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Development of nonwoven automotive carpets made of recycled PET fibers

with improved abrasion resistance

Article in Journal of Industrial Textiles · September 2018

DOI: 10.1177/1528083718798637

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nonwoven automotive DOI: 10.1177/1528083718798637

journals.sagepub.com/home/jit

carpets made of recycled

PET fibers with improved
abrasion resistance

Raziye Atakan1 , Serdar Sezer2 and Hale Karakas1

Abstract
In this study, velour design molded automotive carpets made of recycled polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) fibers were developed via needle-punching process to improve
their abrasion resistance properties. Initially, virgin PET fibers and recycled PET
(rPET) fibers derived from PET bottle wastes were supplied from different producers
and they were tested in terms of their fiber properties such as fiber length, crimp,
tensile strength, elongation, tenacity, and intrinsic viscosity. It was demonstrated that
recycled fibers from bottle wastes used in the study have lower tenacity and higher
elongation than virgin PET fibers. In the second part, rPET fibers to be used in manu-
facturing in terms of their desired properties were selected. Subsequently, molded
automotive carpets were produced from the selected rPET fibers and virgin PET
fiber blends with adjusted manufacturing and molding parameters. Developed carpets
were tested for abrasion resistance performance and they were evaluated according to
requested specification. Results showed that carpets made of 85% rPET + 15% bicom-
ponent PET had almost equal performance in terms of both fiber loss and carpet
appearances with carpets consisting of 80% PET + 20% bicomponent PET. Carpets
made of recycled PET fibers offer the manufacturer low raw material costs in addition
to ecological advantages.

1
Faculty of Textile Technologies and Design, Department of Textile Engineering, Istanbul Technical
University, Gumussuyu, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Pimsa Automotive Textiles, Tosb-Taysad Org. San. Bol. Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey

Corresponding author:
Raziye Atakan, Faculty of Textile Technologies and Design, Department of Textile Engineering, Istanbul
Technical University, Gumussuyu, Istanbul 34437, Turkey.
Email:raziyeatakan@gmail.com
2 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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Keywords
Automotive carpets, needle-punched nonwoven composite, abrasion resistance,
recycled PET

Introduction
It is seen that the use of automotive textiles keeps growing parallel to the increase
of global motor vehicle production. Regarding the development of new vehicle
con- cepts, automobile manufacturers’ demand for greater comfort and safety, and
efforts are made to reduce vehicle weight in order to lower CO 2 emissions through
greater fuel economy. Car weight is currently among the major concerns for
automobile manufacturers. Nonwovens, often in combination with other woven or
knitted textile materials, can provide significant contribution in this area [1,2].
Because of higher demand for increased comfort and improved safety, the use of
textile materials has risen up 20 kg in a mid-size car in 2000, 30 kg between 2005
and 2015. Current developments are intended for new uses of fabrics, and by
2020, it is estimated that the same size car will be composed of 35 kg of textiles
[1–5]. Table 1 illustrates anticipated amount of textile materials in tonnage that
would be required in the production of 90 million automobiles and light vehicles
(in 2014, 89.7 million were produced). The picture will be very different when
showed in m2 rather than in tonnage because of the differences in the mass density
per m2 of each item. For instance, upholstery fabric weights can be as low as 100
g/m2, while a tufted or nonwoven floor carpet weight can be more, around 1400
g/m2 [1].
Even though woven and knitted fabrics still keep dominating the total amount
of textiles used within the automotive sector, nonwovens are increasingly
becoming more attractive to designers due to their low weight and lower cost,
besides other

Table 1. Estimated consumptions of textiles in 90 million cars and

light vehicles [1].

Items Tonnage
Upholstery and headliners 319,729
Tire cord 317,340
Tufted and nonwoven fabric 294,615
Airbag fabric 259,830
Molded parts and insulation 202,725
Seat belt fabric 126,765
Filter media 69,283
Tufted and nonwoven floor mats 56,320
Engine and other components (belts, tubes, tapes) 20,250
Total 1,597,574
Atakan et 3
al.

key benefits, such as sound insulation. Today, there are more than 40 applications
for nonwovens inside cars, equating to over 35 m2 of flat surfaces according to a
report on automotive fabrics [6]. Nevertheless, visible nonwovens account for only
10% of the entire amount (roughly 3.5 m2) and are generally standard needle-
punched velour materials selected for their resilience and price [2].
One of the biggest portions of the nonwoven usage in an automobile is carpet (in
both passenger and trunk compartment areas). As apparently seen in Table 1, the
weight of an interior carpet account for about 18% of the weight of total auto-
interior materials. Each car contains about 3.5 to 4.5 m2 of carpet interior, which
has two functions: floor covering for aesthetic reasons and floor insulation for
noise barrier and noise absorption. The decor fabric is usually made by a needle-
punched nonwoven or a tufted fabric. However, the use of tufted fabrics for
automotive carpets is very limited in current auto interior design. Needle-punched
nonwovens have become dominant in this application. The insulating layer of the
carpet system can be either a foam layer or a nonwoven felt layer [7]. Table 2
summarizes the major characteristics of nonwovens used in the auto-carpet system
[8].
PP and PET as well as PP and PET blends are mainly used in making needle-
punched fleece, which forms the top surface of the carpet, due to their cost and
good UV resistance [8,9]. Most of the major original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) are

Table 2. Nonwoven characteristics for auto carpet.

