Journal of Economic Entomology, XX(X), 2018, 1–8

doi: 10.1093/jee/toy118
Veterinary Entomology Research Article

Insects for Income Generation Through Animal Feed:

Effect of Dietary Replacement of Soybean and Fish
Meal With Black Soldier Fly Meal on Broiler Growth and
Economic Performance
V. O. Onsongo,1,2 I. M. Osuga,1,3 C. K. Gachuiri,2 A. M. Wachira,4 D. M. Miano,4
C. M. Tanga,1 S. Ekesi,1 D. Nakimbugwe,5 and K. K. M. Fiaboe1,6

1
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, P.O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya, 2Department of Animal production,
University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya, 3Department of Animal Sciences, Kenyatta University, P.O. Box 43844-
00100, Nairobi, Kenya, 4Poultry Research Unit, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, P.O. Box 25-20117, Naivasha,
Kenya, 5Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda, and 6Corresponding
author, e-mail: kfiaboe@icipe.org

Subject Editor: Alec Gerry

Received 2 January 2018; Editorial decision 11 April 2018

Abstract
The ever-increasing animal feed costs are driving many vulnerable communities involved in animal husbandry out
of business. The high cost is mainly driven by the protein source, which represents the most expensive component
in animal feed. In conventional feed, protein is obtained mainly from soybean and fish meal (SFM).The present study
explored potential of partially replacing this SFM with black soldier fly prepupae meal (BSFPM) in Cobb 500 broiler
chicken diets. A SFM-based diet was compared to three experimental diets formulated by partially substituting SFM
with BSFPM at 13.8, 27.4, and 42.0% of the crude protein (CP) in the starter feed and 11.0, 37.2, and 55.5% of the CP
in the finisher feed of diets D1, D2, and D3, respectively. Dietary effects on average daily feed intake, average daily
body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, carcass characteristics, breast meat sensory attributes, and the economic
implication of their use in broiler production were evaluated. Replacement of SFM with BSFPM did not affect daily
feed intake, daily body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, aroma or taste of cooked breast meat. A 16.0% higher
Cost Benefit Ratio and 25.0% better Return on Investment was recorded when the birds were reared on the highest
concentration of black soldier fly (D3) compared to the conventional diet which was 19.0% more expensive. The
implication of these findings for the promotion of insect mass production enterprises for animal feed protein, and
their potential for income generation and job creation particularly in developing countries is discussed.

Key words: cost benefit ratio, return on investment, alternative protein, insect meal, poultry feed

The world population continues to grow at an alarming rate, with
at least a 3.5-fold increase in the population of Africa (Gerland
et al. 2014). This population is estimated to grow at 1.18% with
the major growth being in Eastern Africa at 2.81% (UN 2015).
The increased population coupled with economic growth in these
regions will influence human preference for more protein products
like meat and eggs (Drewnowski et al. 1997). Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) estimates a huge rise in animal protein
demand (Speedy 2004) with poultry meat accounting for 40% of
this increased global meat consumption (Rosegrant 2001). Thus,
increased poultry meat production is inevitable and would likely
exacerbate the already existing challenge of expensive conventional
feed. Animal feed ingredients include soybeans, fish oil, seed cakes
and several other grains, with soybean and fish meal (SFM) being
the major protein source. However, a major constraint to further
development of meat production in order to feed the increasing
world population is that land availability for soybean cultivation is
diminishing globally, while marine overexploitation has continued
to reduce the abundance of small pelagic forage fish from which fish
meal (FM) and fish oil are derived (Tacon & Metian 2009, van Huis
et al. 2013). The growing scarcity of resources to produce these
increasingly demanded ingredients has doubled their prices during
the last 5 yr, while the feed cost is already prohibitive, representing
60–70% of production costs. It will therefore not be a sustainable
option to continue relying on SFM as sole main protein sources in
feed production (van Huis et al. 2013).

