Nonwovens Are Known As Engineered Fabrics

Nonwovens: What are they
Nonwovens are known as engineered fabrics
Using scientific principles produced by targeting

structure and properties for variety of applications
Nonwovens are manufactured by high-speed and low-cost processes
larger volume of materials can be produced at a lower cost.
The manufacturing principles of nonwovens is based on the technologies of

creation of textiles, papers, and plastics .
Therefore structure and properties of nonwovens resemble, to a great

extent, to those of three materials.
AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3.
1
• Best Innovation :The development of nonwoven materials is one of the greatest

innovations in the textile industry.
• Creative Market :The nonwoven technologies today are excellent enablers for
creative market to discover new technical solutions to serve as the basic carrier
and construction provider in millions of products.
• Made Human Life Easy: Nonwovens have opened doors of opportunity,

nonwovens have revolutionized several industries, now being in hundreds of
products which would otherwise be too expensive or not feasible to
manufacture at a profit.
2
AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3.
Wide Range of Properties: One of the outstanding qualities of

nonwovens is that they can be extremely durable, if that’s what’s
needed, or single-use, limited-life fabrics. Disposable to Durable.
Versatile Qualities: Nonwovens possess limitlessly versatile

qualities like super absorbency, resilience, liquid repellency,
stretchability, strength, softness, flame retardancy, cushning,
washability, bacterial barriers, filtering and sterility.
Custom Made Qualities: Nonwovens are able to combine these

qualities in innumerable ways, nonwoven manufacturers create
products with the unique, specific characteristics requested or
needed by a client, usually at a very reasonable price.
AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 3
• Fabrics can be made from fibres as well as from

yarns.
• Conventional fabric production:

– Fibre  Yarn  Fabric (knitting or weaving)
• Non-woven production : Fibre  Fabric
• It eliminates the yarn production process and makes

the fabric directly from fibres.
Nonwoven: An Advantageous Fabric
• The great advantages in non-woven fabrics is the speed with
which the final fabric is produced.
• All yarn preparation steps are eliminated, and the fabric

production itself is faster than conventional methods.
• To produce 5,00000 meters of woven sheeting requires 2

months of yarn preparation, 3 months of weaving on 50 looms
and 1 month for finishing and inspection. Total 6 months.
• Non-woven fabric can deliver the same quantity of finished

sheeting within 2 months from order.
Production Rate
Fabric production Rate of fabric
method production
Weaving 1 m/min
Knitting 2 m/min
Nonwoven 100 m/min
Nonwoven: An Advantageous Fabric
• Not only the production rate are higher for

nonwovens, but the process is more automated,
requiring less labour than even most modern knitting
or weaving systems.
• The nonwoven process is also efficient in its use of

energy.
Products Prepared by using Nonwoven Tech.
Sanitary napkins ,Dippers ,Tampons
Sterile wraps, caps, gowns, masks, and curtains used in the medical field
Household and personal wipes
Laundry aids (fabric dryer-sheets)
Apparel interlinings
Carpeting and upholstery fabrics, padding and backing ,Wall coverings
Agricultural coverings and seed strips
Automotive headliners and upholstery
Filters ,Envelops ,Tags Labels
Insulation, House wraps
Roofing products
Civil engineering fabrics/geotextiles

Raw materials
Man-made fibres completely dominate nonwovens production, accounting
for over 90% of total output
polypropylene 63%
 polyester 23%
 viscose rayon 8%
 acrylic 2%
 polyamide 1.5%
 other speciality fibres 3%.
Automotive
‘High Strength to Weight Ratio and Formability’
• The use of nonwovens has increased
substantially in recent years. Today more than
40 automotive part are made with nonwoven
fabrics, from trunk liners and carpets to air
and fuel filters.
Automotive
The advantages of using nonwovens:
Superior strength and weigh
Abrasion resistance
Thermal protection
Flame resistance acoustic insulation
Air filtration
Easily moulded and retains shape
Readily sewn, seamed, coated, dyed and laminated
Automotive
• By building in the essential properties which
are necessary for good performance and
safety, nonwovens help reduce the weight of
the car, enhance the comfort and aesthetics
and provide advanced insulation, fire
retardancy and resistance to water, fuels,
extremes of temperature and abrasion.
Automotive
Nonwovens are easy to handle during assembly.
They are tailor-made for their function and
can be heat-formed, embossed, lined, coated
and printed.
In short they contribute to making cars safer,
more attractive, longer-lasting, more cost-
effective and more sustainable.
Automotive
Due to their versatility and numerous benefits
they are also widely used in the design and
construction of other vehicles and
transportation means – aeroplanes, trains,
boats, spacecraft and satellites.
Automotive
Some examples of where nonwovens are used:
The Interior:
Headliner -
Acoustic control
Face fabric
Insulation
Automotive
Dashboard insulation-
Acoustic control
Insulation
Carpets and flooring-