Component Parameter Value

Decor layer Fiber type Polypropylene, polyester
Fiber fineness and length 3–20 dtex, ~40 mm
Carpet weight 260–550 g/m2
Carpet thickness 5–7 mm
Surface structure Flat felt
Random veloura
Patterned veloura
Back structure Latex coating
Polyethylene coating
Polypropylene thermo-bonding
Insulating layer Fiber type Recycled fibersb
Natural fibersc
Fiber fineness and length Various
Felt weight 400–1200 g/m2
Felt thickness 10–20 mm
a
In some cases, random and patterned velour carpets are also called dilour.
b
Shoddy fibers are often used to blend with 10–20% biocomponent bonding fibers.
c
Natural fibers are often blended with 30–50% polypropylene bonding fiber.
4 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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making efforts to increase the recycled material content of their cars and certain
OEMs are making recycling a key design consideration, specifying that parts supplied
must be made of post-consumer recycled material at a certain percentage. Since
recyclability will be a more pressing concern, the use of recycled materials in
nonwovens for auto- motive applications is also increasing. A growing proportion
of needle-punched non- wovens for automotive applications is being manufactured
from recycled polyester derived from plastic bottles [2]. However, during
recycling, the PET flakes or pellets are subjected to different temperatures and
mechanical processing, which causes con- tamination, degradation, and loss of
properties [10]. This loss in properties of recycled PET has been a concern, making
it secondary to virgin PET. On the other hand, OEMs are also high quality
conscious due to challenges to conform customer requests. There are some concerns
about using recycled PET along the same lines as virgin PET during the production
of an automotive carpet. The point is whether rPET has com- parable properties
with virgin PET to meet specified quality standards on end-product. It is important
to study the mechanical properties of rPET in relation to processing and its
suitability for automotive performance standards.
One of the key automobile performance requirements for automobile carpets is
high abrasion resistance. Abrasion resistance is one of the parameters that mostly
affect the service life and durability of a needle-punched product and is determined
by the number of cycles to reach disintegration, or weight loss after a set number of
abrasion cycles [11]. Abrasion results in the loss of performance including
strength, but it also deteriorates the fabric appearance [12–14]. Appearance of
carpet is also another evaluation method as a carpet needs to retain its original
appearance to be acceptable in use [15].
Improvement of abrasion resistance of a needle-punched carpet composite is a
complex issue due to complexity of the structure and is still a primary concern.
Many needle-punched nonwoven material studies have investigated the impact of
needle-punched density, depth of penetration on the consolidation of fibrous web
or calendaring properties. Piecara [16] developed velour needle-punched
nonwoven material made of polypropylene by varying the fiber denier, needle-
punch density, needle board arrangement, and needle type utilized during flat felt
processing. She found that increasing the fiber denier level from 5 denier to 10
denier increases the rate of weight loss, a further increase to 18 denier decreases the
rate of weight loss. On the other hand, lowering the fiber denier level increases the
potential for loss of strength due to fiber obliquity. Increasing the needle-punch
density to some point results in an increase in the rate of weight loss during
abrasion. A further increase in needle punch density level decreases the rate of
weight loss. The needle board arrangement during flat felt processing has no effect
on the rate of weight loss. The type of needle utilized during flat felt processing has
no effect on the abrasion resistance or rate of weight loss of the product. Gurudatt
et al. [17] compared fibers produced by recycling PET bottle wastes with those
obtained by recycling polyester fiber wastes and virgin fiber grade polyesters melt
spun under identical conditions to use for developing molded automotive carpets.
All 12 denier fibers used in the study showed properties similar to each other.
Automotive carpets were
Atakan et 5
al.

