VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY CHENNAI CAMPUS

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BMEE204L
Fluid Mechanics and Machines
Special re-registration 2023-2024

Dr. Pritam Das

Assistant Professor (Sr.), SMEC
Email Id: pritam.das@vit.ac.in

1
 MODULE-1
Fluid Statics and Buoyancy
 PROPERTIES OF FLUID
1. DENSITY OR MASS DENSITY – Ratio of the mass of a fluid
to its volume.

❖ Density of gases directly proportional to pressure and

inversely proportional to temperature.
❖ Density of liquids and solids are essentially incompressible
and hence its variation with pressure is negligible but depends
more strongly on temperature.
5. VISCOSITY – Property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
❖ Basic cause of viscosity is cohesive forces between the molecules which is also
known as cohesion.
❖ When two layers of a fluid at a distance ‘dy’ apart,
move one over the other at different velocities say u
and u+ du, the viscosity together with relative velocity
causes a SHEAR STRESS acting between the fluid
layers.
❖ The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower
layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer.

❖ This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y
(Newton's law of viscosity)

Mathematically,
where, μ=constant of proportionality called coefficient of dynamic viscosity
du
=rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient
dy
❖ Thus, viscosity can also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit
rate of shear strain.

UNITS OF VISCOSITY

27
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 3
Problem 5
Problem 3
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
❖Ideal Fluid – An imaginary fluid which is
incompressible and having no viscosity
❖Real Fluid – All fluids which possesses viscosity
❖Newtonian Fluid – A real fluid in which the shear
stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain or velocity gradient. (Ex- Water, Oil, Kerosene,
atm. air, petrol, etc.)
❖Non-Newtonian Fluid – A real fluid in which the
shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear
strain or velocity gradient. (Ex- Ketchup, because
runnier when shaken)
❖ Most non-Newtonian fluids have apparent viscosities that
are relatively high compared with the viscosity of water.
❖ Pseudoplastic or Shear thinning Fluids – Fluids in which the
apparent viscosity decreases with increasing deformation rate
(n˂1). if shear stress increases then dynamic viscosity decreases.
Examples – Oil in bike, Polymer solutions, Colloidal suspensions
and Paper pulp in water.
❖ Dilatant or Shear thickening Fluids (Non- Newtonian)-
if shear stress increases then dynamic viscosity increases
Examples – Suspensions of starch and of sand, Mixture of water
and sugar.
❖ Ideal or Bingham Plastic – A fluid that behaves as a solid
until a minimum yield stress is exceeded and subsequently
exhibits a linear relation between stress and rate of
deformation.
Examples – Clay suspensions, Drilling muds and toothpaste
➢ Yield value:- the resistance to initial flow, or represents the stress
required to start fluid movement
Non-Newtonian Fluids with apparent viscosity being time
dependent
❖ Thixotropic Fluids – Show a decrease in apparent
viscosity with time under a constant applied shear stress.
❖ Viscoelastic Fluids – Fluids that partially return to their original shape
after deformation, when the applied stress is released.
Examples – Lubricants, Whipped cream
6. COMPRESSIBILITY
❖ Volume or density of a fluid changes with a change in its temperature or
pressure.
❖ Fluids usually expand as they are heated or depressurized and contract as
they are cooled or pressurized.
❖ Two such properties are the bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and the
coefficient of volumetric expansion (β).
❖ The property by virtue of which fluids undergo a change in volume
under the action of external pressure is known as COMPRESSIBILITY.
❖ Compressibility is defined as the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of
elasticity which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to
volumetric strain.
❖ Compressibility decreases with increase in pressure of fluid as the volume
modulus increases with the increase of pressure.
 1
β=
𝐾

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑝
𝐾= = - 𝑑𝑣Τ =- 𝑑𝑣Τ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑣 𝑣

❖ Bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid is not constant – but increases with

increase in pressure – when a fluid mass is compressed its molecules become
close together and its resistance to further compression increases.
7. Surface Tension

