PRAYER

May the darkness of sin and

the night of unbelief vanish before
the light of the Word and the Spirit of grace.

And may the heart of Jesus live

in the hearts of all people.

AMEN.
 MODULE 2 (cont’d)

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
AND SYMBOLS
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES TOPIC
At the end of this subsection, the student MODULE 2. Mathematics Language
should be able to:
and Symbols
• Discuss the language of mathematics in terms
of its syntax, structure or elements
1) Conventions of Mathematical Language
• Translate mathematical sentences into
2) Sets
expressions and vice-versa
3) Functions and Relations
• Demonstrate understanding of basic concepts
in sets, functions, relations, and binary 4) Binary Operations
operations 5) Elementary Logic
• Become familiar with the formalism of
contemporary logic – its statements and
symbols
• Recognize that mathematics as a rich language
is governed by logic and reasoning
 OUTLINE

Module 2. Mathematical Language and Symbols

2.1 Conventions of mathematical language:

Core idea: Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols,
syntax, structure and rules.

Characteristics of mathematical language:

precise, concise, and powerful

Mathematical expressions and mathematical sentences

2.2 Sets

2.3 Functions and Relations

2.4 Binary Operations

2.5 Elementary logic

 2.5 Elementary Logic
Logic
• allows us to determine the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics
• illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness of the language of
mathematics

Symbolic logic
• a powerful tool for analysis and communication in mathematics.
• represents the natural language and mathematical language with symbols
and variables.

Proposition
• any meaningful declarative statement that is either true or false
but never both
ACTIVITY
Determine whether each statement is a proposition or not.
If proposition, give the truth value.
1. Ten is less than 100.
2. Siquijor is Covid-19 free.
3. All multiples of 5 are odd.
4. Let n be a natural number.
5. Graph 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 .
6. Help!
7. How are you today?
8. All hospitals nowadays are safe.
9. 𝒑: "𝑥 + 1 > 𝑥“ where 𝑥 is an any real number
10. 𝒒: “Everybody can go out during GCQ.”
can’t fly
ACTIVITY

A. What is the negation of each of these propositions?

1. Steve has more than 100 GB free disk space on his laptop.

2. Xian blocks e-mails and texts from Jen.

3. 7 x 11 x 13 = 999

4. Lian rode her bike 100 kms. on Sunday.

ACTIVITY
A. What is the negation of each of these propositions?

1. Steve has more than 100 GB free disk space on his laptop.
“Steve does not have more than 100 GB … “
OR “It is not true that Steve has more than 100 GB free disk . . .”

2. Xian blocks e-mails and texts from Jen.

“It is not true that Xian . . . “
OR “Xian does not block . . .”

3. 7 x 11 x 13 = 999
7 x 11 x 13 ≠ 999 OR “It is not true that 7 x 11 x 13 = 999”

4. Lian rode her bike 100 kms. on Sunday.

“It is not true that . . . “
OR “Lian did not ride her bike 100 kms on Sunday,”
 LET P and Q be propositions.
Read as Truth Value
Conjunction: True, iff P and Q
PQ P and Q are both true
Disjunction: True iff P is true or
PQ P or Q Q is true or both are true.
P implies Q True under all circumstances
If P, then Q except when P is true and
Q if P Q is false.
P only if Q
True iff P and Q are
P if and only if Q both true or
P iff Q both false.
True iff exactly one
P xor Q of P and Q is true.
Logical Connectives or Operators

 pq

 pq
p→ q

pq
 pq
p|q
 pq
 Ways of expressing conditional statement

• if p, then q
• if p, q
• q if p
• p only if q
• p is sufficient for q
• q when p
• q whenever p
• q is necessary for p
• q follows from p
• q unless not p
Biconditionals or Bi-implications
ACTIVITY

B. Let p and q be the propositions

p: It is below freezing. q: It is snowing.
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives.
1. It is below freezing and snowing.

2. It is below freezing but not snowing.

3. It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.

4. It is either snowing or below freezing (or both).

5. That it is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to be snowing.

 ANSWERS !
Write these propositions using p and q and logical connectives.
p: It is below freezing. q: It is snowing.