developed and subjected to various performance tests. Results indicated that car-
pets made of recycled fibers from PET bottle wastes showed excellent mechanical
and fastness properties while carpets developed from virgin and bottle waste fibers
demonstrate similar abrasion resistance performance in terms of weight loss. Mass
loss of fiber after 1000 abrasive cycles was found as 1.7% for carpets made of
bottle waste and 1.2% for carpets made of virgin PET. In the study of Midha [12],
effects of needling machine parameters of needle-punched blankets on stiffness and
abra- sion resistance were investigated and they found that lower needle
penetration lead to lower fabric consolidation, hence lower fabric density. While
stiffness was improved in the study, abrasion resistance of fabric samples was not
affected sig- nificantly in the given range of needle punch density (75–125
punches/cm2) and depth of penetration (8–12 mm). Koc¸ and C¸ inc¸ ik [18]
investigated two process variables (fabric mass per unit area and needling
density) on abrasion resistance of needle-punched nonwovens made of polyester
and viscose blends. They observed that the higher the fabric mass per unit area, the
better was the abrasion resistance achieved. C¸ inc¸ ik and Gunaydın [19] studied
calendaring effects of needle punched nonwovens on different properties including
abrasion resistance and found that additional calendaring process after needling
increased the abrasion resistance.
Random velour needle-punched materials have limited application due to their
poor resistance to abrasion. Currently, there is limited research on the effects of
fiber properties on the performance of random velour needle-punched materials.
Therefore, it was found necessary to make further research to address physical
changes in the abrasion resistance properties as a result of fiber and processing
modifications. The main motivation of this research is to develop environmentally
friendly needle-punched automotive carpets with low cost and high abrasion resist-
ance. In this study, the effects of fiber properties and formation of gap at molding
stage on fiber loss and carpet appearance due to abrasion were investigated. Two
distinct experimental procedures were adopted to develop molded car carpets made
of recycled PET fibers with improved abrasion resistance. In the first one, all fibers
supplied from different manufacturers were tested in accordance with fiber
morpho- logical, physical, and mechanical properties. Characterization tests such
as intrinsic viscosity, staple length, fiber fineness, crimp measurements, breaking
strength and elongation, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and scanning
electron micros- copy (SEM) were performed. In the second procedure, fiber
blends were determined in accordance with fiber properties and carpet samples
were produced. Process and molding parameters were then adjusted in the carpet
production to conform to the abrasion resistance specifications of an automobile
company.

Experimental study
Materials
The virgin and recycled PET (rPET) fibers were supplied from different producers,
and are given in Table 3.
6 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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Table 3. Fiber samples supplied from different producers.

Sample code Fiber fineness and supplier

Sample A Virgin PET 12 denier (Company 1)

Sample B rPET 11 denier (Company 2)
Sample C rPET 6 denier (Company 2)
Sample D rPET 11 denier (Company 3)
Sample E rPET 12 denier (Company 5)
Sample F rPET 6 denier (Company 5)
Sample G Bicomponent PET 4dtex (Company 6)

Characterization of fiber samples

In order to make a comparison between recycled and virgin PET fiber properties
and to make analysis about their effects on the end product quality, the following
tests were carried out.

Fiber physical tests (staple length, fineness, and crimp): A projection microscope was
used to measure fiber fineness of samples according to ISO137:2015 standard [20].
According to this standard, the magnification of the microscope was adjusted to
be 500×, and 400 single fiber samples were tested as a micron based and the results
were converted to denier. The length of the fiber samples was determined and
calculated in accordance with ISO 920 standard [21]. Fiber crimp was tested
according to ASTM D3937-07 [22]. Fiber crimp characteristics have a big
influence on the processing performance of the fibers. Crimp also contributes
essentially to the properties of intermediate fiber assemblies, yarn and finished
fabrics. Fiber crimp imparted to synthetic fibers, which are initially straight,
makes it possible to process these fibers with existing machinery designed for
natural fibers. In non- woven processes, crimp and crimp retention during
processing are major contribu- tors to the processing efficiency, cohesion, fabric
bulk and bulk stability [23].

Breaking strength and elongation: Before the test, all samples were conditioned
under standard atmosphere at a temperature of 20 ± 2 ºC and a relative humidity of
65% for 24 h. Fiber tensile tests were performed according to ISO 5079 test
standard [24] on Instron 4411 Universal Testing Instrument at a crosshead speed of
10 mm/min, a 1 kN load cell and gage length of 10 mm. Measurements were
repeated at least 20 times per sample, and the average elongation at break and
breaking stress were determined.

Intrinsic viscosity: The molecular weight and the intrinsic viscosity (IV) of PET are
the two most common indicators, which will determine its end use. To use PET for
industrial applications, it must have good properties even after the processing
Atakan et 7
al.

stages. In general, PET is classified based on its IV. The empirical expression,
which relates intrinsic viscosity to the molecular weight, is given by the following
equa- tion, which is known as the Mark Houwink equation

[y] = K * Mα (1)

where y is the intrinsic viscosity, M is the molecular weight, and K and α are
constants. The IV for PET usually ranges between 0.75 dL/g and 1.00 dL/g and
the molecular weight is between 24,000 g/mol and 36,000 g/mol [25,26]. As fiber
grades, the IV levels in the 0.4–0.7 dL/g range is required.
In this test, the IV was measured by means of LAUDA DL30 KP capillary
viscometer type at a temperature of 100–110 ◦C, using a mixture of phenol and
1,2 dichlorobenzene as the solvents in the ratio of 3:2 (w/w).

