MODULE  IN  GEd  109  
SCIENCE,  TECHNOLOGY  AND  SOCIETY  
 
 
 
 
Abegail  L.  Gonzales  
Erma  D.  Maalihan  
Sherryl  M.  Montalbo    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Table  of  Contents  
 
TOPIC                                          
           PAGE  No.  
             
PART  I  
General  Concepts  and  STS  Historical  Developments  
 
Chapter  1  –  Historical  Antecedents  
A.   Historical  Antecedents  in  Which  Social    
Considerations  Changed  the  Course  of  Science  and  Technology  
  What  is  Science,  Technology  and  Society           1    
  Historical  Antecedents  in  the  World             5  
From  Ancient  Times  to  600  BC               5  
The  Advent  of  Science                 6  
Islamic  Golden  Age                   6  
Ancient  China                   7  
The  Renaissance                   8  
The  Enlightenment  Period                 9  
Industrial  Revolution                 10  
20th  Century  Science                 11  
Fourth  Industrial  Revolution               12  
Activities                     14  
 
B.   Historical  Development  of  Science  and  Technology    
in  the  Philippines  
  Pre-­Spanish  Era                   18  
  Spanish  Colonial  Era                 19  
  American  Period                     20  
  Commonwealth  Period                 21  
  S&T  Since  Independence                 21  
  S&T  in  the  60s  to  90s                 22  
  Hopes  in  Philippines  S&T                 25  
  Current  Initiatives  in  Philippine  S&T             26  
 
C.   Paradigm  Shifts  
What  is  a  paradigm?                 28  
What  is  a  paradigm  shift?                 29  
 
Chapter  2  –  Intellectual  Revolutions  that  Defined  Society  
A.   What  is  an  Intellectual  Revolution?             31  
B.   The  Birth  of  Modern  Science               31  
C.   Copernican  Revolution                 32  
D.   Darwinian  Revolution                 35  
E.   Freudian  Revolution                   36  
F.   Scientific  Revolution  in  MesoAmerica             38  
  
G.   Asian  Scientific  Revolution                 39  
H.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Middle  East             39  
I.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Africa               41  
J.   Information  Revolution                 43  
K.   Activity:  Standing  on  the  Shoulders  of  Giants           45  
 
Chapter  3  -­  Science  and  Technology,  and  Nation  Building  
A.   The  Philippine  Government  S&T  Agenda           48  
B.   In  Focus:  Batangas  State  University  KIST  Park           51  
C.   Major  Development  Programs  in  Science  and  Technology         52  
D.   Personalities  in  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Philippines       54  
E.   Science  Education  in  the  Philippines             58  
 
 
Part  II      
Science  and  Technology  and  the  Human  Condition  
 
Chapter  4  -­  The  Human  Person  Flourishing  in  terms  of  Science  and  Technology  
A.   Technology  as  a  Way  of  Revealing               62  
B.   Human  Flourishing                   64  
 
Chapter  5  –  The  Good  Life  
A.   What  is  a  Good  Life?                   69  
B.   What  is  Human  Existence?               72  
C.   What  is  a  Public  Good?                 73  
 
Chapter  6  -­  When  Technology  and  Humanity  Cross  
A.   The  Ethical  Dilemmas  of  Robotics             76  
B.   Human,  Morals  and  Machines               79  
C.   Why  the  Future  Does  Not  Need  Us?             81  
D.   Activity                     86  
                     
 
Part  III      
Specific  Issues  in  Science,  Technology  and  Society  
 
Chapter  7  -­  The  Information  Age  
A.   Pre-­Gutenberg  Period                 89  
B.   Gutenberg  Revolution                 90  
C.   Printed  Materials  as  Agents  of  Change             91  
D.   Post-­Gutenberg  Period                  
E.   Activity                     94  
 
 
 
  
 
Chapter  8  –  Biodiversity  and  Healthy  Society  
A.   Biodiversity  and  Healthy  Society               96    
B.   Threats  to  Biodiversity                 97  
C.   GMOs                       99  
D.   Risk  Related  to  the  Use  of  GMOs               104  
E.   Activity                     106  
 
Chapter  9  –  The  Nano  World  
A.   What  is  Nanotechnology                 108  
B.   Environmental  Aspects  of  Nanotechnology           111  
C.   Nanotechnology  in  the  Philippines             112  
D.   Nanotechnology  and  Education               113  
E.   Activity                     115  
 
Chapter  10  –  Gene  Therapy  
A.   Approaches  to  Gene  Therapy               117  
B.   Stem  Cell  Therapy                   118  
C.   Activity                     119  
 
Chapter  11  -­  Climate  Change,  Energy  Crisis  and  Environmental  Awareness  
A.   What  is  Climate  Change                 121  
B.   Causes  of  Climate  Change                 121  
C.   Impacts  of  Climate  Change               122  
D.   Activity                       125  
             
   
 

         
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
Chapter  1  
Historical  Antecedents  in  Which  Social  Considerations  Changed    
the  Course  of  Science  and  Technology  
 
 
Introduction  
  This  section  presents  an  overview  of  how  science  and  technology  evolved  from  
ancient  times  to  the  present.  It  shows  how  man  was  able  to  develop  crude  technological  
tools  and  eventually  improve  them  through  time  to  make  his  way  of  living  more  convenient  
and  the  society  more  progressive.    
 
Intended  Learning  Outcomes:  
 
1.   Discuss  the  interactions  between  science  and  technology  and  society  throughout  
history  
2.   Discuss   how   scientific   and   technological   developments   affect   society   and   the  
environment  
3.   Identify  the  paradigm  shifts  in  history  
 
 
A.   General  Concepts  
 
What  is  Science,  Technology  and  Society?  
   
  Science   and   Technology   and   Society   is   an   interdisciplinary   course   designed   to  
examine  the  ways  that  science  and  technology  shape,  and  are  shaped  by,  our  society,  
politics,  and  culture.  It  explores  the  conditions  under  which  production,  distribution  and  
utilization   of   scientific   knowledge   and   technological   systems   occur;;   and   the   effects   of  
these   processes   upon   the   entire   society.   History   and   philosophy   of   science   and  
technology,  sociology  and  anthropology  are  greatly  interconnected  to  the  discussion  of  
STS   because   these   are   the   very   factors   that   molded   the   development   of   science   and  
technology  as  we  know  it  today.    
 