Primary & secondary carpet backing
Carpet tufting and under padding
Automotive
Seats-
Upholstery
High strength seat reinforcement
Foam seat backing
Seat cover slip sheet
Pull strips
Spring covers
Others: Interior trim ,Cabin air filters ,Airbags
Automotive
The engine
Wheel housing -
Acoustic control
Automotive
The engine
Hood insulation-
General insulation
Filtration -
Transmission oil
Motor oil
Moulded bonnet liners
Heat shields
Automotive
The boot
Parcel shelf
Cover material
Face fabric
Boot liners
Boot floor covering
Boot carpets -
Secondary backing
Automotive
General
Surface preparation wipes
Bonding agent
Medical and Healthcare
Nonwovens are extensively used in the medical
field and in protection against biological agents
in other sectors. For example, they can be
designed to deliver critical safety properties,
such as protection against infections and
diseases.
With today’s multi-drug resistant strains of
bacteria and virus, nonwovens can help in the
fight against cross-contamination and the
spread of infection in a medical or surgical
environment. Because they are used only
once and incinerated after use, the need for
handling is avoided and the spread of
contaminants is minimized.
Medical Application
Health and Hygiene
Nonwovens are also increasingly a major
component in the design of "smart" wound
care products, providing such functions as the
creation of a moist wound healing
environment, with controlled vapour
transmission, absorbency and low skin
adhesion.
Most recent nonwoven innovations include
the design of new scaffolds for 3D biological
tissue engineering, implantable fabrics that
can reinforce natural tissues, and nanofibre
nonwoven filtration media offering enhanced
particle capture properties.
New nonwoven materials with improved
finishes including liquid repellent, virus proof
and bacterial barrier properties have also
been developed for applications such as
surgical masks, gowns and drapes, especially
in view of the high demands of the new
European Standards, EN 13795.
Surgical: disposable caps, gowns, masks, scrub suits
and shoe covers
Drapes, wraps and packs
Sponges, dressings and wipes
Bed linen
Contamination control gowns
Examination gowns
• Lab coats
• Isolation gowns
• Transdermal drug delivery
• Shrouds
• Underpads
• Procedure packs
• Heat packs
• Ostomy bag liners
• Fixation tapes
• Incubator mattress
• Sterilisation wraps (CSR wrap)
• Wound care
• Cold/heat packs
• Drug delivery (patches etc.)
protection against-
dry or wet contact
air-borne particles
Fully compliant with EU standard EN 13795
Single-use = 100% certainty
Custom-made for the operating theatre -
procedure-specific design
optimum wearer comfort
strong yet light in weight
optimal fluid absorbency
exchange of air, body heat and moisture
• Excellent barrier properties
• Excellent uniformity
• Breathability
• Abrasion resistance and lint free
• Repellency
• Self-adherent edges
• Aseptic folding
• Engineered stability for plasma, radiation, or steam
sterilisation
Absorbent hygiene products
Modern disposable Absorbent Hygiene Products
(AHPs) have made an important contribution to
the quality of life and skin health of millions of
people. Users of AHPs (i.e. baby diapers,
feminine hygiene products and adult
incontinence products) benefit from the
softness, smoothness, leakage prevention,
strength and protection provided by nonwoven
fabrics.
Shematic overview of a modern disponsable diaper
Sustainability Report 2007-2008 © edana