Differential scanning calorimetry: A typical semi-crystalline PET pellet is

expected to have a glass transition temperature of 80◦C, a crystallization
temperature of around 160 ◦C, and melting temperature around 250 ◦C [25]. A
differential scanning calorimeter (DSC Q1000) was used to study the properties of
PET fiber samples. Specimens of 4–5 mg were placed in aluminum sample pans
and heated from -30 ◦C to 275 ◦C at a 10 ◦C/min heating rate. Nitrogen was
used as the purge gas to provide an inert atmosphere and to prevent sample
degradation.

Scanning electron microscopy: The morphology of the specimens was analyzed by

means of an EVO MA10 SEM with an acceleration voltage of 15 kV and about
20 mm working distance. The samples from each material were prepared by cutting
squared pieces from a randomly chosen part of the processed specimen, and then
mounted on aluminum specimen stubs with double-sided adhesive tape. The pieces
were mounted on metal studs and sputter-coated with a 2 nm gold layer using an
Emitech high-resolution sputter coater to improve conductivity properties.

Carpet production process

The manufacturing process of needle-punched carpets involved opening of fiber
bales, followed by web formation in a card, and web building on a crosslapper.
This was followed by the nonwoven fiber formation by needle punching, which
forms the face layer of the molded carpet. The next step was stentering to set the
dimensions of the nonwoven. Subsequently, powder scattering with low-density
polyethylene (LDPE) was done on the backside of the stentered nonwoven. This
intermediate product was then blank cut and hot pressed in a laboratory molding
machine [11,17]. The flow chart for manufacturing molded carpets is given in
Figure 1.

Opening of fiber bales and sandwich mixing: The opening line consists of a bale
opener (Figure 2) followed by two beating points. To minimize shade and fineness
vari- ations from place-to-place, high capacity mixing bin was used.
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Figure 1. Flow chart for manufacturing molded carpets.

Spraying antistatic conditioning: PET fiber blend was subjected to softening

treatment with 3–6% oil-in-water emulsion. Automatic lying of material and
simultaneous spraying of antistatic after the opening were helpful to ensure
effective mixing.

Web formation in a card: Sprayed fibers then were fed to carding process for web
formation (Figure 3). Further performance in carding was improved because of
uniform application of antistatic agent. Feeding chute to card had controls like
photocells and vibrator or pressure switch to ensure uniform density of feed sheet.
Incorporation of micro weighing system at the top of chute whereby small pre-
weighed tufts were dropped into the chute improved batt weight uniformity
further.

Web building on a cross lapper: Card-cross lap sequence was preferred to air
laying because of long length of fibers used for making the felt (Figure 4). As the
fiber denier ranges from 6 to 12 denier, card was mounted with appropriate wire of
coarser gage. Ten webs were cross-lapped. The card room has a good humidifica-
tion system with some control over temperature. This minimizes loading of cylin-
der, doffer, and stripping rollers especially with finer denier.

Nonwoven formation by needle punching: The needle punching was carried out in
two stages: pre-needling line and a finish needling line with a break in between.
This has
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Figure 2. Bale opener and mixing process.

Figure 3. Carding and web formation.

Figure 4. Cross lapping of fiber sheets.

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the advantage that if the mass density of the material is lower than the require-
ments, correction is possible in finish needling by the addition of a thin felt of
required mass density.
Many process parameters influence the abrasion resistance and bearding proper-
ties of the structure. Increasing the punch density and depth of penetration will
improve the resistance to abrasion due to a higher degree of entanglement and
better consolidation of the web [27]. The poorer the fabric consolidation, the easier
is the movement of surface fibers. Better fabric consolidation holds the fibers in
place, restricts fiber mobility, and offers higher resistance during abrasion. The
higher number of fine denier fibers in the top layer leads to greater consolidation
[12]. There is also a trend of increasing abrasion resistance when the punching
density is increased for constant mass per unit areas. Increased punching density
provided better interlocking of the fibers and fabrics resisted to abrading action for
first step increment of punching density. On the other hand, by increasing the
punching density, the number of fibers migrated from un-bonded region of the
web towards to interior of fabric increased. Further increase in punching density
also caused the number of fibers in unbounded region to decrease and the thickness
of unbounded region to be thinner. Hence, unbounded regions got weaker for
abrasion action with the effect of further increase in punching density [18]. As a
result, that needling level and depth of penetration should be also best fit with the
required weight of car carpet, because excessive needling may also weaken the
nonwoven fabric.
In light of all this information, to obtain a uniform 650–700 g/m2 felt with
maximum fabric consolidation, punch density of 80 punches/cm 2 and depth of
penetration of 8 mm were adjusted and used for the pre needling value. Finish
needling values were altered to 80/6 (80 punches/cm2 and depth of penetration
of 6). In order to minimize fiber damage and achieve uniform fiber interlocking,
die pressed needles with regular barb spacing was preferred. 3.5-inch needle was
used, as it allows wider gage between stripper and stitching plate, which in turn
minimize distortion of the voluminous batt as it enters the needle loom.