  Science  is  an  evolving  body  of  knowledge  that  is  based  on  theoretical  expositions  
and  experimental  and  empirical  activities  that  generates  universal  truths.  Technology,  on  
the   other   hand   is   the   application   of   science   and   creation   of   systems,   processes   and  
objects  designed  to  help  humans  in  their  daily  activities.  The  development  of  science  and  
technology  has  brought  immense  progress  in  society  and  men.  Scientific  knowledge  and  
technology   influences   individuals   and   society.   Better   understanding   of   science   and  
technology  is  essential  to  know  the  unique  attributes  of  each  enterprise,  then  addressing  
their  implications  for  society.    
 
 
 
  
  Society  is  the  sum  total  of  our  interactions  as  humans,  including  the  interactions  
that  we  engage  in  to  understand  the  nature  of  things  and  to  create  things.  It  is  also  defined  
as  a  group  of  individuals  involved  in  persistent  social  interaction,  or  a  large  social  group  
sharing  the  same  geographical  or  social  territory,  typically  subject  to  the  same  political  
authority  and  dominant  cultural  expectations  (Science  Daily).  
 
Science,  technology  and  society  is  important  to  the  public  because  it  helps  address  
issues   and   problems   that   are   of   concern   to   the   general   population.   Scientific   and  
technological   principles   have   been   and   continue   to   be   applied   to   solve   problems   that  
people   experience   in   their   day-­to-­day   aspects   of   living.   But   scientific   findings   must   be  
applied  at  the  right  scales.  The  impact  of  technological  breakthroughs  on  people,  society  
and  the  environment  must  be  critically  assessed  to  preserve  its  value.    
 

                                                                 Figure  1  The  Interrelationship  of  science,  technology  and  society  

                                                                 Source:  Ihueze  et  al.,  2015.  researchgate.net  

A  lot  of  our  problems  in  modern  society  involve  not  only  technology  but  also  human  
values,   social   organization,   environmental   concerns,   economic   resources,   political  
decisions,  and  a  myriad  of  other  factors.  These  things  sits  at  the  interface  between  the  
three   fields   and   can   also   be   solved   (if   they   can   be   solved   at   all)   by   the   application   of  
scientific  knowledge,  technical  expertise,  social  understanding,  and  humane  compassion.  
 
In  the  past,  science  is  learned  as  an  independent  study  from  other  fields.  It  focuses  
on  the  scientific  methods,  natural  processes  and  understanding  nature.  But  in  the  current  
global   scenario,   science   is   studied   holistically,   often   in   an   interdisciplinary   method,  
emphasizing  systems  rather  than  processes,  synthesis  more  than  analysis  and  predicting  
nature’s  behavior  in  order  to  have  useful  application  in  solving  contemporary  problems.  

2
The   scientific   data   that   have   built   up   a   considerable   base   of   knowledge   led   to   a   vast  
portfolio   of   useful   technologies,   especially   in   the   21st   century,   to   solve   many   of   the  
problems  now  facing  humankind  (UNESCO,  1999).    
 
To   solve   our   contemporary   problems,   science   needs   to   become   more  
multidisciplinary   and   its   practitioners   should   continue   to   promote   cooperation   and  
integration  between  the  social  and  natural  sciences.  A  holistic  approach  also  demands  
that  science  draw  on  the  contributions  of  the  humanities  (such  as  history  and  philosophy),  
local  knowledge  systems,  aboriginal  wisdom,  and  the  wide  variety  of  cultural  values.  
 
The   influence   of   science   and   technology   on   people’s   lives   is   expanding.   While  
recent  benefits  to  humanity  are  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  the  human  species,  in  some  
instances  the  impact  has  been  harmful  or  the  long-­term  effects  give  causes  for  serious  
concerns.  A  considerable  measure  of  public  mistrust  of  science  and  fear  of  technology  
exists  today.  In  part,  this  stems  from  the  belief  by  some  individuals  and  communities  that  
they  will  be  the  ones  to  suffer  the  indirect  negative  consequences  of  technical  innovations  
introduced   to   benefit   only   a   privileged   minority.   The   power   of   science   to   bring   about  
change  places  a  duty  on  scientists  to  proceed  with  great  caution  both  in  what  they  do  and  
what  they  say.  Scientists  should  reflect  on  the  social  consequences  of  the  technological  
applications  or  dissemination  of  partial  information  of  their  work  and  explain  to  the  public  
and   policy   makers   alike   the   degree   of   scientific   uncertainty   or   incompleteness   in   their  
findings.  At  the  same  time,  though,  they  should  not  hesitate  to  fully  exploit  the  predictive  
power   of   science,   duly   qualified,   to   help   people   cope   with   environmental   change,  
especially  in  cases  of  direct  threats  like  natural  disasters  or  water  shortages.  
 
The  Role  of  Science  and  Technology  
 
1.   alter   the   way   people   live,   connect,   communicate   and   transact,   with   profound  
effects  on  economic  development;;  
2.   key   drivers   to   development,   because   technological   and   scientific   revolutions  
underpin   economic   advances,   improvements   in   health   systems,   education   and  
infrastructure;;    
3.   The  technological  revolutions  of  the  21st  century  are  emerging  from  entirely  new  
sectors,   based   on   micro-­processors,   tele-­communications,   bio-­technology   and  
nano-­technology.   Products   are   transforming   business   practices   across   the  
economy,  as  well  as  the  lives  of  all  who  have  access  to  their  effects.  The  most  
remarkable   breakthroughs   will   come   from   the   interaction   of   insights   and  
applications  arising  when  these  technologies  converge.  
4.   have  the  power  to  better  the  lives  of  poor  people  in  developing  countries    
5.   differentiators   between   countries   that   are   able   to   tackle   poverty   effectively   by  
growing  and  developing  their  economies,  and  those  that  are  not.    
6.   engine  of  growth    
7.   interventions   for   cognitive   enhancement,   proton   cancer   therapy   and   genetic  
engineering  
 
 

3
  
Reflective  Question:  
With   the   whole   world   suffering   from   CoViD-­19   pandemic,   discuss   the   interplay  
between  science,  technology  and  society  in  mitigating  this  problem.    
 