Sustainability Report 2007-2008 © edana www.edana.org
Sustainability Report 2007-2008 © edana www.edana.org
Nonwovens are used in baby diapers, feminine
hygiene products and incontinence products as:
Top sheet or coverstock
Leg cuff
Acquisition / distribution layer
Core wrap
Back sheet
Stretch ears
Landing zone
Dusting layer
Fastening systems
The advantages of using nonwovens instead of
traditional textiles:
Excellent absorption
Softness
Smoothness
Stretchability
Comfort and fit
Strength
Double fluid barrier effect allowing moisture to be
absorbed and retained
Good uniformity
High strength and elasticity
Good strike through, wet back and run off
Cost effectiveness
Stability and tear resistance
Opacity / stain hiding power
High breathability
Building
With increasing oil prices, climate change, CO2
regulations and building regulation codes on
fire resistance, nonwovens are providing cost-
effective and efficient solutions to building
and construction challenges.
Building
Insulation (thermal and noise)
House wrap
Roofing-
Underlay
Composites
Membranes
Underslating
Building
Pipe wrap
Concrete moulding layers
Foundations and ground stabilisation
Vertical drainage
Building
High moisture and vapour permeability
Superior tear strength
Multi-directional elongation
High UV stability
Excellent durability
Building
High tensile energy absorbency
Proven lamination process
Sound insulation
Civil engineering and geotextiles
Geo-nonwovens, speciality nonwovens in the civil
engineering field, form the backbone of numerous
civil engineering projects.
Nonwovens are used for separation, reinforcement and
as filters in the construction of motorways, airfields,
railways, sports fields, drainage trenches, dams and
dykes. They are laid to form a roll and are light and
easy to handle, despite their strength and toughness.
Rapid developments in infrastructure have led
to huge demand for nonwovens in water
conservancy, highway, railway, sea and
airport projects as they satisfy the qualities
needed for these demanding environments;
strong, tear- and puncture-resistance,
lightweight and temperature fluctuation
tolerant.
Treating geotextiles with eco-friendly additives
enhances water repellence and resistance
against biological degradation for soil
reinforcement that requires durability, such as
the control of river bank erosion. The unique
flexibility of nonwovens also makes them
suitable for use in securing landfill
construction and in drainage/filtration
applications, as optimal separation fabrics.
Road and rail building
Dam, canal and pond lining
Hydraulic works
Sewer lines
Soil stabilisation and reinforcement
Soil separation
Drainage
Landfill
Filtration
Sedimentation and Erosion control
Weed control
Root barriers
Sport surfaces
Asphalt overlay
Impregnation base
Drainage channel liners
Weed control
Sport surfaces
The advantages of using nonwovens
Ability to separate, filter, drain, protect and reinforce
Superior strength and durability
Tear- and puncture-resistance
Elasticity
Permeability
Low humidity
The advantages of using nonwovens
Absorption
Resistance to rotting, chemicals, bacteria and fungi.
Lightweight
Temperature fluctuation tolerant
Stress-relieving
Filtration
One of the fastest growing segments in the
nonwovens industry, filtration is characterised
by dozens of end use areas and applications.
Nonwovens can be engineered very precisely
to meet exacting specifications and stringent
regulatory requirements for the filtration of
air, liquid, bacteria, dust, gas and a myriad of
other areas.
Filtration
Nonwovens have evolved from simply replacing
other forms of media, such as paper, cloth,
glass and carbon to becoming the media of
choice for filtration.
Nonwoven nanofibre filtration media is now
filling the micro-filtration performance gap,
offering benefits such as enhanced air quality,
reduced energy cost, and longer service life.
Filtration
Nonwovens are ideal in filtration applications
where strength of extremely high
temperatures are required but other
advantages of nonwovens include low cost,
ease of strikethrough and increased efficiency.
Filtration
Automotive filtration-
Engine Air
Oil
Fuel
Cabin Air
Filtration
Air filtration
HVAC - industrial heating, ventilation and air
conditioning
Industrial Consumer Products (vacuum cleaners,
cooker hoods, PCs …)
Clean Rooms
Filtration
Liquid filtration
Food & Beverage (milk, wine, tea ..)
Pharmaceutical/Medical
Water
Blood
Hydraulic
Filtration
Speciality filtration
Antimicrobial
Biopharmaceutical
Dust
Odour
Filtration
Removal of a wide range of contaminants from water
(bacteria, viruses, metals, minerals etc.)
Uniform structure
Tear- and puncture-resistance
Chemical resistance
High retention capacities
High air permeability
Filtration
Excellent abrasion resistance
Flame retardancy
Absorption of fats and oils
High level of flow capacity
High tensile strength
Furniture & building sector Filtration & towels
Nonwoven wipes
Nonwoven Interlining
Spun bond PP Row Cover Fabric Biodegradable needle punched
in Experimental Strawberry Rows nonwovens and coated fabrics
Nonwoven spun bonded mesh fabric
Three layered Chemical Protective Fabric
& UV resistant polypropylene fleece
Definitions of Nonwovens
Nonwovens are defined in many ways by different standards and different associations.
As per ISO 9092, nonwoven is defined as “manufactured sheet, web or batt of
directionally or randomly oriented fibers, bonded by friction, and/or cohesion
and/or adhesion,
excluding paper and products which are woven, knitted, tufted, stitch-bonded
incorporating binding yarns or filaments or felted by wet-milling, whether or
not additionally needled.
The fibers may be of natural or man-made origin. They may be staple or
continuous filaments or be formed in situ.
Today, there are two leading associations of nonwovens in the world, namely
EDANA (The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association) and
INDA (The North America’s Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry).
EDANA has adopted the ISO 9092 definition of nonwoven.
But, INDA prefers to define nonwovens in another way.