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Broiler chicken population in Kenya, for instance, is estimated
at 81 metric tonnes valued at US$ 314 million (MoALF 2010).
Soybeans and FM are the main plant and animal protein sources
used in conventional poultry feeds, respectively (Ravindran 2013).
Local soybean production in the country only meets less than 35%
of the national demand and therefore to fill the deficit, the bulk of it
is imported, contributing further to a deficit in the economic balance.
Livestock feed sector utilizes approximately 90% of all soybean in
country, with poultry feeds being the largest consumer (Chianu et al.
2008). Soybean prices are projected to rise as demand for this legume
by the livestock sector globally exceeds production (Chianu et al.
2008). FM likewise, is faced with the challenge of being an expen-
sive, finite global resource due to depleting global fisheries (Hardy
and Tacon 2002, Ravindran 2013). In the three countries surround-
ing the Lake Victoria, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, FM is mainly
obtained from silver cyprinid fish, Rastrineobola argentea (Pellegrin;
Cyprinoformes: Cyprinidae), obtained from lakes. In Kenya for
instance, the silver cyprinid fish represents 40 to 60% of the total
fish catch from Lake Victoria (Kolding et al. 2014). However, this
volume is still far below the expected volume required both for direct
human consumption and commercial feed production in the coun-
try, requiring importation of 80% of feed-grade silver cyprinid fish
from neighboring countries by commercial livestock feed produc-
ers (Ardjosoediro and Neven 2008). The high demand for the sil-
ver cyprinid fish has led to excessive fishing activities in the Lake
Victoria, forcing authorities from the three surrounding countries to
regulate its fishing in the lake by instituting seasonal fishing bans.
FM cost has increased tremendously in recent years as evidenced by
responses to a market demand analysis survey we submitted in 2015
to those involved in the feed industry including mixed feed producers,
members of the Association of Kenya Feed Manufacturers, and the
Kenyan Bureau of Standards. Responses to this survey revealed that
FM cost $0.26/kg in 2009, increasing to $0.65/kg in 2013 and then
to $1.4/kg in 2015. Recent increased demand and consequent high
pricing of soya meal and other animal protein sources has warranted
research into developing alternative cheaper protein sources for poul-
try feeds (Van Huis et al. 2013). Khan et al. 2016 reported that use of
insect meal can lower the cost of poultry feed especially if reared on
bio-waste (Veldkamp et al. 2012).
The use of insect protein as a replacement for expensive protein
sources from fish or plants, through the recent boost from FAO, is
being considered more and more as a sustainable alternative, hold-
ing high potentials to solve or at least reduce the current burden of
limited and expensive protein source in feed (van Huis et al. 2013).
Insects are natural feed sources worldwide for traditional poultry
husbandry in small scale farming systems (Ravindran and Blair
1993). The amino acids derived from most insects’ protein are supe-
rior to those from plant supplements in poultry feed formulations
(Ravindran and Blair 1993, Bukkens 2005). In addition, various
insect species have a higher proportion of protein content compared
to conventional SFM (Anand et al. 2008). Furthermore, chitin, a pol-
ysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of insects is reported to have
an enhancing effect on the functioning of the immune system of dif-
ferent organisms. Therefore, by feeding insects to chicken, the use of
antibiotics in the poultry industry (which can accelerate drug-resist-
ance development in human-pathogenic bacterial strains) may be
diminished (van Hall et al. 2011). Black soldier fly (BSF), Hermetia
illucens (L.; Diptera: Stratiomyidae), just like other insects, have a
low ecological footprint and therefore diminished green house gas
(GHG) and ammonia emission (Oonincx et al. 2010). Insects also
are a common part of wild birds and scavenging chickens’ diets
(Hwangbo et al. 2009). Chemical composition and energy level of
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the BSF larvae on dry matter basis are 42.1% crude protein (CP),
7.0% crude fibre (CF), 26.0% ether extract (EE), 20.6% ash, and
gross energy of 5,282 kcal/kg (Makkar et al. 2014). Compared to
SFM production, rearing the fly larvae requires less water and sub-
strate (Van Huis et al. 2013, Makkar et al. 2014). The BSF larvae
can grow on a wide range of organic waste substrates hence does
not compete with humans for resources (Diener et al. 2011, Makkar
et al. 2014). This attribute can be harnessed to convert organic
waste; a menace in low and middle income countries (UNEP 2010)
into valuable biomass, rich in CP of better or comparable amino acid
profile to soybean meal (SBM) (Tran and Makkar 2015). The aim of
this study was therefore to determine the effects of different degrees
of substitution of SFM as protein sources in broiler chicken diets
with black soldier fly prepupae meal (BSFPM) on their performance,
based on feed intake, body weight gain (BWG), feed conversion ratio
(FCR), carcass characteristics, breast meat sensory attributes, and
production cost.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted for a period of 2 mo (October and
November 2016) at the Poultry Research Unit, Non-Ruminant
Research Institute under the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock
Research Organization (KALRO) located in Naivasha (0°43′S,
36°26′E). Naivasha has an average annual rainfall of 677 mm and
average temperature of 17.1°C.
Test diets were formulated according to NRC (1994) specifica-
tions for broiler starter and finisher feed for birds aged between 0
and 7 wk. The diets (Table 1) were formulated to partially replace
SFM with BSFPM to constitute a minimum of 3,000 Kcal/kg of
Metabolizable energy (ME), 220 g CP/kg and 200 g CP/kg in the
starter and finisher diets, respectively. The diets were identified as:
Control (C), D1, D2, and D3. Each of these diets consisted of both
a starter and finisher feed which were fed to the birds during week
2 to week 4 and week 5 to week 7, respectively. The control diet
contained the conventional protein feed ingredients, SFM. BSFPM
was included in the basal diet at a rate of 5, 10, and 15% to replace
13.8, 27.4, and 42.0% of SFM in the starter feed and 11.0, 37.2,
and 55.5% of SFM in the finisher feed to form diet D1, D2, and
D3, respectively. The BSF pupae were obtained after sterilization
and drying from a private company, Sanergy limited (Athi River,
Machacos County, Kenya), where they were reared on a mixture of
kitchen and solid waste.
Inclusion of BSFPM to the basal diet substituted 13.8, 27.4, and
42.0% of the CP in the starter feed and 11.0, 37.2, and 55.5% of the
CP in the finisher feed of diet D1, D2 and D3, respectively.
Dry matter, ash, CP, CF, and EE of the diets, BSFPM, SBM, and
FM were analyzed according to the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists (AOAC 1990) methods. Amino acid content of the BSFML
was determined according to method 994.12 (AOAC 2002).
Two hundred eighty-eight (n = 288) mixed sex 1-d-old broiler
chicks (Cobb 500) were sourced from Kenchic limited (the largest
integrated poultry operation company in East and Central Africa)
and reared for 49 d (i.e., a 7-d adaptation phase and a 42-d feeding
phase). During the acclimatization period, the chicks were kept in a
common brooder for the first 3 d prior to feather sexing and later
randomly allocated to 48 brooder cages where they could complete
the 7-d adaptation period. The chicks were offered the control diet ad
libitum during the adaptation phase, before being randomly assigned
one of the four experimental diets for the entire 42-d feeding phase.
Sexing was done to ensure that each cage had both male and female
chicks in equal numbers to ensure that interaction between sex and
 Journal of Economic Entomology, 2018, Vol. XX, No. XX 3