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4
 B.   Historical  Antecedents  in  the  World  
 
Just  like  with  any  other  discipline,  the  best  way  to  truly  understand  where  
we  are  in  science  today  is  to  look  back  at  what  happened  in  the  past.  The  history  
of   science   can   teach   us   many   lessons   about   the   way   scientists   think   and  
understand  the  world  around  us.  A  historical  perspective  will  make  us  appreciate  
more  what  science  really  is.  
 
 
From  Ancient  Times  to  600  BC  
 
Science  during  ancient  times  involved  practical  arts  like  healing  practices  
and  metal  tradition.  Some  of  the  earliest  records  from  history  indicate  that  3,000  
years  before  Christ,  the  ancient  Egyptians  already  had  reasonably  sophisticated  
medical   practices.   Sometime   around   2650   B.C.,   for   example,   a   man   named  
Imhotep  was  renowned  for  his  knowledge  of  medicine.  Most  historians  agree  that  
the  heart  of  Egyptian  medicine  was  trial  and  error.  Egyptian  doctors  would  try  one  
remedy,  and  if  it  worked,  they  would  continue  to  use  it.  If  a  remedy  they  tried  didn’t  
work,   the   patient   might   die,   but   at   least   the   doctors   learned   that   next   time   they  
should  try  a  different  remedy.  Despite  the  fact  that  such  practices  sound  primitive,  
the  results  were,  sometimes,  surprisingly  effective.    
 
The  Egyptian  medicine  was  considered  advanced  as  compared  with  other  
ancient  nations  because  of  one  of  the  early  inventions  of  Egyptian  civilization  –  the  
papyrus.  The  papyrus  is  an  ancient  form  of  paper,  made  from  the  papyrus  plant,  
a  reed  which  grows  in  the  marshy  areas  around  the  Nile  river.  As  early  as  3,000  
years  before  Christ,  Egyptians  took  thin  slices  of  the  stem  of  the  papyrus  plant,  laid  
them  crosswise  on  top  of  each  other,  moistened  them,  and  then  pressed  and  dried  
them.  The  result  was  a  form  of  paper  that  was  reasonably  easy  to  write  on  and  
store.   The   invention   of   this   ancient   form   of   paper   revolutionized   the   way  
information  was  transmitted  from  person  to  person  and  generation  to  generation.  
Before  papyrus,  Egyptians,  Sumerians,  and  other  races  wrote  on  clay  tablets  or  
smooth   rocks.   This   was   a   time-­consuming   process,   and   the   products   were   not  
easy  to  store  or  transport.  When  Egyptians  began  writing  on  papyrus,  all  of  that  
changed.  Papyrus  was  easy  to  roll  into  scrolls.  Thus,  Egyptian  writings  became  
easy  to  store  and  transport.  As  a  result,  the  knowledge  of  one  scholar  could  be  
easily  transferred  to  other  scholars.  As  this  accumulated  knowledge  was  passed  
down   from   generation   to   generation,   Egyptian   medicine   became   the   most  
respected   form   of   medicine   in   the   known   world.   Papyrus   was   used   as   a   writing  
material  as  early  as  3,000  BC  in  ancient  Egypt,  and  continued  to  be  used  to  some  
extent  until  around  1100  AD.  
 
Although  the  Egyptians  were  renowned  for  their  medicine  and  for  papyrus,  
other  cultures  had  impressive  inventions  of  their  own.  Around  the  time  that  papyrus  
was  first  being  used  in  Egypt,  the  Mesopotamians  were  making  pottery  using  the  
first  known  potter’s  wheel.  Not  long  after,  horse-­drawn  chariots  were  being  used.  

5
 As  early  as  1,000  years  before  Christ,  the  Chinese  were  using  compasses  to  aid  
themselves  in  their  travels.  The  ancient  world,  then,  was  filled  with  inventions  that,  
although  they  sound  commonplace  today,  revolutionized  life  during  those  times.  
These  inventions  are  history’s  first  inklings  of  science.    
 
  The  Advent  of  Science  (600  BC  to  500  AD)  
 
The  ancient  Greeks  were  the  early  thinkers  and  as  far  as  historians  can  tell,  
they  were  the  first  true  scientists.  They  collected  facts  and  observations  and  then  
used  those  observations  to  explain  the  natural  world.  Although  many  cultures  like  
the  ancient  Egyptians,  Mesopotamians,  and  Chinese  had  collected  observations  
and  facts,  they  had  not  tried  to  use  those  facts  to  develop  explanations  of  the  world  
around  them.    
 
Scientific   thought   in   Classical   Antiquity   becomes   tangible   from   the   6th  
century   BC   in   pre-­Socratic   philosophy   (Thales,   Pythagoras).   In   circa   385  
BC,   Plato   founded   the   Academy.   With   Plato's   student   Aristotle   begins   the  
"scientific   revolution"   of   the   Hellenistic   period   culminating   in   the   3rd   to   2nd  
centuries   with   scholars   such   as   Eratosthenes,   Euclid,   Aristarchus   of  
Samos,  Hipparchus  and  Archimedes.  
 
This   period   produced   substantial   advances   in   scientific   knowledge,  
especially  in  anatomy,  zoology,  botany,  mineralogy,  geography,  mathematics  and  
astronomy;;   an   awareness   of   the   importance   of   certain   scientific   problems,  
especially  those  related  to  the  problem  of  change  and  its  cause;;  and  a  recognition  
of  the  methodological  importance  of  applying  mathematics  to  natural  phenomena  
and  of  undertaking  empirical  research.  
 
The  scholars  frequently  employed  the  principles  developed  in  earlier  Greek  
thought:  the  application  of  mathematics  and  deliberate  empirical  research,  in  their  
scientific  investigations.  This  was  passed  on  from  ancient  Greek  philosophers  to  
medieval  Muslim  philosophers  and  scientists,  to  the  European  Renaissance  and  
Enlightenment,  to  the  secular  sciences  of  the  modern  day.  
 
