed in Figs. 13 and 14. The rate of increase of H  with θ is The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
higher in lower mean porosity metal foams due to higher q and lower interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
volumetric latent heat capacity (ρeff hsf , eff ) . Among different metal foams ence the work reported in this paper.
of same mean porosity, the graded metal foam with smaller n has a
higher rate of increases in H  as θ increases initially, as ks, eff near iso-
Acknowledgements
thermal boundary is higher and ρeff hsf , eff is lower. As the solidification
progresses, the q decreases rapidly in graded metal foams, particularly
The first author (K. Venkateshwar) would like to acknowledge the
ones with smaller n . Besides, the ρeff hsf , eff increases with the x ̂ in graded
support from Globalink Graduate Fellowship Program of MITACS
metal foams, as observed in Fig. 6. The decrease in the q and increases
 with an increase in θ , (Mathematics of Information Technology and Complex Systems)
in ρeff hsf , eff reduces the rate of increase in H
Canada. The authors would like to acknowledge the support through
particularly in graded metal foams with smaller n as observed in
the Discovery Grant from NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering
Figs. 15 and 16. This leads to higher solidification time, as observed in
Research Council) Canada and ERA from Ministry of Research and
Fig. 9. The rate of decrease in q with an increase in θ in graded metal
Education.
foams compared to uniform metal foam is higher at lower mean por-
osity, as observed in Figs. 13 and 14. Therefore, the rate of increase in
 with an increase in θ reduces much rapidly in graded metal foam
H
compared to uniform metal foam at lower mean porosity. Therefore, the
difference in the reduction of solidification time upon addition of
graded metal foam and uniform metal foam reduces with a decrease in
mean porosity, as observed in Fig. 11.

4. Conclusions

The unidirectional phase change processes of n-octadecane in five

different morphology metal foams are compared with the uniform
metal foam. The numerical analysis is conducted for five different mean
porosities. The solidification time in the graded metal foam is observed
to be approximately 7% to 10% lower than in uniform metal foam at
99% mean porosity with an average heat transfer rate to be 8% to 12%
higher. The reduction in the solidification time upon reducing mean
porosity is more in uniform metal foam than graded metal foams. As a
result, at 95% mean porosity, the solidification time in graded metal
foams ranged from approximately 4% higher to 8% lower than in
uniform metal foam.
The effect of morphology on the phase change process reduces with
the mean porosity. The enhancement is higher in graded metal foam
with a larger morphology parameter. Furthermore, the effect of the
morphology on the phase change process reduces with the increase in
the thermal conductivity ratio of metal foam-PCM composite and pure Fig. 15. Progress of normalized solidification height with dimensionless time in
PCM. different morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 95%.

9
K. Venkateshwar, et al.
Fig. 16. Progress of normalized solidification height with dimensionless time in
different morphology metal foam having mean porosity of 98%.
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