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Phonology:
● Definition: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and the abstract, mental representations of
sounds in a language. It looks at how sounds function in that language, including how they interact,
combine, and change based on their position in a word or sentence.
● Function: Phonology helps us understand the systematic organization of sounds in a language,
determining how variations in sound affect meaning. It deals with phonemes, which are the distinctive
sound units that can change the meaning of a word.
● Example: In English, the difference between the words "pat" and "bat" is a single phoneme (/p/ versus
/b/), demonstrating the importance of phonological distinctions.

Phonetics:
● Definition: Phonetics is the study of the physical aspects of speech sounds. It includes the articulation
of sounds (how they are produced by the vocal organs), the acoustic properties of sounds (how they
travel through the air), and the perception of sounds (how they are heard and processed by the human
ear and brain).
● Function: Phonetics provides a detailed examination of the actual sounds themselves, without
necessarily considering their linguistic function or role in meaning. It helps describe the nuances of
pronunciation.
● Example: The articulation of the "th" sound in "think" involves placing the tip of the tongue against the
upper front teeth, a characteristic feature captured by phonetics.

Organs of Articulation:
● Vocal Cords: These are located in the larynx (voice box) and play a crucial role in producing voiced
sounds. When the vocal cords come together and vibrate, they create sound. For example, the "z" sound
in "zebra" is produced with the vocal cords vibrating.
​ The contrast between "sip" and "zip" demonstrates the role of vocal cord vibration. "Sip" is voiceless (no
vocal cord vibration), while "zip" is voiced (vocal cord vibration).
● Tongue: The tongue is a highly flexible organ and is a major player in articulating different sounds. It
can move forward or backwards, up or down, and it can touch various parts of the mouth. For instance,
the "l" sound in "light" involves the tongue touching the alveolar ridge behind the upper front teeth.
Consider the difference between "sin" and "thin." The "s" in "sin" is produced with the tongue in a position
that allows air to flow freely, while the "th" in "thin" requires the tongue to protrude between the teeth.
● Lips: The movement and position of the lips contribute to the production of specific sounds. For
example, the "p" sound in "pen" is a bilabial sound, meaning it is produced by bringing both lips together.
​ The distinction between "pat" and "bat" highlights the role of the lips. The "p" in "pat" is voiceless and
bilabial, while the "b" in "bat" is voiced and bilabial.
● Palate: The palate, or the roof of the mouth, is divided into the hard palate at the front and the soft
palate (velum) at the back. The position of the tongue against these areas influences the quality of
certain sounds. The "k" sound in "cat" is a velar sound because the back of the tongue contacts the soft
palate.
​ Compare "kick" and "gig." The "k" in "kick" is a voiceless velar sound, while the "g" in "gig" is a voiced velar
sound.
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Speech Organs and Manner of Articulation

Speech Organs
Lips form different shapes, such as an oval, and
movements in order to make different sounds.
Sounds can be formed by using the teeth to shape
the lips, in combination with the tongue, or to block
air from escaping the mouth. The tongue moves
throughout the mouth and with many of the other
organs, as well as making shapes like the lips, in
order to formulate speech. The uvula is used to
make guttural sounds. It helps to make nasal
consonants by stopping air from moving through the
nose. The glottis is used in controlling the vibration
made by the vocal chords, in order to make different
sounds. The alveolar ridge helps us to make
different sounds, known as alveolar sounds, the tongue touches the ridges found on this organ. Hard palate,
like the alveolar ridge, is the organ of speech where the tongue touches and taps the palate when articulating
speech. The movable velum can retract and elevate in order to separate the mouth from the nasal cavity,
helping to make speech less nasally. When the tongue hits the velum, it also makes a special sound called the
velar consonant

Manner of Articulation
● Stops or plosives. The manner of articulation of stop or plosive sounds is produced by complete
‘stopping’ of the airstream and let it go abruptly.
● Fricatives. The manner of articulation of stop or plosive sounds is produced by almost blocking the
airstream and pushing the air through a narrow opening. By pushing the air through, a type of friction is
produced and the produced sounds are called fricatives. If you for example put your palm in front of
your mouth when producing fricative sounds, you feel the stream of air being pushed out.
● Affricates. The manner of articulation of affricate sounds is produced by a brief stopping followed by
an obstructed release which results in some friction.
● Nasals. The manner of articulation of nasal sounds is produced by lowering the velum and following
the airstream to flow out through the nose to produce nasal sound
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Place of articulation
● Bilabials. Bilabials are produced through upper and lower lips.
● Labiodentals. Labiodental sounds are produced through the upper teeth and the lower lip.
● Dentals. Dental sound is produced by placing the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.
● Interdental or intra-dental is sometimes applied to describe a manner of pronunciation with the
tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth.
● Alveolars. Alveolar sound is produced through the front part of the tongue placed on the alveolar ridge.
● Alveo-palatals. These are produced by placing the tongue at the very front of the palate, which is near
the alveolar ridge.
● Velars. The production of velar sound is done by placing the back of the tongue against the velum
● Glottal. This is produced without the active of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. This sound is
produced in the glottis- a space between the vocal cords and the larynx.

Vowel and Consonant Phonemes:

Vowel Phonemes:
Vowels are speech sounds produced with an open vocal tract, allowing air to flow freely. Vowel phonemes are
crucial in shaping the syllables and overall rhythm of words.
Function: Changes in vowel sounds can alter the meaning of a word, making vowel phonemes particularly
important. English has a variety of vowel sounds, both monophthongs (single, pure vowel sounds) and
diphthongs (two-vowel glides within the same syllable).
Examples:
Bat (æ): The vowel sound in "bat" is a short, front vowel.
Bit (ɪ): The vowel sound in "bit" is another short vowel but with a slightly different tongue position.
Bait (eɪ): The word "bait" contains a diphthong, where the vowel sound glides from one position to
another within the same syllable.