 
  Islamic  Golden  Age  
 
The  Islamic  Golden  Age  was  a  period  of  cultural,  economic  and  scientific  
flourishing  in  the  history  of  Islam,  traditionally  dated  from  the  eighth  century  to  the  
fourteenth  century,  with  several  contemporary  scholars  dating  the  end  of  the  era  
to  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century.  This  period  is  traditionally  understood  to  have  
begun  during  the  reign  of  the  Abbasid  caliph  Harun  al-­Rashid  (786  to  809)  with  the  
inauguration   of   the   House   of   Wisdom   in   Baghdad,   where   scholars   from   various  
parts  of  the  world  with  different  cultural  backgrounds  were  mandated  to  gather  and  
translate   all   of   the   world's   classical   knowledge   into   the   Arabic   language   and  
subsequently   development   in   various   fields   of   sciences   began.   Science   and  

6
 technology   in   the   Islamic   world   adopted   and   preserved   knowledge   and  
technologies  from  contemporary  and  earlier  civilizations,  including  Persia,  Egypt,  
India,  China,  and  Greco-­Roman  antiquity,  while  making  numerous  improvements,  
innovations  and  inventions.  
 
Islamic   scientific   achievements   encompassed   a   wide   range   of   subject  
areas,   especially   astronomy,   mathematics,   and   medicine.   Scientific   inquiry   was  
practiced   in   other   subjects   like   alchemy   and   chemistry,   botany   and   agronomy,  
geography  and  cartography,  ophthalmology,  pharmacology,  physics  and  zoology.    
 
Islamic  science  was  characterized  by  having  practical  purposes  as  well  as  
the  goal  of  understanding.  Astronomy  was  useful  in  determining  the  Qibla,  which  
is   the   direction   in   which   to   pray,   botany   is   applied   in   agriculture   and   geography  
enabled  scientists  to  make  accurate  maps.  Mathematics  also  flourished  during  the  
Islamic   Golden   Age   with   the   works   of   Al-­Khwarizmi,   Avicenna   and   Jamshid   al  
Kashi   that   led   to   advanced   in   algebra,   trigonometry,   geometry   and   Arabic  
numerals.  
 
There  was  also  great  progress  in  medicine  during  this  period.  Al-­Biruni,  and  
Avicenna  produced  books  that  contain  descriptions  of  the  preparation  of  hundred  
of   drugs   made   from   medicinal   plants   and   chemical   compounds.   Islamic   doctors  
describe   diseases   like   smallpox   and   measles,   and   challenged   classical   Greek  
medical  knowledge.        
 
Likewise,  Islamic  physicists  such  as  Ibn  Al-­Haytham,  Al-­Biruni  and  others  
studied  optics  and  mechanics  as  well  as  astronomy,  and  criticized  Aristotle’s  view  
of  motion.  
 
The   significance   of   medieval   Islamic   science   has   been   debated   by  
historians.  The  traditionalist  view  holds  that  it  lacked  innovation,  and  was  mainly  
important  for  handing  on  ancient  knowledge  to  medieval  Europe.  The  revisionist  
view  holds  that  it  constituted  a  scientific  revolution.  Whatever  the  case,  science  
flourished   across   a   wide   area   around   the   Mediterranean   and   further   afield,   for  
several  centuries,  in  a  wide  range  of  institutions.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  in  Ancient  China    
 
Ancient   Chinese   scientists   and   engineers   made   significant   scientific  
innovations,   findings   and   technological   advances   across   various   scientific  
disciplines   including   the   natural   sciences,   engineering,   medicine,   military  
technology,  mathematics,  geology  and  astronomy.  
 
Ancient  China  gave  the  world  the  Four  Great  Inventions  that  include  the  
compass,  gunpowder,  papermaking  and  printing.  These  were  considered  as  
among  the  most  important  technological  advances  and  were  only  known  to  Europe  

7
 1000  years  later  or  during  the  end  of  the  Middle  ages.  These  four  inventions  had  
a   profound   impact   on   the   development   of   civilization   throughout   the   world.  
However,   some   modern   Chinese   scholars   have   opined   that   other   Chinese  
inventions  were  perhaps  more  sophisticated  and  had  a  greater  impact  on  Chinese  
civilization  –  the  Four  Great  Inventions  serve  merely  to  highlight  the  technological  
interaction  between  East  and  West.  
 
As  stated  by  Karl  Marx,  "Gunpowder,  the  compass,  and  the  printing  press  
were  the  three  great  inventions  which  ushered  in  bourgeois  society.  Gunpowder  
blew  up  the  knightly  class,  the  compass  discovered  the  world  market  and  found  
the  colonies,  and  the  printing  press  was  the  instrument  of  Protestantism  and  the  
regeneration   of   science   in   general;;   the   most   powerful   lever   for   creating   the  
intellectual  prerequisites.”  
 
 
  The  Renaissance  (1300  AD  –  1600AD)  
   
The   14th   century   was   the   beginning   of   the   cultural   movement   of   the  
Renaissance,   which   was   considered   by   many   as   the   Golden   Age   of   Science.  
During   the   Renaissance   period,   great   advances   occurred  
in   geography,   astronomy,   chemistry,   physics,   mathematics,   anatomy,  
manufacturing,   and   engineering.   The   rediscovery   of   ancient   scientific   texts   was  
accelerated   after   the   Fall   of   Constantinople   in   1453,   and   the   invention  
of  printing  democratized  learning  and  allowed  a  faster  propagation  of  new  ideas.    
 
Marie   Boas   Hall   coined   the   term   Scientific   Renaissance   to   designate   the  
early   phase   of   the   Scientific   Revolution,   1450–1630.   More   recently,   Peter   Dear  
has   argued   for   a   two-­phase   model   of   early   modern   science:   a   Scientific  
Renaissance   of   the   15th   and   16th   centuries,   focused   on   the   restoration   of   the  
natural  knowledge  of  the  ancients;;  and  a  Scientific  Revolution  of  the  17th  century,  
when  scientists  shifted  from  recovery  to  innovation.  
 
But   this   initial   period   is   usually   seen   as   one   of   scientific   backwardness.  
There  were  no  new  developments  in  physics  or  astronomy,  and  the  reverence  for  
classical   sources   further   enshrined   the   Aristotelian   and   Ptolemaic   views   of   the  
universe.  Renaissance  philosophy  lost  much  of  its  rigour  as  the  rules  of  logic  and  
deduction   were   seen   as   secondary   to   intuition   and   emotion.   At   the   same  
time,   Renaissance   humanism   stressed   that   nature   came   to   be   viewed   as   an  
animate  spiritual  creation  that  was  not  governed  by  laws  or  mathematics.  Science  
would   only   be   revived   later,   with   such   figures   as   Copernicus,   Gerolamo  
Cardano,  Francis  Bacon,  and  Descartes.  
 