Table 1. Ingredients (g/kg as fed) of experimental diets

Broiler starter mash Broiler finisher mash

C D1 D2 D3 C D1 D2 D3

Maize grain 532.80 535.00 540.00 558.20 550.00 540.00 550.00 570.00
Wheat pollard 100.00 100.00 97.60 90.90 201.60 195.50 192.20 166.50
Corn oil 24.60 18.30 11.40 0.00 29.20 22.10 15.20 5.40
SBM 225.40 195.60 166.10 123.60 111.10 90.00 60.00 40.00
FM (Omena) 100.00 85.00 70.00 65.00 80.00 80.00 60.00 45.00
BSFL meal 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00
L-Lysine 0.50 0.20 0.00 0.00 6.40 4.60 4.70 4.20
DL-Methionine 1.10 1.30 1.50 1.60 1.80 1.80 2.00 2.10
Di-calcium phosphate 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Limestone 9.00 8.00 7.00 4.20 13.40 9.60 9.40 10.30
Salt 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Broiler premixa 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50 2.50
Mycotoxin binder 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Protein (%) replaced with BSFPM 0.00 13.80 27.40 42.00 0.00 11.00 37.20 55.50

a
Vitamin and mineral premix provided the following per kg of diet: vitamin A, 11500 IU; cholecalciferol, 2100 IU; vitamin E (from dl-tocopherylacetate), 22 IU;
vitamin B12, 0.60 mg; riboflavin, 4.4 mg; nicotinamide, 40 mg; calcium pantothenate, 35 mg; menadione (from menadione dimethyl-pyrimidinol), 1.50 mg; folic
acid, 0.80 mg; thiamine, 3 mg; pyridoxine, 10 mg; biotin, 1 mg; choline chloride, 560 mg; ethoxyquin, 125 mg; Mn (from MnSO4·H2O), 65 mg; Zn (from ZnO),
55 mg; Fe (from FeSO4·7H2O), 50 mg; Cu (from CuSO4·5H2O), 8 mg; I (from Ca(IO3)2·H2O), 1.8 mg; Se, 0.30 mg; Co (from Co2O3), 0.20 mg; Mo,0.16 mg,
C – Control, D1 – Diet 1, D2 – Diet 2, D3 – Diet 3 as experimental diets, BSFL -Black Soldier Fly Meal.