Consonant Phonemes:
Consonants are speech sounds produced by obstructing or restricting the airflow. Consonant phonemes
contribute to the distinctive sound patterns of words.
Function: Changes in consonant sounds can also lead to changes in meaning, and they often play a crucial
role in word endings and beginnings. English has a variety of consonant sounds, including stops, fricatives,
affricates, nasals, and approximants.
Examples:
Cat (k): The initial consonant sound in "cat" is a voiceless velar stop.
Zip (z): The initial consonant sound in "zip" is a voiced alveolar fricative.
Chin (ʧ): The initial consonant sound in "chin" is a voiceless postalveolar affricate.

Examples of Minimal Pairs:

Bit vs. Beat: The only difference is in the vowel sound, and it changes the meaning from a small amount to a
rhythmic movement.
Ship vs. Sheep: The only difference is in the vowel sound, changing the meaning from a water vessel to a
domesticated animal.
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Sonorization of Consonants:
Sonorization refers to the phenomenon where certain consonants, which are typically voiceless in isolation,
become sonorous or voiced in specific linguistic contexts. This phenomenon is influenced by the surrounding
sounds, often resulting in a change in pronunciation.

Contextual Voicing:
In English, voiceless consonants can become voiced when placed between two voiced sounds or when they
occur at the end of a word or before a voiced sound. This process is known as sonorization, and it impacts the
overall flow and rhythm of speech.
Examples:

Final Consonant Sonorization:

Leaf /liːf/ vs. Leave /liːv/: The final /f/ in "leaf" is voiceless, but in "leave," the final /v/ is voiced due to
sonorization. This difference changes the meaning from a part of a plant to the action of departing.
Bath /bæθ/ vs. Bathe /beɪð/: The final /θ/ in "bath" is voiceless, while the final /ð/ in "bathe" is voiced.
This alteration in voicing distinguishes between a place for washing and the act of washing.

Intervocalic Voicing:
Better /ˈbɛtər/ vs. Bed /bɛd/: The /t/ in "better" is intervocalic (between two vowels), and it becomes
voiced due to sonorization, making it sound like /d/. This contrast changes the meaning from a comparative
adjective to a piece of furniture.
Cat /kæt/ vs. Cuddle /ˈkʌdəl/: The /t/ in "cat" is voiceless, but in "cuddle," the /d/ is voiced due to
sonorization. This voicing distinguishes between a small feline and an affectionate embrace.

Minimal Pairs:
Definition: Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ in only one sound, usually a single phoneme. The
contrast between these words highlights the importance of precise pronunciation, as changing that one sound
can alter the meaning.
Examples:
Ship /ʃɪp/ vs. Sheep /ʃiːp/: The minimal pair "ship" and "sheep" differs only in the vowel sound, changing
the meaning from a water vessel to a domesticated animal.
Pat /pæt/ vs. Bat /bæt/: The minimal pair "pat" and "bat" differs only in the initial consonant sound,
changing the meaning from a gentle touch to a sports equipment.

H omophones:
Definition: Homophones are words that have similar pronunciations but different meanings. They may or may
not be spelled the same way. The similarity in sound can lead to confusion if not pronounced distinctly.
Examples:
Two /tuː/ vs. Too /tuː/ vs. To /tuː/: These homophones have the same pronunciation but different
meanings. "Two" is a number, "too" means also or excessively, and "to" is a preposition indicating direction or
purpose.
Their /ðɛr/ vs. There /ðɛr/ vs. They're /ðɛr/: These homophones sound the same but have distinct
meanings. "Their" denotes possession, "there" indicates a location, and "they're" is a contraction for "they are."
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Strong Forms:
The strong form of a function word occurs when the word is stressed or emphasized within a sentence. In
these instances, the function word is pronounced more fully, with its distinct vowel sounds.
Example:
I will visit tomorrow. (Strong Form)
In this sentence, the auxiliary verb "will" is stressed, so it takes its strong form, pronounced with the full vowel
sound.

Weak Forms:
Definition: The weak form of a function word occurs when the word is unstressed or de-emphasized within a
sentence. In these cases, the function word undergoes reductions, and the pronunciation is often altered,
making it less distinct.
Example:
I will visit tomorrow. (Weak Form)
In a sentence where "will" is not stressed, such as in casual conversation, it takes its weak form, pronounced
with a reduced or schwa vowel sound: /wəl/.

Articulatory Phonetics:
Articulatory phonetics is the branch of phonetics that focuses on how speech sounds are physically produced
by the human vocal organs. It examines the movements and positions of the tongue, lips, vocal cords, and
other articulators during speech.

Acoustic Phonetics:
Acoustic phonetics is the branch of phonetics that studies the physical properties of speech sounds,
specifically their acoustic characteristics. It explores how sounds are transmitted through the air as waves,
analyzing aspects such as frequency, intensity, and duration.

Perceptual Phonetics:
Perceptual phonetics is the branch of phonetics that examines how speech sounds are perceived by the
human auditory system. It investigates how listeners interpret and distinguish between various sounds based
on auditory cues.

Language Chain:
The language chain refers to the sequence of sounds in a word or phrase. Understanding the language chain
is fundamental for teaching accurate pronunciation because it involves recognizing the order and
characteristics of sounds that make up words and phrases.

Allophones: Aspiration and Devoicing:

Allophones are different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme.
In English, aspiration is observed in voiceless plosives (e.g., the 'p' in "pat"), where a burst of air follows the
release of the sound.
Devoicing occurs in approximants (e.g., the 'w' in "win"), where voiced sounds become voiceless due to their
position in a word.