1. It is below freezing and snowing.

p ˄ q ANS: p ˄ q
2. It is below freezing but not snowing.
p ˄ ¬ q ANS: p˄¬q
3. It is not below freezing and it is not snowing.
¬p ˄ ¬q ANS: ¬ p ˄ ¬ q
4. It is either snowing or below freezing (or both).
q v p ANS: q v p

5. That it is below freezing is necessary and sufficient for it to be snowing.

p ↔ q
iff
Important Conditional Statements
EXAMPLE

Given: “If an angle is a straight angle, then its measure is 180°.”

Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

“If an angle is a straight angle, then its measure is 180°.”

𝒑 → 𝒒

▪ Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝
“If the measure of an angle is 180°, then it’s a straight angle.”
▪ Inverse: ¬𝑝 → ¬𝑞
“If an angle is not a straight angle, then its measure is not 180°.”

▪ Contrapositive: ¬𝑞 → ¬𝑝
“If an angle does not measure 180°, then the angle is not
a straight angle.”
Another example

Write the inverse, converse and contrapositive.

Given: P: A student studies hard.
Q: The student gets an A.

Conditional statement: 𝑝 → 𝑞

Inverse:

Converse:

Contrapositive:

Biconditional statement: 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞
ANSWERS!

C. Write the inverse, converse and contrapositive.

Given: P: A student studies hard.

Q: The student gets an A.

Inverse: IF a student does not study hard, THEN he/she does not get an A.

Converse: IF a student gets an A, THEN he/she studied hard.

Contrapositive: IF a student does not get an A, THEN he/she has not studied hard.
 Truth Tables

p q p ∧ q p q p ∨ q
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F

p q p → q p q p↔q
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F T F
F F T F F T
Truth Tables (cont’d)

p q p ⊕ q p q p|q
T T F T T F
T F T T F T
F T T F T T
F F F F F T

p q p↓q Note:

T T F p ⊕ q “p exclusive-or” p XOR q

T F F p|q “p not-and q” p NAND q

F T F p↓ q “ p not-or q” p NOR q

F F T | is Sheffer stroke ↓ is Peirce arrow

 Using Truth Tables

p q r
T T T T F T
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
F F F F T T
 Using Truth Tables

p q r
T T T T F T
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T T
F T T F T T
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
F F F F T T
ACTIVITY

p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F
ACTIVITY

p q r
p q r
T T T T T T
T T F T T T
T F T F T T
T F F F T F
F T T F T T
F T F F F T
F F T F T T
F F F F F F
p q r
T T T T T T T T
T T F T T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T F F F
F T T F T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F T T T T
F F F F F F F F
ACTIVITY

p q
5) Below are some important negations that can be verified
using truth tables. (Study each and prove … )

Some important negations:

¬ ¬𝒑 ≡𝒑

¬ 𝒑 ∧𝒒 ≡¬𝒑 ∨¬𝒒

¬ 𝒑 ∨𝒒 ≡¬𝒑 ∧¬𝒒

¬ 𝒑 → 𝒒 ≡𝒑 ∧¬𝒒

¬ 𝒑 ↔ 𝒒 ≡𝒑 ↔¬𝒒

NOTE: The symbol ≡ (or may use ⇔ ) is read as “is logically equivalent to”
 Tautology, Contradiction , and Contingency

Compound propositions can be a tautology, a contradiction (or an

absurdity), or a contingency.

• Tautology: IF for all possible values of the propositional variables

the truth values are always true

• Contradiction: IF for all possible values … are always false

• Contingency: IF it’s neither a tautology nor a contradiction

ACTIVITY

Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or

contingency.
6) 𝑝 → ¬(¬𝑝)
7) 𝑝∧¬𝑞
8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

9) 𝑝 𝑝 | 𝑞 𝑞 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
10) ( 𝑝 → 𝑞 ∧ 𝑞 → 𝑟 ) → (𝑝 → 𝑟)
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T
T F
F T
F F
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T
T F F
F T F
F F
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T T
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

Therefore, (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is ?
Determine which of the following is a tautology, contradiction, or contingency.

8) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)

𝒑 𝒒 𝒑→𝒒 𝒒→𝒑 𝒑 → 𝒒 ˄ (𝒒 → 𝒑)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F F
F F T T T

Therefore, (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝) is a contingency .
 Valid arguments

Argument: consists of a sequence of statements called premises,

followed by a final statement called a conclusion
- may be written in the form: (𝒑𝟏 ∧ 𝒑𝟐 ∧ … ∧ 𝒑𝒏 ) → 𝒔
or: 𝒑𝟏
𝒑𝟐
⋮
𝒑𝒏
------
∴𝒔

Valid argument: IF (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ … 𝑝𝑛 ) → 𝑠 is a tautology

Validity of argument may be determined by constructing a truth table.

Fallacy: this is an error in reasoning and this results in an invalid argument

 Some Valid Argument Forms: Rules of Inference

Form Rule Latin meaning

p→q
1.
p Modus ponens “method of affirming”

q (or method of detachment)

2.
p→q
q Modus tollens “method of denying”

p

Syllogism: an argument form consisting of two premises

p→q
(major premise & minor  q
premise)
and a conclusion
p
 More Argument Forms
Form Rule

3. p q or Disjunctive additions
Generalization
 pq  pq

p
4. or Conjunctive additions
q
pq

5. pq pq Specialization or Conjunctive simplifications

 p q

6. pq pq
Elimination or or Modus Tolendo Tollens
q p Disjunctive syllogisms
p q
 Argument Forms (cont’d)

Form Rule

p→q
Hypothetical syllogism or Transitivity
7. q→r
p→r

pq
8. p→r Dilemma or Proof by Division into Cases

q→r
r
 Examples

Recognize the argument form and derive the conclusion:

EX 1. If Chix barks, a trespasser is in the house.
𝒑 → 𝒒

Chix is barking.
𝒑

Therefore ? 𝒒

EX 2. If Chix barks, a trespasser is in the house.

𝒑 → 𝒒

A trespasser is not in the house.

¬𝒒

Therefore ? ¬𝒑
 Examples

Recognize the argument form and derive the conclusion:

EX 3. Ann either plays volleyball or basketball. 𝒗 v 𝒃

Ann is not playing basketball. ¬𝒃
Therefore ? 𝒗

EX 4. If I do all the exercises in this chapter, I will understand the lesson.

If I understand the lesson, I will do well on the exam.

If I do well on the exam, I will pass.

Therefore ?
Examples (Validating arguments)

Write the argument in propositional form and determine if it’s valid.

EX 5. “If 20151 is divisible by 9, then 20151 is divisible by 3.
If 20151 is divisible by 3, then the sum of the digits of 20151 is
divisible by 3. Therefore, if 20151 is divisible by 9,
then the sum of the digits of 20151 is divisible by 3.”
 “If 20151 is divisible by 9, then 20151 is divisible by 3.
If 20151 is divisible by 3, then the sum of the digits of 20151 is
divisible by 3.
Therefore, if 20151 is divisible by 9, then the sum of the digits of
20151 is divisible by 3.”
SOLUTION: Let 𝒑: 20151 is divisible by 9
𝒒: 20151is divisible by 3
𝒓: the sum of the digits of 20151 is divisible by 3
The argument can be written in the form as:
𝒑→𝒒
𝒒→𝒓
----------------
∴ 𝒑→𝒓 (by Hypothetical Syllogism)
Write the conclusion in words.

BDW, to prove that the conclusion is True, one may construct the truth table of
((𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒓))→ 𝒑 → 𝒓 .
IF ((𝒑 → 𝒒) ∧ (𝒒 → 𝒓))→ (𝒑 → 𝒓) is a tautology, then the argument is valid.
(IF NOT ALL TRUE, then it’s NOT VALID.)
Quantification
Universal Quantifier, ∀𝒙

❑ Let P(x) be a predicate and D be the domain of the discourse.

The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement:

• For all x, P(x)

• For every x, P(x)
• ∀𝒙 𝑷(𝒙)

• ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑫, 𝑷 𝒙

• ∀𝑥 ∀𝑦 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)

54
Existential Quantifier, ∃𝒙

❑ Let P(x) be a predicate and let D be the domain of the discourse.