diet was not a factor of consideration in the study. Each cage meas-
ured 750 mm in length by 900 mm in width by 750 mm in height to
sufficiently accommodated six broilers (three males, three females).
All cages had a 3-inch-deep layer of wood shaving as litter and a
250 Watts infrared bulb fitted to provide heating during the brood-
ing period. A plastic feeder measuring 73 cm in length × 26 cm in
width × 48 cm in height with an open top and eight holes on the
side for the birds to access the feed was placed at the open side of
each cage. One round 3-liter plastic drinker was placed inside each
cage. Clean water and feed were provided ad libitum. The study was
a completely randomized design with each treatment replicated 12
times with six birds per replicate.
At the start of the feeding phase the initial weight of the birds
per cage was recorded and thereafter on a weekly basis (every Friday
at 1000 hours). The birds were offered the experimental diets ad
libitum throughout the experimental period. However, the feed
intake was monitored weekly by placing a known amount of feed
(2 kg in week 1 then subsequently increased by 2 kg every week) for
each cage in a 20-liter plastic bucket (top diameter of 36 cm, bot-
tom diameter of 26 cm and a height of 29 cm) at the start of each
week. The remaining feed in the troughs at the end of each week
was measured and used to calculate the quantity of feed consumed.
The weight of feed consumed per cage was measured by difference
(weight of feed in the bucket at end of the week subtracted from the
weight of the feed in the bucket at the start of the week). The average
daily BWG and average daily feed intake (ADFI) were calculated.
FCR was calculated by dividing ADFI per average daily BWG.
Any mortality observed was recorded. Two birds from each cage
were humanly sacrificed at the end of the trial on day 50 following
procedures reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care
and Use Committee (IACUC) at KALRO-Naivashato determine the
carcass dressing percentage, abdominal fat, as well as the breast and
thigh muscle weights. Slaughtering was done at the poultry research
unit slaughter facility, which is equipped with an electric stunner,
rotating bleeding stainless steel table and electric-heated water bath
for scalding. Dressed carcasses from each cage were weighed and
recorded. Carcass parts (thigh, breast, wings, and back) and internal
structures (abdominal fat, heart, liver, and spleen) were harvested to
determine their relative weights. Twenty-four dressed carcasses (six
per treatment) were chilled at 4°C and transported to the sensory
test laboratory at the Department of Food Science and Technology,
University of Nairobi where the organoleptic tests were done on the
pectoral muscle as described by Atapattu and Silva (2016). Twenty-
four breast meat samples (six per treatment) were used for the sen-
sory test. Ten semi-trained volunteers were recruited to take part in
the organoleptic tests. The volunteers were three females and seven
males aged between 20 and 40 yr. They were provided with water
to rinse their mouths between samples as described by Atapattu
and Silva (2016). Taste and aroma were the two sensory parame-
ters evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale where 1 was extreme
dislike, 5 was neither like nor dislike while 9 was extreme like. All
measurements on body weight, feed intake, and carcass weight were
recorded using a digital (SHIMADZU-TXB6201L) weighing scale.
The Cost benefit analysis (CBA) and Return on investment (RoI)
were the two indices used in evaluating the economic implication
of partially substituting conventional protein ingredients used in
broiler chicken diets with BSFPM. Total cost of production included
feed, labor, medication, water, electricity, housing, drinkers, and
feeders among others but only the cost of the feed was considered
during the calculation of the project costs as the rest were assumed
to be constant for all the treatments. Feed costs were calculated from
the ingredient prices based on quantities of each incorporated in the
dietary feed treatments. Revenue collected from sale of the broilers
at the end of the feeding phase was assumed to represent all the
benefits accrued from the project. The ratio between the project rev-
enue and the project cost represents the Cost Benefit Ratio (CBR).
CBR above one means that the benefits of the project exceeded the
costs and vice versa. RoI is a parameter used to measure the gain/loss
generated from an investment relative to the money investment. The
higher the RoI value the better the RoI of the project under consid-
eration (De-pach 2012).
All the data on weight gain, feed intake and carcass characteris-
tics were analyzed using a one way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
with the BSFPM inclusion levels (0, 5, 10, and 15%) being a factor.

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The statistical package R version 3.3.2 was used. Each cage repre- The CP of FM was 42.7%, ash (50.2%). SBM CP was 49.4%,
sented an experimental unit while two birds in each cage constituted EE (2.1%), CF (8.6%) and ash (6.8%). The levels of methionine and
an experimental unit for carcass characteristics. The significance lysine, the two most limiting amino acids in poultry diets according
between the treatment means were tested at statistical significance to Spranghers et al. (2017), in the BSFPM were 0.80 and 2.81% on
level of 5% and where significant difference was observed, the means DM basis, respectively.
were separated using Tukey’s multiple comparison procedure. The CP content of the formulated diets attained the minimum
requirement of 23% and 20% CP in broiler starter and finisher feed,
respectively. The starter and finisher feed of all the diets had a CP of
Results between 22 and 23%. Diet D3 had the highest EE (8.5 and 11.0%)
Chemical composition of BSFPM and the main protein ingredients and ME (3,060 and 3,141 Kcal/kg), lowest ash content (8.6 and
used in the study are shown in Table 2 while amino acids profile 6.6%), and highest CF (7.2 and 6.8%) in both starter and finisher
of the BSFPM and nutrient composition of the treatment diets are diets, respectively (Table 4).
presented in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The chemical composition The effect of SFM replacement with BSFPM in broiler chicken
parameters of BSFPM measured were: CP (43.9%), EE (29.4%), CF diets on performance (Table 5) indicate that initial weight of chicks
(21.3%), and ash (13.2%). in all groups was similar while the final body weight at day 49 dif-
fered significantly only between D1 (3182.0 g) and D2 (3006.0 g).
Table 2. Chemical compositions (% DM basis) of dried BSF larvae The final body weights of broilers fed the conventional diet and D3,
meal, FM and SBM where BSFPM substituted 42.0 and 55.5% of protein, were similar.
Average daily BWG showed a similar trend to that observed for final
BSF larvae meal FM SBM
body weights. There was no treatment effect on ADFI (P = 0.197)
Dry matter (DM) 97.00 93.00 92.20 and FCR (P = 0.455), however, the ADFI for D1 appeared to be
CP 43.90 42.70 49.40 slightly higher though not significantly.
EE 29.40 6.40 2.10 The effect of including BSFPM in broiler diet on carcass char-
CF 21.30 1.20 8.60 acteristics (Table 6) Indicate that there were no significant effects
Ash 13.20 50.20 6.80 on breast meat weight, abdominal fat content, and internal organ
(liver, heart, gizzard, spleen) weights between the test diets. Breast
meat weight, abdominal fat content and internal organ weights were
Table 3. Amino acid composition (% DM basis) of BSFPM
expressed as a percentage of the dressed carcass weight. Dressed car-
Amino acid Content (% DM basis) cass weight (g) of birds reared on the conventional diet, D1, D2, and
D3 was 2409.0, 2423.9, 2412.4, and 2300.9, respectively.
Essential amino acids Results of sensory tests on breast meat (pectoral muscle) of broil-
Arginine 2.11
ers fed on the experimental diets (Table 7). The BSFPM inclusion had
Histidine 1.35
no undesirable effect on the aroma, taste, and overall acceptability
Isoleucine 1.77
Leucine 2.78 of cooked breast meat. All the treatments scored near 6 (slightly like)
Lysine 2.81 on the hedonic scale.
Methionine 0.80 The CBR and RoI were used to evaluate the economic effect of
Phenylalanine 1.64 replacing SFM with BSFPM in broiler chicken diets (Table 8). In con-
Threonine 1.63 ducting this analysis, it was assumed that the cost of feed ingredients
Valine 2.50 and the sale of live birds at the end of the feeding trial were the only
Nonessential amino acids source of costs and profits, respectively. The conventional diet was
Serine 1.76 the most expensive costing up to 3.07 US$ per bird to reach age at
Proline 2.36
slaughter (for combined starter and finisher phases).
Alanine 2.56
Aspartic acid 3.87
Cystine 0.35 Discussion
Glycine 2.46
Glutamic acid 4.61 The CP of BSFPM used in the present study was higher than what was
reported by De Marco et al. (2015) (36.9%) and Makkar et al. (2014)