Structure needling (velour): In case of carpets with velour surface, a structure

needle loom was used after finish needling with a higher punch density of 550
punches/ cm2. According to the position of the fork in the needle board, velour
surface was obtained. Penetration side of fork needle was the same side of finish
needling to obtain improved velour effect. Penetration depth was 7 mm in velour.

Curing in a stenter: Needling was followed by curing in a stenter to give

dimensional stability and strength to the carpet through heating by electrical heaters
kept on both sides of the material. Temperature was kept at 150 ◦C. Material speed
was adjusted to 10 m/min.

Laminating by low-density polyethylene powder: Powder scattering with LDPE

was car- ried out on the backside of the carpet for lamination process. A
distribution
Atakan et 11
al.

Figure 5. Laminating by LDPE powder.

consisting of coarse and finer particles on either side of the moving carpet
improves moldability. The powder was dusted on the moving carpet on the back-
coated side by an applicator, which was automatically controlled to achieve the
required powder application (Figure 5). The material was then preheated in steps
by elec- trical heaters to the softening temperature and calendared by a pair of
high-pres- sure calendars. Lamination of the powder on the carpet took place as a
result of softening and pressure application. The heat and material speed was
adjusted to 150 ◦C and 6 m/min, respectively.

Blank cutting: Laminated carpets were cut to required length on a blank cutting
machine (Figure 6).

Hot pressing in molding machines of specific size and shape: The laminated and
blank cut carpets were gripped on either side by grippers and moved to a pre-
heating zone. The LDPE lamination was softened during preheating. After
preheating for a specified time, the material was taken forward to a molding press
in laboratory conditions. Time for preheating and pressing in molding are critical
factors affect- ing quality of molding. Temperatures of the bottom and upper plate
were adjusted to 40–50 ◦C and 180–190 ◦C, respectively. Heating time was around
90 s and form- ing time used in these carpets was around 40–50 s. These
parameters were deter- mined by type of fiber, mass density of carpet and
lamination after several trials. The picture of obtained carpet and data of carpet
structure are given in Figure 7 and Table 4, respectively.

Abrasion resistance test of carpets

Molded carpets were then tested for abrasion resistance by using Taber 5135
Abraser device with 60% suction (vacuum) and 1000 g load, according to Society
12 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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Figure 6. Blank cutting.

Figure 7. Carpet after molding.

Table 4. Carpet structure parameters.

Material PET fleece + PE powder + insulating layer
Color Black
Weight 1350 ± %10 g/m2 (700 PET + 150 PE powder + 500 insulating layer)
Dimension Fabric width: 1600 mm

of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1530-A specifications ‘‘Test method for

determin- ing resistance to fiber loss, resistance to abrasion and bearding of
automotive carpet materials’’. Circular specimens were abraded with 500, 1000,
and 1500 cycles. Weight losses of carpets after each 500 cycles were reported in
grams and carpet appearances were visually evaluated.
Atakan et 13
al.

Figure 8. SEM of PET samples (2500×).

Results and discussion

Evaluation of PET fiber properties
In order to select the most appropriate fiber or fiber blend for needle-punched car
carpet production, various fiber samples supplied from different producers of
virgin and recycled PET fibers were tested and characterized. SEM micrographs
with 2500 × magnification and DSC curves of the samples are given in
Figures 8 and 9, respectively.
As clearly seen from Figure 8, all the fiber surfaces are smooth. Fiber samples,
particularly sample B (11 denier rPET fiber), have some little particles on the
surfaces, which might have arised due to spin finish. These particles, that might
be also lubricants or dust, do not cause the morphological defects on the surfaces.
It can be said that there are almost no significant differences on surface character-
istics among fiber samples.
The raw material characteristics of different PET fibers are provided in Table 5.
As reported in Table 5, sample B – rPET 10 denier (Company 2) and sample E –
rPET 12 denier (Company 5) have the highest fiber staple lengths even more than
virgin PET (sample A). Compared to 6 denier rPET fibers, sample F – rPET 6
denier (Company 5) has higher fiber staple length, while sample C – rPET 6 denier
(Company 2), on the other hand, has more crimp on the fiber.
All samples had intrinsic viscosity (Z) values between 0.523 and 0.635 dL/g. It
is known that PET bottles are normally produced with an intrinsic viscosity value
ranging between 0.70 and 0.78, which is higher than that of the virgin PET fiber.
According to obtained Z values on Table 5, Z values of virgin PET and bicompo-
nent PET are the highest (above 0.6); however, Z values of rPET fibers are lower
than 0.6. When rPET fibers are compared among each other, there is no significant
difference in Z values among rPET fibers from different suppliers. It should be
14 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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Figure 9. DCS curves of PET fibers.