The existential quantifier of P(x) is the statement:

• There exists x, P(x)

• For some x, P(x)

• ∃𝒙 𝑷 𝒙
• ∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑫, 𝑷(𝒙)
• ∃𝒙 ∃𝒚 𝑷 𝒙, 𝒚

55
 Negating quantifiers

By De Morgan’s Laws, ¬ ∀𝒙 𝑷 𝒙 ⇔ ∃𝒙 ¬ 𝑷 𝒙

¬ ∃𝒙 𝑷 𝒙 ⇔ ∀𝒙 ¬ 𝑷(𝒙)

ACTIVITY
1. Let P(x): “x has passed MMW” , D = all students
HOW do you translate the following?

a) ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) b) ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥

c) ¬ ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 d) ¬ ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥

e) ∃𝑥 ¬ 𝑃 𝑥 f) All students have not passed MMW.

2. Universe of discourse is students.
P(x) means “x has a computer”
Translate the following:
a) ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) b) ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥

c) ¬ ∀𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 d) ¬∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥
e) ∀𝑥 ¬ 𝑃(𝑥) f) Some students don’t have computers.
3. a) Translate in symbols: “All natural numbers are prime.”
b) What is the truth value and why?

Answer: a) ∀𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) where 𝑃 𝑥 : "𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒" ; 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁

b) False. Because ∃𝑥 𝑃 𝑥 (read as there exists some
natural numbers 𝑥 such that 𝑃 𝑥 is false.
(Actually there are many natural nos. that are not prime,
e.g., 4, 9 )
Example 4. Symbolize by using quantifiers, propositional functions and logical
connectives:
a) “There exists an integer such that it is even and prime.”
Let E(x): “x is even”
Let P(x): “x is prime” where x belongs to the set of integers
In symbols: ∃ 𝑥 (𝐸(𝑥)  𝑃(𝑥))
b) “All prime numbers are odd.”
Another way to say the given is:
“For all x, if x is a prime, then x is odd.”
Let P(x): “x is prime”
Let O(x): “x is odd”
In symbols: ∀𝑥 (𝑃(𝑥) → 𝑄(𝑥))
c) For any integer, there exists an integer such that their sum is 0.
Let x and y be the two integers.
Let P(x, y): “x + y = 0”
In symbols: ∀𝑥 ∃𝑦 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
59
ACTIVITY
5. Negate the following:

a) Everybody enjoyed their dinner.

b) Some students bought a new laptop.

c) None of the students did the assignment

d) Some actors are not rich.

e) ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑥 < 5

f) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥

(It would be better to translate first the statements a – d into symbolic form before negating them.)
ACTIVITY
5. Negate the following:

a) Everybody enjoyed their dinner. Some did not enjoy their dinner.

b) Some students bought a new laptop. All students did not buy a …

c) None of the students did the assignment. It’s not true that …

d) Some actors are not rich. All actors are rich.

e) ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑥 < 5 ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑥 ≥ 5

f) ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝑹, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑦 2 ≠ 𝑥

(It would be better to translate first the statements a – d into symbolic form before negating them.)
ACTIVITY
6. Let 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥 + 1.
Domain of discourse is the set of real numbers.

Determine the truth value of the following:

a) 𝑃(0, 2)

b) 𝑃(5, 1)

c) ∀𝑥 ∀𝑦, 𝑃 𝑥, 𝑦

d) ∀𝑥 ∃𝑦, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
ACTIVITY
7. Let 𝐿 𝑥, 𝑦 : "𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑦“.
Domain of discourse is classmates and Math.
Translate in words:
a) 𝐿 𝑥, 𝐴𝑛𝑛 b) 𝐿 𝐴𝑛𝑛, 𝐴𝑛𝑛

c) 𝐿 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ, 𝑚𝑒 d) ¬ ∃𝑥 𝐿 𝑥, 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ

e) ∀𝑥 ¬ 𝐿(𝑥, 𝑀𝑎𝑡ℎ) f) ¬ 𝐿( 𝐽𝑜𝑛, 𝐴𝑛𝑛)

Translate in symbols:
g) Nobody loves me. h) Someone doesn’t love Math.

i) Math loves everyone. j) Everyone loves someone.

k) Someone does not love everyone. l) Someone loves everyone.

Free and Bound Variables
Sound vs Unsound Argument
Recognizing Validity and Soundness