Table 4. Nutrient content (% DM basis) of experimental diets

Broiler starter mash Broiler finisher mash

C D1 D2 D3 C D1 D2 D3

Dry matter 89.60 89.70 89.10 89.30 89.20 89.10 89.30 89.60
CP 22.10 21.50 23.10 22.80 21.60 22.80 21.50 22.40
EE 6.80 7.10 7.20 8.50 8.60 8.10 8.30 11.00
CF 6.90 5.90 6.80 7.20 5.30 6.30 5.90 6.80
Ash 9.90 10.70 9.10 8.60 8.30 7.00 7.20 6.60
Calculated values
ME (Kcal/kg) 2991.00 3011.00 3017.00 3060.00 3077.00 3056.00 3059.00 3141.00
Nitrogen free extracts (%) 43.90 44.50 42.90 42.20 45.40 44.90 46.40 42.80

C, Control; D1, Diet 1; D2, Diet 2; D3, Diet 3.

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Table 5. Effect of partially replacing SFM with BSFPM in broiler chicken diets on mean (±SE) performance during different growth phases

Parameters measured C D1 D2 D3

Starter phase d7–d28

Initial weight (g) d7 171.30 ± 2.00a 169.00 ± 2.40a 169.20 ± 1.50a 165.50 ± 1.70a
Final weight (g) d28 1425.40 ± 19.90a 1425.60 ± 14.80a 1397.30 ± 30.30a 1362.20 ± 16.80a
BWG g/day 59.70 ± 0.90a 59.80 ± 0.70a 58.50 ± 1.40a 57.00 ± 0.80a
ADFI (g/day) 90.90 ± 1.40a 90.00 ± 1.00a 89.20 ± 1.20a 87.60 ± 1.10a
FCR 1.50 ± 0.01a 1.50 ± 0.01a 1.50 ± 0.03a 1.50 ± 0.02a
Finisher phase d28–d49
Initial weight (g) d28 1425.40 ± 19.90a 1425.60 ± 14.80a 1397.30 ± 30.30a 1362.20 ± 16.80a
Final weight (g) d49 3071.00 ± 56.50ab 3182.00 ± 41.90a 3006.00 ± 30.70b 3033.00 ± 44.40ab
BWG g/day 78.40 ± 2.90a 83.60 ± 2.40a 76.60 ± 1.80a 79.60 ± 1.70a
ADFI (g/day) 157.30 ± 4.00a 162.40 ± 3.70a 156.60 ± 3.20a 150.70 ± 4.70a
FCR 2.00 ± 0.10a 1.90 ± 0.06a 2.00 ± 0.07a 1.90 ± 0.04a
Entire phase d7–d49
Initial weight (g) d7 171.30 ± 2.00a 169.00 ± 2.40a 169.20 ± 1.50a 165.50 ± 1.70a
Final weight (g) d49 3071.00 ± 56.50ab 3182.00 ± 41.90a 3006.00 ± 30.70b 3033.00 ± 44.40ab
BWG g/day 69.00 ± 1.35ab 71.70 ± 1.02a 67.60 ± 0.72b 68.30 ± 1.03ab
ADFI (g/day) 124.10 ± 2.58a 126.20 ± 1.94a 122.90 ± 1.96a 119.10 ± 2.71a
FCR 1.80 ± 0.05a 1.80 ± 0.04a 1.80 ± 0.02a 1.70 ± 0.03a

Within rows, means followed by same lowercase letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05.