According to INDA, “Nonwoven fabrics are broadly defined as sheet or web
structures bonded together by entangling fiber or filaments and by perforating
films mechanically, thermally or chemically.
They are flat, porous sheets that are made directly from separate fibers or from
molten plastic or plastic film.
They are not made by weaving or knitting and do not require converting the
fibers to yarn.”
There is no unique definition of nonwovens found to exist in the world.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WOVEN AND NONWOVEN
Nonwoven Woven
Produced by bonding or and interlocking of Two or more sets of yarns are interlaced at
textiles fibre by mechanical chemical, right angle
thermal or solvent means or combination
of these process
Produced by using various web laying and Produced on different types of loom
bonding machines
Preparatory sequence is short Preparatory to weaving is a lengthy process
Higher flexural rigidity due to low mobility High flexural rigidity of the fabric due to high
of constituent fibers in a fabric liberty of moment of warp and weft
The strength and elongation is low The strength and elongation is good with
compared with equivalent raw material equivalent raw material and GSM
and GSM
Theses fabrics usually do not have grain Theses fabrics usually have grain
Cost of production is low Cost of production is high

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WOVEN AND NONWOVEN
Nonwoven Woven
Limited types of fabrics are produced on various types of fabrics are produced on
one machine or same line same loom
Widely used for deposable ,durable and Widely used for producing dress material
industrial items and household materials
These fabrics are cheaper than woven These fabric are costlier than nonwoven
fabrics fabrics
Fabric Tensile
FFFa Behaviour
Woven Fabric ( Follow 5 step Mechanism)

1. Decrimping in the load applied Direction
2. Crimping in cross direction of load applied Wasting Effect
3.Elongation of Yarns in load direction through lateral compaction
4. Elongation of Fibre
5. Failure of fabric
Nonwoven Fabric ( Follow 3 step Mechanism)

1.Decrimping of fibre (Rotation) in the load applied Direction
2.Elongation of fibres which are in load direction
3. Failure of fabric
CLASSIFICATION OF NON WOVEN
Classifications of Nonwovens
The classification of nonwovens is based either
production techniques or structures.
Class based on production
techniques
Dry Lid Wet Laid Spun Laid
Web bonding Web bonding Web bonding

Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical
/Chemical/Thermal /Chemical/Thermal /Chemical/Thermal
Fabric finishing Fabric finishing Fabric finishing

Coated/Laminated/Crim
Coated/Laminated/Crimped Coated/Laminated/Crimped ped
Printed /Special Finish Printed /Special Finish
AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. Printed /Special Finish
86
Class based on Structures
Class w.r.t Positions of

Class w.r.t Bonding sites
Fibres
Chemically and
Mechanically
thermally bonded
Bonded textiles
textiles
Random Cross Parallel
laid laid laid
Segment Agglomerate Point

structure structure structure
Bonded by Bonded by Bonded by
single fibres fibre bundles threads
Random Laid Web
• Strength in all direction same

• Carded or Pneumatic Web , multilayered
• Used in needle punched carpeting, Heavy fabrics, filter fabrics,
PARALLEL WEB LAYING
DISADVANTAGES
Cross-laid Webs
The cross-lay process is very popular among the nonwoven industries.