Atakan et 15
al.

Figure 9. Continued.
16 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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Figure 9. Continued.

noted that recycled PET fibers derived from bottles have a strong decrease in Z
values and consequently in molecular weight. This consequence can be explained
by possible hydrolytic and thermal degradations undergone by that recycled PET
(rPET), which induce a reduction in crystallinity, molecular weight, and intrinsic
viscosity. It might be due to the presence of impurities in the recycled PET fibers.
The glass transition temperature, Tg, can be obtained from the DSC thermogram.
Being a second-order thermal transition, Tg provides information regarding soften-
ing of the amorphous portion of a polymer as the temperature is elevated. From
Figure 9, it is noted that Tg shows no obvious difference for all PET fiber samples,
except sample G. Small variations in the thermal response during glass transition
were observed by DSC. Tg value of sample A – virgin PET is highest (77 ºC), fol-
lowed by sample C – rPET fiber. Similar degree of Tg values were achieved for
sample B, sample D, and sample G (bicomponent PET fiber). In addition, similar
degree of melting temperature (Tm) (252–253 ºC) was achieved by rPET samples,
whilst Tm of sample A – virgin PET and sample G – bicomponent PET fiber have
higher values (255–259 ºC). These findings are in line with lower the intrinsic viscosity
values of rPET fibers. Tg and Tm values could be associated with tensile properties
of fibers as it is well known that improved mechanical properties are attributed to
higher crystallinity, and to higher orientation of the macromolecules in both the
crystalline and amorphous phases. In this case, sample A – virgin PET is expected
the have highest tenacity value with highest Tg and Tm.
With regard to comparison of fiber samples in terms of tensile properties, all
fiber samples have the tenacity over 3 g/denier. It is evident that sample A – virgin
PET has the highest tenacity value and lowest breaking elongation value among the
fiber samples, followed by sample B. All rPET fibers seem less strong than virgin
PET ones; however, they have the advantage over virgin ones with their elongation
properties. As found in the literature [28], regular tenacity values of staple PET
Atakan et 17
al.

Table 5. Fiber test results.

Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D Sample E Sample F Sample G
Fiber test (V-PET) (rPET) (rPET) (rPET) (rPET) (rPET) (Bico
PET)
Finer fineness (denier) 11.9 10.2 6.1 10.7 12 6 4.6
CV% 23.1 32.5 31 21.7 25 33.7 36
Staple length (mm) 57.1 63 57.5 60.2 63.4 62.4 48
Crimp (no/1 cm) 3 4 5 3.6 4 4 3
Int. viscosity (dL/g) 0.635 0.585 ND ND 0.523 0.529 0.627
Glass transition temp. (◦C) 77 72 75 73 69 69 72
Melting point (◦C) 259.77 253.63 252.24 252.07 253.32 253.7 255.71
Strength (gf) 53.05 39.83 21.46 33.76 39.99 22.71 15.38
CV% 10.49 11.77 14.91 11.87 14.52 15.41 7.93
Elongation (%) 51.49 77.42 85.83 80.62 77.91 64.43 62.38
CV% 21.11 26.13 19.12 24.51 12.1 25.98 35.18
Tenacity (g/den) 4.45 3.9 3.51 3.17 3.33 3.78 3.34

ND: not detected.

fibers range between 0.35 and 0.47 N/tex (3.95–5.3 g/denier) and tenacity of
sample A (4.45 g/denier) is within the normal value. Nevertheless, tenacity of rPET
sam- ples is lower than the expected values. These results are in line with the
intrinsic viscosity, hence molecular weight of fibers. According to study of Hearle
et al. [28], an increase in crystallinity and molecular orientation yields an increase
in tensile strength, a reduction of extensibility and elongation. Reduction of tensile
strength values of rPET samples yields higher elongation degrees. Regular
breaking elong- ation values of staple PET fiber range between 35% and 60%. In
this case, it is evident in Table 5 that all rPET samples have higher elongation
values than expected values due to low tenacity. As a result, the virgin fibers have
higher ten- acity and lower breaking elongation values than those of rPET fibers.