Table 6. Effect of partially replacing dietary SFM in broiler chicken feed with BSFPM on mean (± SE) carcass parts weight (g) and their rela-
tive weight (%) to dressed carcass weight

C D1 D2 D3

Breast 818.10 ± 23.20a 34.00 913.60 ± 31.20a 37.70 928.40 ± 31.40a 38.50 848.40 ± 57.80a 36.90
Abdominal fat 70.00 ± 10.40a 2.90 83.70 ± 13.10a 3.50 107.00 ± 10.20a 4.40 89.60 ± 3.40a 3.90
Liver 47.40 ± 1.20a 2.00 50.60 ± 2.70a 2.10 52.30 ± 1.70a 2.20 51.40 ± 1.70a 2.20
Gizzard 41.70 ± 2.10a 1.70 43.40 ± 2.50a 1.80 42.70 ± 3.30a 1.80 43.00 ± 3.30a 1.90
Heart 12.90 ± 1.10a 0.50 14.00 ± 0.80a 0.60 15.70 ± 1.30a 0.70 13.90 ± 0.80a 0.60
Spleen 3.60 ± 0.60a 0.20 3.40 ± 0.40a 0.10 3.70 ± 0.40a 0.20 3.40 ± 0.60a 0.10

Within rows, means followed by same lower case letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05.

Table 7. Mean (±SE) sensory evaluation of cooked pectoral muscle of broilers chicken fed on diets containing BSFPM as a partial replace-
ment of dietary SFM

C D1 D2 D3

Aromaa 6.17 ± 0.30a 5.60 ± 0.30a 6.07 ± 0.20a 5.20 ± 0.30a

Tastea 5.90 ± 0.30a 5.37 ± 0.30a 5.90 ± 0.30a 5.33 ± 0.30a
Overall acceptabilitya 6.07 ± 0.30a 5.70 ± 0.30a 6.23 ± 0.20a 5.60 ± 0.30a

Within rows, means followed by same lower case letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05.
a
Aroma, taste and overall acceptability were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale, where 1 = extremely dislike and 9 = extremely like.

(42.1%). This disparity in CP concentration can be attributed to use of
different substrates during larvae production, which is the feeding stage
in BSF life cycle. Studies have shown that substrate type used during BSF
larvae production greatly impact their nutrient composition and total
yield (Tschirner and Simon 2015). The exact stage of insect used can
also considerably affect CP content since between fourth instar larva
to fully formed pupae, CP range obtained in our laboratory conditions
varied from 39.0 to 49.3%, with the lowest value for fully formed
pupae and the highest for fifth larval instar (I. M. Osuga, unpublished
data). The EE content was higher than 26.0% (Makkar et al. 2014) but
lower than 34.3% (De Marco et al. 2015). Differences in EE levels may
also result from variation in substrate used during production of the
prepupae. Higher fat levels in diets tend to increase the palatability of
diets while also increasing the energy density of the diets.
The FM CP was within the range of 40–50% (NRC 1994, Willis
2003, van Eys et al. 2004) but much lower than 60.3% (Liebert
2017). Ash content (50.2%) of the FM was higher than 19.1%
(Liebert 2017). The low CP and high ash content suggests that the
FM used in this study was of low quality most probably due to
human adulterations. Level of impurities in FM is a major concern
influencing purchase of this feed ingredient by feed millers in Kenya
(Kariuki 2011). Nalwanga et al. (2009) conducted a survey and
observed that the protein content of fish protein notably decreased
from primary source (landing sites) to retail outlets. They attributed
this trend to deliberate adulteration along the value chain.
SBM CP was similar to that reported by NRC (1994), which
is 49.0%. The CF was higher than NRC (1994) and Willis (2003)
while the EE was within the range of NRC (1994) and Willis (2003).
The high CF levels may be due to more soybean hulls in the meal
as extent of dehulling during soybean processing and oil extraction
have been reported to influence the amount of fibre in the meal (Van
Eys 2004).