The   most   important   technological   advance   of   all   in   this   period   was   the  
development  of  printing,  with  movable  metal  type,  about  the  mid-­15th  century  in  
Germany.   Johannes   Gutenberg   is   usually   called   its   inventor,   but   in   fact   many  
people  and  many  steps  were  involved.  Block  printing  on  wood  came  to  the  West  

8
 from  China  between  1250  and  1350,  papermaking  came  from  China  by  way  of  the  
Arabs  to  12th-­century  Spain,  whereas  the  Flemish  technique  of  oil  painting  was  
the   origin   of   the   new   printers’   ink.   Three   men   of   Mainz—Gutenberg   and   his  
contemporaries   Johann   Fust   and   Peter   Schöffer—seem   to   have   taken   the   final  
steps,  casting  metal  type  and  locking  it  into  a  wooden  press.  The  invention  spread  
like   the   wind,   reaching   Italy   by   1467,   Hungary   and   Poland   in   the   1470s,   and  
Scandinavia   by   1483.   By   1500   the   presses   of   Europe   had   produced   some   six  
million   books.   Without   the   printing   press   it   is   impossible   to   conceive   that   the  
Reformation  would  have  ever  been  more  than  a  monkish  quarrel  or  that  the  rise  of  
a   new   science,   which   was   a   cooperative   effort   of   an   international   community,  
would  have  occurred  at  all.  In  short,  the  development  of  printing  amounted  to  a  
communications   revolution   of   the   order   of   the   invention   of   writing;;   and,   like   that  
prehistoric   discovery,   it   transformed   the   conditions   of   life.   The   communications  
revolution   immeasurably   enhanced   human   opportunities   for   enlightenment   and  
pleasure   on   one   hand   and   created   previously   undreamed-­of   possibilities   for  
manipulation   and   control   on   the   other.   The   consideration   of   such   contradictory  
effects  may  guard  us  against  a  ready  acceptance  of  triumphalist  conceptions  of  
the  Renaissance  or  of  historical  change  in  general.  
 
 
The  Enlightenment  Period  (1715  A.D.  to  1789  A.D.)  
 
The   Enlightenment   Period   or   the   Age   of   Reason   was   characterized   by  
radical  reorientation  in  science,  which  emphasized  reason  over  superstition  and  
science   over   blind   faith.   This   period   produced   numerous   books,   essays,  
inventions,  scientific  discoveries,  laws,  wars  and  revolutions.  The  American  and  
French   Revolutions   were   directly   inspired   by   Enlightenment   ideals   and  
respectively  marked  the  peak  of  its  influence  and  the  beginning  of  its  decline.  The  
Enlightenment  ultimately  gave  way  to  19th-­century  Romanticism.  
 
The   Enlightenment’s   important   17th-­century   precursors   included   the   key  
natural   philosophers   of   the   Scientific   Revolution,   including   Galileo   Galilei,  
Johannes   Kepler   and   Gottfried   Wilhelm   Leibniz.   Its   roots   are   usually   traced   to  
1680s   England,   where   in   the   span   of   three   years   Isaac   Newton   published   his  
“Principia   Mathematica”   (1686)   and   John   Locke   his   “Essay   Concerning   Human  
Understanding”  (1689)—two  works  that  provided  the  scientific,  mathematical  and  
philosophical  toolkit  for  the  Enlightenment’s  major  advances.  
 
In  this  era  dedicated  to  human  progress,  the  advancement  of  the  natural  
sciences  is  regarded  as  the  main  exemplification  of,  and  fuel  for,  such  progress.  
Isaac  Newton’s  epochal  accomplishment  in  his  Principia  Mathematica  consists  in  
the  comprehension  of  a  diversity  of  physical  phenomena  –  in  particular  the  motions  
of   heavenly   bodies,   together   with   the   motions   of   sublunary   bodies   –   in   few  
relatively  simple,  universally  applicable,  mathematical  laws,  was  a  great  stimulus  
to   the   intellectual   activity   of   the   eighteenth   century   and   served   as   a   model   and  
inspiration   for   the   researches   of   a   number   of   Enlightenment   thinkers.   Newton’s  

9
 system  strongly  encourages  the  Enlightenment  conception  of  nature  as  an  orderly  
domain   governed   by   strict   mathematical-­dynamical   laws   and   the   conception   of  
ourselves  as  capable  of  knowing  those  laws  and  of  plumbing  the  secrets  of  nature  
through  the  exercise  of  our  unaided  faculties.  –  The  conception  of  nature,  and  of  
how  we  know  it,  changes  significantly  with  the  rise  of  modern  science.  It  belongs  
centrally   to   the   agenda   of   Enlightenment   philosophy   to   contribute   to   the   new  
knowledge   of   nature,   and   to   provide   a   metaphysical   framework   within   which   to  
place  and  interpret  this  new  knowledge.  
 
  Industrial  Revolution  (1760  -­  1840)  
 
The   rise   of   modern   science   and   the   Industrial   Revolution   were   closely  
connected.  It  is  difficult  to  show  any  direct  effect  of  scientific  discoveries  upon  the  
rise  of  the  textile  or  even  the  metallurgical  industry  in  Great  Britain,  the  home  of  
the  Industrial  Revolution,  but  there  certainly  was  a  similarity  in  attitude  to  be  found  
in   science   and   nascent   industry.   Close   observation   and   careful   generalization  
leading   to   practical   utilization   were   characteristic   of   both   industrialists   and  
experimentalists  alike  in  the  18th  century.    
 
What   science   offered   in   the   18th   century   was   the   hope   that   careful  
observation   and   experimentation   might   improve   industrial   production  
significantly.   The   science   of   metallurgy   permitted   the   tailoring   of   alloy   steels   to  
industrial   specifications,   the   science   of   chemistry   permitted   the   creation   of   new  
substances,  like  the  aniline  dyes,  of  fundamental  industrial  importance,  and  that  
electricity  and  magnetism  were  harnessed  in  the  electric  dynamo  and  motor.  Until  
that   period   science   probably   profited   more   from   industry   than   the   other   way  
around.   It   was   the   steam   engine   that   posed   the   problems   that   led,   by   way   of   a  
search   for   a   theory   of   steam   power,   to   the   creation   of   thermodynamics.   Most  
importantly,  as  industry  required  ever  more  complicated  and  intricate  machinery,  
the   machine   tool   industry   developed   to   provide   it   and,   in   the   process,   made  
possible  the  construction  of  ever  more  delicate  and  refined  instruments  for  science.  
As  science  turned  from  the  everyday  world  to  the  worlds  of  atoms  and  molecules,  
electric   currents   and   magnetic   fields,   microbes   and   viruses,   and   nebulae   and  
galaxies,  instruments  increasingly  provided  the  sole  contact  with  phenomena.  A  
large  refracting  telescope  driven  by  intricate  clockwork  to  observe  nebulae  was  as  
much  a  product  of  19th-­century  heavy  industry  as  were  the  steam  locomotive  and  
the  steamship.  
 