Selection of fiber blends for production

In order to achieve required quality and to conform to specification requirements
as a nonwoven product, it should be checked that fibers as raw materials must
have at least minimum levels of mechanical properties. Fiber type, fiber fineness,
elongation, and fiber length are the main parameters that affect abrasion and
are very significant in terms of influencing entanglement of fibers in the product
structure.
There are studies in the literature dealing with the effect of fiber properties on
abrasion resistance of fabrics. Fibers with high elongation, elastic recovery, and
work of rupture have good ability to withstand repeated distortion; hence a good
degree of abrasion resistance is achieved [29]. The fiber curl distribution is also
recognized as the most important property in determining the stress–strain
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properties (consequently bending properties) of nonwoven structures [30]. Longer

fibers incorporated into a fabric confer better abrasion resistance than short fibers,
as it is harder to liberate them from the fabric structure [16,23,29]. Increasing the
fiber denier level also leads to an increase in the fabric tenacity up to some point
[16]. On the other hand, utilization of finer fibers in the production causes incre-
ment in the number of the fiber in cross section with higher cohesion, which results
higher fabric consolidation and hence better abrasion resistance [31]. However,
lowering the fiber denier level increases the potential for loss of strength due to
fiber obliquity [16].
In this case, tenacity and elongation values best describe the mechanical proper-
ties of fibers. Virgin PET has the highest tenacity compared to those of rPET
fibers, as expected. Samples B (rPET 10 denier), C (rPET 6 denier), and E (rPET
12 denier) have lower values compared to virgin PET fibers. Samples B and C have
the highest elongation property among all fibers. Use of 6 denier fiber solely may
not provide the requested fabric strength and abrasion resistance properties.
Instead of using only a high denier fiber, a blend of high denier and lower denier
could be considered for production in this case. Samples B and C could be chosen
as high (10 denier) and low (6 denier) due to the high crimp, staple length, tenacity,
and elongation properties.
As it is known that the abrasion resistance of the needle punched fabric largely
influences the tendency of the fabric to beard [11], durability of the fabric can be
improved by using a binder such as PVA, latex incorporated into fabric. In the
present study, bicomponent fiber will be preferred in the carpet structure instead of
using a binder to provide durability and as well as to eliminate chemical use and
offensive odor problems. Bicomponent fibers have self-bonding properties at lower
bonding temperatures than in a typical thermal bonding application. When a
bicomponent nonwoven web is heated sufficiently to melt the sheath or tips, poly-
mer melts and flows to the nearest adjacent fiber and binds the structure, which
ultimately results in improved durability of the fabric. Ratio of bicomponent fibers
plays a large part in determining structure of the nonwovens and abrasion resist-
ance [32]. According to the experiences of the company, bicomponent fiber rate in
blends was chosen as 15–20%. 12 denier virgin PET/bicomponent fiber blend and
11 denier rPET/bicomponent fiber blend were chosen as 80/20 ratio in order to
compare abrasion resistance of carpets composed of virgin and rPET fibers. To
observe changes in performance of carpets made of 11 rPET fibers and 11 denier
rPET/ 6 denier rPET fiber blends, a blend of 11 denier, 6 denier rPET and bicom-
ponent PET was also prepared. Fiber blend combinations using virgin, recycled
and bicomponent PET fibers were determined in the following weight ratios,
shown in Table 6, before the manufacturing process.

Abrasion test results

Abrasion resistance of carpets were assessed according to fiber loss as well as
carpet appearance after the specified number of abrasion cycles. The minimum
level of %
Atakan et 19
al.

Table 6. Fiber blend combinations for production.

Sample no. Fiber blend combination

1 80% 12 denier virgin PET (sample A) + 20% Bico PET (sample

G)
2 80% rPET 11 denier (sample B) + 20% Bico PET (sample G)
3 45% rPET 6 denier (sample C) + 40% rPET 11 denier (sample B)
+ 15% Bico PET (sample G)

Figure 10. Example of acceptable and unacceptable taber abrasion samples.