The functions of cross-lay process are as follows.
To obtain batt with higher basis weight than that of card web
To obtain batt with higher width than that of card web
To obtain batt with fibers preferentially oriented along the transverse

direction of it
To obtain batt with layered structure
Bonding Structure
• There are Five Types of Bonding Structures.
1)Segment Structure
2)Agglomerate Structure
3)Point Structure
4)Controlled Area structure
5)Random Area Structure.
SEGMENT STRUCTURE
Agglomerate Structure
Agglomerate Structure
Point Structure

Controlled Area structure

Controlled Area Structure

Random Area Structure.

Basic nonwoven processes
Nonwoven manufacturing technology that produces fibre-based nonwovens
generally consists of four basic nonwoven processes namely,
1) Fibre preparation process, 2) web formation process,
3) web bonding process 4) finishing process.

Basic Nonwoven Processes
The fibre preparation process prepares fibres for web formation

process. It includes fibre opening and mixing and fibre feeding to
carding machine or air-lay machine.
The web bonding processes imparts integrity to the web and the
resulting material is often called as fabrics. Often, the fabrics
undergo mechanical or chemical finishing or both in order to
achieve enhanced properties and appearance.
As expected, these processes along with the choice of fibres

determine the structures and properties of the nonwoven fabrics.

MANUFACTURING STEPS

77

HISTORY
In the 19th century, (when England was the leading textile
producing country), realizing that large amounts of fiber were
wasted as trim, a textile engineer named ‘Garnett’ developed a
special carding device to shred this waste material back to fibrous
form. This fiber was used as filling material for pillows. The
Garnett Machine, though greatly modified, today still retains his
name and is a major component in the non-woven industry.
Later on, manufacturers in Northern England began binding

these fibers mechanically (using needles) and chemically (using
glue) into batts. These were the precursors of today's non-
wovens. This art remained the same into the middle of the 20th
century and patents as late as the 1930's depict such batts
specially made to insulate railroad box cars in the U.S.

Now in the 21st century, though some fillings and
paddings are still made as they were in England almost
2 centuries ago, non-wovens have progressed beyond
Garnett's dreams.
Non-woven fabric was used between the Space Shuttle

Discovery's heat resistant tiles and the spaceship's skin
and non-wovens were part of the space suits worn to
the moon.
The limits to the use of non-wovens remains only in the

imagination of man, and new innovations are developed
on a steady basis.

1936 Dr. Carl Nottebohm starts development of Nonwovens in Weinheim
1948 Start of dry-laid staple fiber Nonwovens production, introduction of Vliesline
garment interlinings and Vildea window cloth.
1950 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid Nonwovens in USA (Pellon)
1960 Joint Venture to produce dry-laid Nonwovens in Japan (Japan Vilene
Company)
1965 Introduction of spun bonded polyamide Nonwovens technology developed
by Dr. Ludwig Hartmann.
1973 Production start of wet-laid Nonwovens. Production start of polyester spun
bond at new Kaiserslautern plant.
1982 Production start of lightweight Polypropylene Nonwovens.
1984 Start-up of the first non-European facility to produce polyester spun bonded
Nonwovens in North Carolina (USA)
1985 Acquisition of a leading producer of staple fiber Nonwovens in Brazil
1988 Opening of a new research and development centre for staple fiber
Nonwovens incorporation hydro entaglement technology in Weinheim
1994 Joint Venture with Japanese partner Japan Vilene Company to produce
interlinings in Suzhou/China.
1997 Merging of the Staple-Fibre and Spun bonded Nonwovens Business
Groups. Formation of 6 divisions with global responsibilities.
1998 The Italian company Marelli & Berta, a manufacturer of woven interlinings
joins the Freudenberg Group.
1999 Evolon, a new technological breakthrough. The first continuous
microfibre spunlaced fabric with a large number of applications.
2002 New Plant Concept: a 50 million investment to modernize and
restructure the facilities in Europe and North America
2006 Freudenberg Nonwovens acquires Scimat Ltd, Swindon/UK - the
leading finisher of battery separators
2007 Restructuring of the North American industrial business to simplify
product ranges and improve supply chain efficiency. Commissioning of a
new spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site atNorrköping, Sweden
2008 Creation of two global hygiene business units – Consumer Fabrics
and Airlaid, and three regional industrial businesses – Americas Industrial,
Europe Industrial and Terram. Acquisition of a Chinese polyester
nonwoven fabric producer – Hengguan
2009 Commissioning of a new, leading spunbond line at Fiberweb’s site
at Trezzano Rosa, Italy. Formation of a 50/50 JV between Petropar
(Brazil) and Fiberweb, comprising Fitesa Brazil and Fiberweb spunbond
sites at Washougal, USA and Queretaro, Mexico to form FitesaFiberweb,
the second-largest spun bond producer in the Americas