The   Industrial   Revolution   had   one   further   important   effect   on   the  
development  of  modern  science.  The  prospect  of  applying  science  to  the  problems  
of  industry  served  to  stimulate  public  support  for  science.  Governments,  in  varying  
degrees  and  at  different  rates,  began  supporting  science  even  more  directly,  by  
making   financial   grants   to   scientists,   by   founding   research   institutes,   and   by  
bestowing   honors   and   official   posts   on   great   scientists.   By   the   end   of   the   19th  
century  the  natural  philosopher  following  his  private  interests  had  given  way  to  the  
professional  scientist  with  a  public  role.  

10
  
The  main  features  involved  in  the  Industrial  Revolution  were  technological,  
socioeconomic,  and  cultural.  The  technological  changes  included  the  following:  (1)  
the   use   of   new   basic   materials,   chiefly   iron   and   steel,   (2)   the   use   of  
new   energy   sources,   including   both   fuels   and   motive   power,   such   as   coal,  
the  steam  engine,  electricity,  petroleum,  and  the  internal-­combustion  engine,  (3)  
the  invention  of  new  machines,  such  as  the  spinning  jenny  and  the  power  loom  that  
permitted  increased  production  with  a  smaller  expenditure  of  human  energy,  (4)  a  
new   organization   of   work   known   as   the   factory   system,   which   entailed  
increased   division   of   labor   and   specialization   of   function,   (5)   important  
developments   in   transportation   and   communication,   including   the  
steam  locomotive,  steamship,  automobile,  airplane,  telegraph,  and  radio,  and  (6)  
the   increasing   application   of   science   to   industry.   These   technological   changes  
made  possible  a  tremendously  increased  use  of  natural  resources  and  the  mass  
production  of  manufactured  goods.  
 
 
  20th  Century  Science:  Physics  and  Information  Age  
 
The  20th  century  was  an  important  century  in  the  history  of  the  sciences.  It  
generated   entirely   novel   insights   in   all   areas   of   research   –   often   thanks   to   the  
introduction  of  novel  research  methods  –  and  it  established  an  intimate  connection  
between  science  and  technology.  With  this  connection,  science  is  dealing  now  with  
the   complexity   of   the   real   world.   The   scientific   legacy   of   the   20th   Century   gave  
proof   of   the   revolutionary   changes   in   many   areas   of   the   sciences   –   in  
particular,  physics,  biology,  astronomy,  chemistry,  neurosciences  and  earth  and  
environmental  sciences  –  and  how  they  contributed  to  these  changes.  
 
The   epistemological   and   methodological   questions   as   well   as   the  
interdisciplinary  aspects  become  ever  more  important  in  scientific  research.  The  
common  denominator  of  the  sciences  is  the  notion  of  discovery,  and  discovery  is  
an   organised   mode   of   observing   nature.   Twentieth   century   cosmology   greatly  
improved   our   knowledge   of   the   place   that   man   and   his   planet   occupy   in   the  
universe.   The   “wonder”   that   Plato   and   Aristotle   put   at   the   origin   of   thought,  
today  extends  to  science  itself.  Questions  now  arise  on  the  origin  and  on  the  whole,  
its  history  and  its  laws.    
 
The  start  of  the  20th  century  was  strongly  marked  by  Einstein’s  formulation  
of  the  theory  of  relativity  (1905)  including  the  unifying  concept  of  energy  related  to  
mass  and  the  speed  of  light:  E  =  mc2  .  He  made  many  more  contributions,  notably  
to  statistical  mechanics,  and  he  provided  a  great  inspiring  influence  for  many  other  
physicists.    
 
In  the  second  half  of  the  20th  century  several  branches  of  science  continued  
to  make  great  progress  and  we  here  list  physics,  chemistry,  biology,  geology  and  
astronomy.   For   example,   there   was   the   development   of   the   semi-­conductor  

11
 (transistor),   followed   by   developments   in   nanotechnology   that   led   to   great  
advances  in  information  technology.  In  nuclear  physics  the  discovery  of  sub-­atomic  
particles  provided  a  great  leap  forward.    
 
Modern  physics  grew  in  the  20th  into  a  primary  discipline  contributing  to  all  
today’s  basic  natural  sciences,  astronomy,  chemistry  and  biology.  Although  it  took  
a  hundred  years  since  Clausius’s  time  for  it  to  be  fully  recognized  that  all  biological  
processes  have  also  to  obey  the  laws  of  thermodynamics,  the  border  between  the  
origin  of  the  living  and  the  non-­living  worlds  has  now  at  last  been  blurred.  The  year  
1953   was   an   important   landmark   for   biology   with   the   description   by   Crick   and  
Watson  of  the  structure  of  DNA,  the  carrier  of  genetic  information  (Rosch,  2014).  
 
Physics  has  enabled  us  to  understand  the  basic  components  of  matter  and  
we  are  well  on  the  way  to  an  ever  more  consistent  and  unitary  understanding  of  
the  entire  structure  of  natural  reality,  which  we  discover  as  being  made  up  not  only  
of  matter  and  energy  but  also  of  information  and  forms.  The  latest  developments  
in  astrophysics  are  also  particularly  surprising:  they  further  confirm  the  great  unity  
of  physics  that  manifests  itself  clearly  at  each  new  stage  of  the  understanding  of  
reality.    
 
Biology  too,  with  the  discovery  of  DNA  and  the  development  of  genetics,  
allows  us  to  penetrate  the  fundamental  processes  of  life  and  to  intervene  in  the  
gene  pool  of  certain  organisms  by  imitating  some  of  these  natural  mechanisms.  
Information  technology  and  the  digital  processing  of  information  have  transformed  
our  lifestyle  and  our  way  of  communicating  in  the  space  of  very  few  decades.  The  
20th  century  has  seen  medicine  find  a  cure  for  many  life-­threatening  diseases  and  
the  beginning  of  organ  transplants.    
 