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Table 8. Economic analyses of partially replacing SFM with BSFPM as cheaper feed protein ingredient in broiler chicken diets

Experimental diets

C D1 D2 D3

Cost of feed (US$/kg)

Starter feed 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.55
Finisher feed 0.57 0.56 0.54 0.52
Cost of protein in feed (%)
Starter feed 0.48 0.46 0.45 0.42
Finisher feed 0.66 0.61 0.61 0.58
Total feed intake (g/bird)
Starter phase 1909.20 ± 28.60a 1890.60 ± 21.50a 1874.00 ± 24.30a 1839.30 ± 26.30a
Finisher phase 3304.00 ± 83.40a 3411.00 ± 78.40a 3289.00 ± 67.20a 3165.00 ± 98.70a
Entire feeding phase 5213.20 ± 108.50a 5301.60 ± 81.20a 5163.00 ± 82.40a 5004.30 ± 113.80a
Cost of feed consumed (US$ per bird)
Starter phase 1.17 ± 0.02a 1.13 ± 0.01ab 1.08 ± 0.01b 1.00 ± 0.01c
Finisher phase 1.90 ± 0.05a 1.91 ± 0.04a 1.77 ± 0.04ab 1.63 ± 0.05b
Total feed cost (C) 3.07 ± 0.06a 3.04 ± 0.05ab 2.85 ± 0.05b 2.63 ± 0.06c
Live weight at slaughter (g) 3071.00 ± 56.50ab 3182.00 ± 41.90a 3006.00 ± 30.70b 3033.00 ± 44.40ab
Sale of birdsa (S) 7.68 ± 0.14ab 7.96 ± 0.11a 7.52 ± 0.08b 7.58 ± 0.11ab
Gross profit marginb (P) 4.61 ± 1.16a 4.91 ± 0.11a 4.67 ± 0.07a 4.95 ± 0.08a
CBRc 2.50 ± 0.07b 2.60 ± 0.05b 2.60 ± 0.04b 2.90 ± 0.04a
RoId 150.20 ± 0.07b 161.50 ± 0.05b 163.90 ± 0.04b 188.20 ± 0.04a

Currency exchange rate at the time of study (1 US$ for 100 Ksh). Cost (US$/kg) of protein ingredients used in formulating the experimental diets; SBM 0.90,
FM (Rastrineobola argentae) 1.20, BSFPM 0.85. Within rows, means followed by same lower case letters are not significantly different at P < 0.05.
a
2.5 US$/kg Live weight.
b
P = S – C.
c
CBR = S/C.
d
RoI = P/C*100.

Proportions of methionine and lysine in the BSFPM were within
the recommended range for broiler chickens according to NRC
(1994). The methionine content was higher than that reported by
Spranghers et al. (2017) but lower than that reported by De Marco
et al. (2015) while the lysine content was higher than that reported
by Spranghers et al. (2017) and De Marco et al. (2015). When com-
paring these amino acids with those of SFM reported by Liebert
(2017), it is evident that methionine level in BSFPM is higher than
that of SBM (0.62% DM) but lower than in FM (1.50% DM) while
lysine content is comparable to that of SBM (2.81% DM) but lower
than in FM (4.09% DM).
The prepupae are high in oil evidenced by the high EE in the
diet with the highest prepupae inclusion. Although these oil levels
contribute to high ME in the diets, they make milling the prepupae
into meal difficult and also expose the feed to spoilage due to ran-
cidity. The fibre levels of D3 are similar to Varastegani and Dahlan
(2014) who reported that CF in poultry diets should not exceed 7%.
Inclusion of fat in broiler diets often leads to increased net ME (NRC
1994) as is observed in D3 which has 2.3 and 2.1% more ME in
the starter and finisher diet, respectively than the conventional diet.
There is more complete digestion and absorption of non-lipid com-
ponents in poultry feed when fat is included in the diet (NRC 1994).
Although in this study the final body weight (P = 0.042) and the
average daily BWG were different (P = 0.044) between treatment
means, the differences were only significant between diet D1 (5%
inclusion) and D2 (10% inclusion). The final body weight and aver-
age daily BWG in the control diet were statistically similar to each
of the other three experimental diets. Furthermore, dietary BSFPM
inclusion in broiler diets had no significant effect on ADFI and FCR.
The difference obtained between D1 and D2, although statistically
significant was small (P = 0.042 and 0.044). However, it is possible
that such difference was brought by the fact that diet D1 had more
animal (FM and BSFPM) based protein than D2. FM has unidenti-
fied growth factors (Ravindran 2013) which probably contributed to
the 5.9% higher weight at slaughter and 5.6% higher BWG of birds
reared on D1 than D2. The fact that birds offered the conventional
diet had similar final body weights to all the other diets may con-
firm this suggestion. Cullere et al. (2016) reported no difference in
ADFI, BWG, and FCR from the conventional feed when intensively
reared growing quails were fed on defatted BSFPM while Elwert
et al. (2010) reported similar performance when full fat BSFPM were
included in broiler starter diets. Dietary inclusion of BSFPM up to
15% in broiler diets partially replaced the more expensive conven-
tional protein ingredients (45.2% of SBM and 43.8% of FM) with-
out any adverse effect on performance of broiler chicken.
The percentage of the breast meat produced by the broilers in all
the treatments ranged between 34.0 to 38.5% of the dressed weight.
Cullere et al. (2016) fed broiler quails on 0, 10, and 15% inclusion
levels of BSFPM and observed no difference between the conven-
tional diet and insect-based feed on percentage breast meat yield.
Their results are within the range reported in the current study. The
average dressed carcass percentages of the breast and abdominal fat
in all the treatments are higher than the 20.25 and 2.63% breast and
abdominal fat, respectively, recorded by Nawaz et al. (2016). In their
trial they reared broiler chickens for 35 d unlike in the current study
where the birds were fed for 42 d. The 7-d difference in slaughter
age might explain the higher dressing percentage while the higher
abdominal fat may be as a result of high ME (above 3,050 Kcal/kg)
levels in the finisher diets. Our studies are in agreement with that of
De Silva et al. (2016) who found that increasing the slaughter age
of chicken significantly raises the dressing percentage regardless of
genotype.
Sealey et al. (2010) scored 5 on the hedonic scale when 30
untrained panellists could not tell any significance difference between