❖ Every liquid is having a strong property of minimizing its surface area up to its maximum
extent. Such property of a liquid is known as surface tension.
7. SURFACE TENSION (Contd…)
❖ Surface tension is thus caused by the force of cohesion at the free surface.
❖ Magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same
value as that of the surface energy per unit area – Denoted by σ, units N/m
❖ Molecule A attracted in all directions equally by
the surrounding molecules of the liquid –
resultant force is thus zero.
❖ Molecule B situated near the free surface is acted
upon by the upward and downward forces which
are unbalanced – thus net resultant force on this
molecule is acting in the downward direction and
is also normal to the liquid surface.
❖ Thus all molecules near the free surface – experience a resultant downward
force.
7. SURFACE TENSION
At the free surface a thin layer of molecules is formed – it is because of this thin
film that a thin small needle can float on the free surface.
❖ Examples – Falling rain drop becomes spherical due to cohesion and
surface tension, Bird drinking water from a pond, Capillary rise and
siphoning, Collection of dust particles on water surface, Breakup of liquid
jets.
❖ Surface tension depends upon – the nature of the liquid, nature of the
surrounding matter and kinetic energy (temperature) of the liquid molecules.

❖ Surface tension on a liquid droplet

❑ Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid – whose entire surface will
be acted upon by a tensile force due to surface tension.
❑ Cut the droplet into two halves – Each half will be acted upon by two forces.
❖ Surface tension on a liquid droplet
❑ A tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut
portion
❑ A pressure force on the area of the cut portion
❑ Under equilibrium conditions,
❑ With the decrease of the droplet diameter, there is an increase in pressure intensity
inside the droplet.

❖ Surface tension on a hollow bubble

❑ A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air – has two surfaces in contact with air.
❑ Thus the inside and outside surfaces of the soap bubble are subjected to surface
tension.
❖ Surface tension on a liquid jet

8. CAPILLARITY
❖ When a tube of very fine diameter is immersed in a liquid, then there will be a
fall and rise of the liquid level in the tube depending upon the wetting and
non-wetting nature of the liquid with the surface.
❖ This rise or fall of the liquid level in a tube of fine diameter is a phenomenon
known as capillary and this tube of fine diameter is known as capillary tube.
❖ Rise of the liquid surface – Capillary rise (cohesion is less)
❖ Fall of the liquid surface – Capillary depression/fall (cohesion is more)
Cohesion < Adhesion
Adhesion < Cohesion
Capillarity depression
PRESSURE – Normal force per unit area on a stationary fluid, p = (F / A)
❖ Units of pressure N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
1 kPa = 1000 N/m2 1 bar = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2
Pascal’s Law – States that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
fluid is equal in all directions.

❖ Consider an arbitrary fluid element of

wedge shape, in a fluid mass at rest.

❖ Let width of the element perpendicular to

the plane of paper be unity.

❖ Let px, py, pz denote the pressures

acting on the faces AB, AC and BC respectively.

❖ Forces acting on the element are:-

▪ Pressure forces normal to the surface
▪ Weight of the element in the vertical direction
Hydrostatic Law –
States that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction
must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
❖ Used to obtain the pressure at any point in a fluid at rest
❖ Consider a small fluid element with,
∆A = Cross-sectional area of the element
∆Z = Height of the fluid
element p = pressure on
face AB
Z = Distance of the fluid element from
free surface
Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure – Atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon
all surfaces with which it is in contact – Also known as Barometric
Pressure.
❖ Atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute zero) is called
Standard atmospheric pressure.
❖ Local atmospheric pressure may be a little lower than these values – if
the place under consideration is higher than sea level – Higher values
if the place under consideration is lower than the sea level.

Gauge Pressure – Pressure measured with the help of pressure

measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as
datum.
❖ Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure – since
they measure the difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected
and that of the surrounding air.

❖ Atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

Vaccum Pressure – If the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric
pressure then the gauge is designated as “vaccum gauge” and the recorded value
indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric
pressure.
Absolute Pressure – It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure scale which is
independent of the changes in atmospheric pressure.