It   is   impossible   to   list   the   many   other   discoveries   and   results   that  
have  broadened  our  knowledge  and  influenced  our  world  outlook:  from  progress  
in   computational   logic   to   the   chemistry   of   materials,   from   the   neurosciences   to  
robotics.  Scientific  research  not  only  gives  expression  to  the  strength  of  rationality  
in   explaining   the   world   and   the   way   in   which   this   is   done.   The   application   of  
scientific   knowledge   can   induce   changes   of   environmental   and   thus   living  
conditions.  It  is  these  aspects,  the  interrelations  between  scientific  progress  and  
social  development,  which  together  with  insights  into  the  epistemological  structure  
and   the   ethical   implications   of   science   play   an   important   role   in   the   life   and   the  
work  of  scientists.    
 
  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Fourth  Industrial  Revolution  
 
The   Fourth   Industrial   Revolution   is   a   way   of   describing   the   blurring   of  
boundaries   between   the   physical,   digital,   and   biological   worlds.   It’s   a   fusion   of  
advances   in   artificial   intelligence   (AI),   robotics,   the   Internet   of   Things   (IoT),   3D  
printing,  genetic  engineering,  quantum  computing,  and  other  technologies.  It’s  the  
collective   force   behind   many   products   and   services   that   are   fast   becoming  

12
indispensable  to  modern  life.  Think  GPS  systems  that  suggest  the  fastest  route  to  
a  destination,  voice-­activated  virtual  assistants  such  as  Apple’s  Siri,  personalized  
Netflix  recommendations,  and  Facebook’s  ability  to  recognize  your  face  and  tag  
you   in   a   friend’s   photo   (https://www.salesforce.com/blog/2018/12/what-­is-­the-­
fourth-­industrial-­revolution-­4IR.html).  
 
As   a   result   of   this   perfect   storm   of   technologies,   the   Fourth   Industrial  
Revolution  is  paving  the  way  for  transformative  changes  in  the  way  we  live  and  
radically   disrupting   almost   every   business   sector.   It’s   all   happening   at   an  
unprecedented,  whirlwind  pace.    
 
The easiest way to understand the Fourth Industrial Revolution is to focus on
the technologies driving it. Artificial intelligence (AI) describes computers that can
“think” like humans — recognizing complex patterns, processing information, drawing
conclusions, and making recommendations. AI is used in many ways, from spotting
patterns in huge piles of unstructured data to powering the autocorrect on your phone.
New computational technologies are making computers smarter. They enable
computers to process vast amounts of data faster than ever before, while the advent
of the “cloud” has allowed businesses to safely store and access their information from
anywhere with internet access, at any time. Quantum computing technologies now in
development will eventually make computers millions of times more powerful. These
computers will have the potential to supercharge AI, create highly complex data
models in seconds, and speed up the discovery of new materials.
Virtual reality (VR) offers immersive digital experiences (using a VR headset)
that simulate the real world, while augmented reality merges the digital and physical
worlds. Examples include L’Oréal’s makeup app, which allows users to digitally
experiment with makeup products before buying them, and the Google Translate
phone app, which allows users to scan and instantly translate street signs, menus,
and other text.
Biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop new
technologies and products for a range of uses, including developing new
pharmaceuticals and materials, more efficient industrial manufacturing processes, and
cleaner, more efficient energy sources. Researchers in Stockholm, for example, are
working on what is being touted as the strongest biomaterial ever produced.
Robotics refers to the design, manufacture, and use of robots for personal and
commercial use. While we’re yet to see robot assistants in every home, technological
advances have made robots increasingly complex and sophisticated. They are used
in fields as wide-ranging as manufacturing, health and safety, and human assistance.
3D printing allows manufacturing businesses to print their own parts, with less
tooling, at a lower cost, and faster than via traditional processes. Plus, designs can be
customized to ensure a perfect fit.

13
 Innovative materials, including plastics, metal alloys, and biomaterials, promise
to shake up sectors including manufacturing, renewable energy, construction, and
healthcare.
The IoT describes the idea of everyday items — from medical wearables that
monitor users’ physical condition to cars and tracking devices inserted into parcels —
being connected to the internet and identifiable by other devices. A big plus for
businesses is that they can collect customer data from constantly connected products,
allowing them to better gauge how customers use products and tailor marketing
campaigns accordingly. There are also many industrial applications, such as farmers
putting IoT sensors into fields to monitor soil attributes and inform decisions such as
when to fertilize.
Energy capture, storage, and transmission represent a growing market sector,
spurred by the falling cost of renewable energy technologies and improvements in
battery storage capacity.
 
   
Activity:    
   
1.   List   down   the   scientific   discoveries   and   technological   breakthroughs   in   each  
period.  You  may  conduct  additional  researches  and  share  what  you  have  found  in  
the  class.  
 
a.   Ancient  Times  to  600  BC  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
b.   Advent  of  Science  (600  BC  to  500  AD)  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
c.   Islamic  Golden  Age  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
d.   Ancient  China  and  the  Far  East  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
 
 

14
  
e.   Renaissance  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
f.   Enlightenment  Period  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
g.   Industrial  Revolution  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
h.   20th  century  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
i.   Fourth  Industrial  Revolution  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
__________________________     __________________________  
 
 
 
2.   If  given  a  chance  to  live  back  in  time  and  considering  the  influence  of  science  and  
technology   in   the   society   and   the   environment,   which   period   would   you   choose  
and  why?  Would  you  prefer  a  less  technologically  driven  society  or  you  wouldn’t  
trade  the  comforts  of  modern  life?    
 
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________  
 

15
  
Assignment:    
 
Film  Viewing.    
 
1.   Watch   the   World’s   Greatest   Invention  
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IYYyfAl9Usc)   and   then   answer   the   following  
guide  questions.  
a.   Among  the  mentioned  greatest  invention  in  the  video,  which  do  you  think  created  
the  most  impact  in  your  life  now?  Why?  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
b.   Name  one  invention  and  discuss  how  it  transformed  the  society.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
2.   Watch   Stephen   Colbert’s   interview   with   Neil   Tyson   on   YouTube  
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YXh9RQCvxmg&noredirect=1)   and   then  
answer  the  following  guide  questions.  
 