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 Journal of Economic Entomology, 2018, Vol. XX, No. XX
FM-fed diets enriched with up to 50% BSF larvae inclusion. In the
current study, all the sensory parameters measured recorded either
a 5 or 6 on the hedonic scale. The sensory test results suggest that
inclusion of BSFPM in broiler diets does not affect consumer prefer-
ence for broiler chicken breast meat consumption as the prepupae
inclusion did not change the taste and aroma of the meat.
The price of feed gradually reduced as SFM was replaced with
BSFPM resulting in D3 being the cheapest (US$ 2.63 per bird to reach
age at slaughter), a 14.3% reduction compared to cost of rearing birds
on the conventional feed. While rearing the birds on D1 recorded a
cost similar to the conventional diet, D2 was only comparable to D1.
As intended, the cost of consumed feed gradually dropped as more
SFM was replaced with BSFPM in the diets. Similar to the present
results, Khan et al. (2016) observed that costs of poultry feed can
be reduced by use of insect meal. Diet D3 had the highest CBR (2.9)
and RoI (188.2) while the conventional diet had the least CBR (2.5)
and least RoI (150.2). Compared therefore to the conventional diet,
substitution of 45.2 and 64.0% of SBM and 35.0 and 43.8% of FM
by BSFPM in the starter and finisher feed, respectively resulted in a
16.0% increase in cost benefit and a 25.0% increase in RoI. Diets D1
and D2 recorded similar CBR and RoI to the conventional diet show-
ing that partial dietary replacement of SFM with BSFPM only at 42.0
and 55.5% in broiler chicken starter and finisher diets, respectively
resulted in cheaper diets of best CBR and RoI.
While the current major protein source in conventional poultry
feed is FM, whose source relies heavily on overexploitation of the
Lake Victoria and fish importation (Kolding et al. 2014), black sol-
dier flies can be easily and locally mass reared. However, to be able
to achieve a significant level of substitution of SFM in the animal
feed sector at national or continental levels, considerably high quan-
tities of insect are required. This can only be achieved through estab-
lishment of small to large scale insect mass rearing companies which
will in turn provide jobs and generate income. Mass production
of flies can further play a significant role in conversion of organic
waste streams into biofertilizer, therefore, providing valuable eco-
system services through municipal and organic wastes reduction
(El Boushy, 1991). The insect has been reported to demonstrate the
capacity of reducing microbial contamination during waste conver-
sion, with for instance Escherichia coli (Migula; Enterobacteriales:
Enterobacteriaceae) counts reduced in dairy manure (Liu et al. 2008)
and Salmonella enterica serovar enteritidis (Le Minor and Popoff;
Enterobacteriales: Enterobacteriaceae) reduced in chicken manure
(Erickson et al. 2004).
Conclusion
The current study has shown that the expensive conventional feed
protein ingredients; SFM can be replaced with BSFPM in broiler
chicken diets. Replacement rates of 13.8 to 42.0% in the starter diet
and 11.0 to 55.5% in the finisher diet were tested and confirmed
no adverse effect on feed intake, BWG, carcass characteristics and
breast meat aroma and taste. A 16.0% increase in CBR and 25.0%
better RoI was recorded when 42.0 and 55.5% of conventional feed
protein ingredients were replaced with BSFPM in the broiler starter
and finisher feed, respectively. Although these results are promis-
ing, BSFPM is not common in the East African market and there-
fore further work to promote its rearing and commercialization is
needed in order to achieve the full potential of its use as a protein
feed ingredient in broiler chicken feeds. The present results indi-
cate a high potential for establishment of new enterprise for insect
mass rearing in the African continent that will therefore generate
income, create jobs and relieve the current burden on environment
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7
while providing alternative protein source for the Cobb 500 broiler
chicken widely reared in the world, and redirecting fish and soybean
to direct human consumption. This black soldier flies’ mass rearing
also provides additional ecosystem services through municipal and
organic waste management and enable production and commerciali-
zation of organic fertilizers that could improve soil health and crop
productivity.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the ‘INSFEED’ project (Cultivate Africa Grant
No.: 107839-001) funded by International Development Research Centre
(IDRC, Canada) and Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR).We also gratefully acknowledge UK Aid from the UK
Government, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida),
the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), and the Kenyan
Government for their core support to icipe’s research for development. The
views expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the
donors.
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