❖ A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vaccum

❖ Any pressure measured above the absolute zero – termed as absolute pressure.
Mathematically,
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure
Vaccum Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure – Absolute Pressure
Dr.M.B.SHYAM KUMAR, SMEC, VITCC 63
❖ Pressure on a fluid is thus measured in two different systems – one measured
above the absolute zero or complete vaccum called absolute pressure – other
measured above atmospheric pressure called gauge pressure.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
1. Manometers – Devices used for measuring pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid.

a) Simple Manometer – Piezometer, U-tube manometer, Single column manometer

b) Differential Manometer
2. Mechanical Gauges – Devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the
fluid column using a spring or dead weight.

❖ Used for measuring high pressure and where high precision is not required
❖ Bourdon tube pressure gauge, Diaphragm pressure gauge, Bellow pressure gauge
and Dead-weight pressure gauge
Simple Manometer – Consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to a point
where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to the atmosphere.
1. Piezometer – Simplest form of manometer that can be used for measuring
moderate pressures of liquids – Inserted in the wall of a vessel or of a pipe
containing liquid whose pressure is to be measured – Pressure at any point in the
liquid is indicated by the height of liquid in the tube above that point.
❖ Pressure at point A
❖ Measures only gauge pressure – not suitable for measuring negative pressure

2. U-tube manometer – Piezometers cannot be employed when large

pressures are to be measured – since this would require very long
tubes that cannot be handled conveniently.
U Tube Manometer
U Tube Manometer
Problem 9
Problem 10
Problem 10
Differential Manometer
Differential Manometer
Differential Manometer
Problem 11
Problem 11
Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer
❖ Used for measuring difference of two pressures where accuracy
is the major consideration – difference of low pressures.

❖ Consists of an inverted U-tube containing a light liquid

❖ Two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose
difference of pressure is to be measured.
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Moment of Inertia for different geometries
Moment of Inertia for different geometries
Problem 1
Problem 1
Problem 2
Problem 2
Problem 3
Problem 3
Hydrostatic forces on surface
Problem 4
Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
Inclined plane surface submerged in liquid
Problem 5
Problem 5
Curved surface submerged in liquid
Curved surface submerged in liquid
Curved surface submerged in liquid
Problem 6
Problem 6
Problem 6
Hydrostatic forces on body (Archimedes principle)
➢ When a body is submerged or immerged fully or partially inside a
static fluid then the resultant hydrostatic force acts on the body in the
vertically upward direction, this force is known as buoyant force or up
thrust.
➢ The value of this force is exactly equal to the weight of the
displacement fluid by the body.
Centre of Buoyancy
➢ It is the point on the body from where net buoyant force acts.
➢ This point is same as centre of gravity of displaced fluid.

Submerged bodies (Completely immersed)

Shape of fluid is not changing with disturbance of the body. So CG of the fluid will also
not change, we know that CG of fluid displaced is the centre of Buoyancy (B) of
submerged body so B will also not change.
Floating bodies (Partially immersed)

➢ We can see that the immersed portion is varying

continuously, so the amount or weight of fluid displaced is
also varying and so its CG will also change.
➢ So centre of Buoyancy (B) will also change.
Condition of equilibrium for completely submerged bodies

➢ A completely submerged body will be in stable equilibrium when CB

lies above CG.
➢ A completely submerged body will be in unstable equilibrium if CB
lies below CG.
➢ A completely submerged body will be in neutral equilibrium if CB
and CG coincides.
Condition of equilibrium for floating bodies
➢ Metacentre (M):- A point about which a body starts oscillating
when the body is tilted by a small angle. Or The intersection point
of the line of action of the buoyancy force and normal axis after
rotation.
➢ Metacentric height (GM):- Distance between the CG and
metacentre.
➢ For stable equilibrium GM should be positive. (GM>0)
➢ For unstable equilibrium GM should be negative. (GM<0)
➢ For neutral equilibrium GM should be zero. (GM=0)