World Production of Nonwovens
• Beginnings in 1960/70
• Production in Western Europe in 1970 was
40 000 tones
• Production has now grown to: Western
Europe: 1,000000 tones
• North America 1,000000 tones
• Others 1,000000 tones

World Production of Nonwovens
WORLD PRODUCTION OF NONWOVENS
1,400,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000 2001(tons)
TONS
600,000 2002(tons)
400,000
200,000
0
West US A Japan China Other Others
Europe AFMA
Members
COUNTRIES

Nonwovens Are Known As Engineered Fabrics

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Nonwovens: What are they

Nonwovens are known as engineered fabrics

Using scientific principles produced by targeting

Nonwovens are manufactured by high-speed and low-cost processes

larger volume of materials can be produced at a lower cost.

The manufacturing principles of nonwovens is based on the technologies of

Therefore structure and properties of nonwovens resemble, to a great

• Best Innovation :The development of nonwoven materials is one of the greatest

• Made Human Life Easy: Nonwovens have opened doors of opportunity,

Wide Range of Properties: One of the outstanding qualities of

Versatile Qualities: Nonwovens possess limitlessly versatile

Custom Made Qualities: Nonwovens are able to combine these

• Fabrics can be made from fibres as well as from

• Conventional fabric production:

• Non-woven production : Fibre  Fabric

• It eliminates the yarn production process and makes

• All yarn preparation steps are eliminated, and the fabric

• To produce 5,00000 meters of woven sheeting requires 2

• Non-woven fabric can deliver the same quantity of finished

Nonwoven 100 m/min

• Not only the production rate are higher for

• The nonwoven process is also efficient in its use of

Sanitary napkins ,Dippers ,Tampons

Laundry aids (fabric dryer-sheets)

Carpeting and upholstery fabrics, padding and backing ,Wall coverings

Agricultural coverings and seed strips

Automotive headliners and upholstery

Filters ,Envelops ,Tags Labels

Insulation, House wraps

Civil engineering fabrics/geotextiles

Carpets and flooring-

Sustainability Report 2007-2008 © edana

EDANA has adopted the ISO 9092 definition of nonwoven.

But, INDA prefers to define nonwovens in another way.

There is no unique definition of nonwovens found to exist in the world.

Cost of production is low Cost of production is high

Woven Fabric ( Follow 5 step Mechanism)

Nonwoven Fabric ( Follow 3 step Mechanism)

Dry Lid Wet Laid Spun Laid

Web bonding Web bonding Web bonding

Fabric finishing Fabric finishing Fabric finishing

Class w.r.t Positions of

Segment Agglomerate Point

• Strength in all direction same

The cross-lay process is very popular among the nonwoven industries.

To obtain batt with higher width than that of card web

To obtain batt with fibers preferentially oriented along the transverse

To obtain batt with layered structure

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 100

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 101

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 102

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 103

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 104

The fibre preparation process prepares fibres for web formation

As expected, these processes along with the choice of fibres

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 105

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 106

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 108

Later on, manufacturers in Northern England began binding

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 110

Non-woven fabric was used between the Space Shuttle

The limits to the use of non-wovens remains only in the

AFMT-KAKAD-LECT Unit-3. 111