fiber loss requirements vary from one automobile manufacturer to another. In

accordance with one of the most high-quality conscious automobile manufacturers,
fiber loss could be acceptable when it is less than 1 g at 1500 cycles. Carpet
appear- ances were assesed according to compative taber abrasion samples, which
belong to related automobile manucfacturer as an acceptable and unacceptable
criteria, shown in Figure 10.
Molding parameters were adjusted according to obtained abrasion resistance
results of carpets in laboratory conditions. Obtained abrasion test results are pre-
sented in Table 7.
The distance of the gap in the form during molding was increased from 3 mm to
5.5 mm in case velour hairs are not crushed because of the press influence
(Figure 11) during abrasion cycles. As clearly reported in Table 7, a certain
increase in abrasion resistance result was recognized in terms of appearance and
weight loss of the carpet. It showed that the combination of 6 denier rPET and 11
denier rPET fiber blend shows positive effects of both fibers; 6 denier rPET fiber
provides better cohesion and entanglement in the carpet structure, while 11 denier
rPET fiber contributes to physical performance of needle-punched car carpets.
Although virgin PET fibers have the advantage of having higher tenacity, rPET
fibers have higher elongation degrees compared to virgin PET fibers, leading to
better entanglement, and consequently, closely equal abrasion resistance
performance of needle-punched carpets.
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Table 7. Abrasion test results according to forming gap in molding process used in the study.
Weight Weight
Initial Weight (g) after (g) after Fiber loss (g)
Sampl Forming weight (g) after 1000 1500 after 1500 Fiber Appearance
e no. gap (mm) (g) 500 cycles cycles cycles cycles loss (%) results

1 3 11.355 10.99 10.435 9.965 1.39 12.24 PASS

2 3 10.185 9.975 9.44 8.95 1.235 12.12 FAIL
3 3 12.135 11.805 11.18 10.75 1.385 11.41 PASS
1 5.5 11.745 11.58 11.4 11.135 0.61 5.19 PASS
2 5.5 10.375 9.99 9.565 9.285 1.09 10.50 FAIL
3 5.5 13.84 13.615 13.315 12.865 0.975 7.04 PASS

Figure 11. Press behavior influence in abrasion test.

According to these results, the carpet made of rPET fibers – sample 3 (45%
rPET 6 denier + 40% rPET 11 denier + 15% Bico PET) was chosen for big
molding press in the factory for industrial production. In optimization process at
big mold- ing press, 10 mm of heating gap and 6 mm of forming gap were
adjusted. Subsequently, molded carpets were evaluated in terms of taber
abrasion test after molding. Carpet apperance, as depicted in Figure 12, passed
the criteria with carpet appearance in acceptable level and 4.01% fiber loss (0.575
g) after 1500 abrasion cycles.

Cost savings
The study proves that using recycled PET fibers in the production of needle-
punched car carpets is a cost-effective option due to raw material cost (Bico
PET: E1.90/kg, Virgin Pet E1.70/kg and rPET: E1.20 /kg). Instead of using
80% virgin PET and 20% Bico PET in a decor layer of carpet structure, using
85% rPET and 15% Bico PET fibers offers E 0.44 /kg savings to the manufacturer.
Atakan et 21
al.

Figure 12. Industrial production sample before and after taber abrasion test.

Assuming that each carpet is 1400 g/m2 and the factory has 300,000 m2 carpet sales
on average, for a month, 420 tons of fibers are used, corresponding to approxi-
mately E184,800/month cost savings to the manufacturer.
Considering only fiber cost for a 1400 g/m2 car carpet, the contribution of fiber
cost on sales is approximately E2.38/m2 for virgin PET fibers, and E1.412/m2 for
rPET fibers, so that the company could achieve 40% cost saving per m 2 by using
recycled PET fibers.

Conclusion
This study focused on improving abrasion resistance of needle-punched automotive
carpets made from recycled PET fibers. Use of 15–20% of bicomponent fibers in
the fiber blends offered improved abrasion resistance performance of the carpets.
In addition, bicomponent fibers provided bonding in molding process, which would
otherwise be obtained by using a binder foam or film. The combination of 6 denier
rPET and 11 denier rPET fiber blend provided improved abrasion resistance to the
carpets. Although virgin PET fibers have advantage of having higher tenacity,
rPET fibers have higher elongation degrees compared to virgin PET fibers, leading
to better fiber entanglement in the needle-punched structure and comparable abra-
sion resistance performance. In conclusion, comparable quality levels in needle-
punched automotive carpet could be achieved using rPET fibers instead of virgin
PET fibers. Since recyclability is an important concern on automotive manufac-
turers, use of rPET offers considerable savings of energy as well as cost for com-
panies. The results obtained in the study encourage the use of recycled PET fibers
not only in automobile carpet applications, but also in other industrial applications
on large scale.

Acknowledgements
This study was carried out with Pimsa Automotive Textiles and Istanbul Technical
University under the Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology as a TEYDEB (No:
3120462) project. Pimsa Automotive Textiles has obtained a patent right for its developed
22 Journal of Industrial Textiles
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nonwoven carpet composite structure and its production process by Turkish Patent Institute
under the name of Pureform Carpet with 2015/41471 patent number.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, author-
ship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication
of this article.

ORCID iD
Raziye Atakan http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0797-6861

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