Guide  Questions:  
 
1.   Stephen  Colbert  starts  the  interview  by  asking  Dr.  Neil  de  Grasse  Tyson,  “Is  it  
better  to  know  or  not  to  know?”  Ponder  on  this  question  and  decide  which  one  
is  better.  Give  as  many  reasons  as  to  why.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  

16
  
2.   Enumerate  the  various  statements  that  Dr.  Neil  de  Grasse  Tyson  said  about  
the  importance  of  science  literacy  and  its  relationship  to  society.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

17
 C.   Historical  Development  of  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Philippines  
 
The  current  state  of  science  and  technology  in  the  country  can  be  traced  back  to  its  
historical  development  and  the  latent  events  that  helped  shape  it  since  the  pre-­colonial  
period   to   contemporary   time.   What   we   have   or   lack   today   in   terms   of   science   and  
technology  is  very  much  an  effect  of  the  government  policies  that  had  been  enacted  by  
past  public  officials  in  trying  to  develop  a  technological  society  that  is  responsive  to  the  
needs  of  time.  
 
 
Pre-­Spanish  Era.    
 
There  is  not  much  written  about  the  Philippines  during  pre-­colonial  time  but  analysis  
from   archeological   artifacts   revealed   that   the   first   inhabitants   in   the   archipelago   who  
settled  in  Palawan  and  Batangas  around  40  000  years  ago  have  made  simple  tools  or  
weapons   of   stone   which   eventually   developed   techniques   for   sawing,   drilling   and  
polishing   hard   stones.   This   very   primitive   technology   was   brought   by   primal   needs   of  
survival  by  hunting  wild  animals  and  gathering  fruits  and  vegetables  in  the  forest.  They  
learned  that  by  polishing  hard  stones,  they  can  develop  sharp  objects  that  are  useful  in  
their  day  to  day  activities.  From  this  early,  we  can  see  that  technology  was  developed  
because  of  a  great  necessity.    
 
Still  on  its  primitive  state,  the  first  inhabitants  in  the  country  are  learning  what  can  
be  harnessed  from  the  environment.  They  have  come  to  understand  that  when  clay  is  
mixed  with  2  water  and  then  shaped  into  something  before  sun  drying,  it  hardens  to  an  
object  that  can  also  be  useful  to  them.  And  because  clay  is  moldable,  it  can  be  shaped  
into  various  objects.    
 
As  the  early  Filipinos  flourished,  they  have  learned  how  to  extract,  smelt  and  refine  
metals  like  copper,  gold,  bronze  and  iron  from  nature  and  consequently  fashion  them  into  
tools  and  implements.  At  this  point,  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  are  showing  a  deeper  
understanding  of  their  nature  because  they  were  able  to  obtain  valuable  resources  from  
nature.    
As  the  inhabitants  shifted  from  wandering  from  one  place  to  another  and  learned  to  
settle  in  areas  near  the  water  source,  they  also  learned  how  to  weave  cotton,  engaged  
themselves  in  agriculture  and  are  knowledgeable  on  building  boats  for  coastal  trade.    
 
From   the   above   mentioned   facts,   it   can   be   concluded   that   primitive   Filipinos   are  
practicing   science   and   technology   in   their   everyday   lives.   The   ancient   crafts   of   stone  
carving,  pottery  and  smelting  of  metals  involves  a  lot  of  science,  which  is  understanding  
the  nature  of  matter  involved.  The  ingenuity  of  the  Ifugaos  in  building  the  Banaue  Rice  
Terraces   The   smelting   of   metals   exhibited   the   primitive   Filipino’s   knowledge   on   the  
composition   of   alloy   and   the   optimum   temperature   that   will   produce   the   metal   with  
acceptable  tensile  strength.  All  in  all,  the  primitive  Filipinos  were  living  in  perfect  harmony  
with  nature  and  they  obtain  from  it  what  is  just  needed  in  their  everyday  life  through  a  very  
simple  science  of  understanding  how  mother  nature  operates  

18
  
Spanish  Colonial  Era.    
 
As  claimed  by  Caoili  (1983),  the  beginnings  of  modern  science  and  technology  in  
the  country  can  be  traced  back  to  the  Spanish  regime  because  they  established  schools,  
hospitals   and   started   scientific   research   that   had   important   consequences   in   the  
development   of   the   country.   These   schools,   which   are   mostly   run   by   Spanish   friars,  
formed  the  first  Filipino  professionals.  The  The  3  highest  institution  of  learning  during  this  
time  was  the  Royal  and  Pontifical  University  of  Santo  Tomas.  
 
But   the   very   strict   hold   of   the   church   among   citizens   and   its   intervention   and  
meddling  to  the  government  propelled  by  fear  of  intellectual  awakening  among  Filipinos  
have   greatly   hindered   the   progress   of   these   professionals   to   further   enhance   their  
knowledge,   conduct   scientific   investigations   and   contribute   to   the   advancement   of  
society.   But   a   few   of   persistent   Filipino   scientists   succeeded   by   educating   themselves  
abroad.  One  notable  example  of  course  is  our  national  hero,  the  great  Dr.  Jose  P.  Rizal.  
Dr.  Jose  Rizal  is  the  epitome  of  the  Renaissance  man  in  the  Philippine  context.  He  is  a  
scientist,   a   doctor,   an   engineer   (he   designed   and   built   a   water   system   in   Dapitan),   a  
journalist,  a  novelist,  an  urban  planner  and  a  hero.  Being  a  doctor  and  scientist,  he  had  
extensive   knowledge   on   medicine   and   was   able   to   operate   his   mother’s   blinding   eye.  
When   he   was   deported   in   Dapitan,   his   knowledge   on   science   and   engineering   was  
translated   into   technology   by   creating   a   water   system   that   improved   the   sanitation   of  
households  in  the  area.  Dr.  Jose    
 
Dr.  Jose  Rizal  was  a  brilliant  man  and  his  life  stood  out  among  his  contemporaries.  
But  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  no  contribution  to  science  and  technology  among  the  
Filipino   men   and   women   during   the   Spanish   era.   The   charity   hospitals   became   the  
breeding  ground  for  scientific  researches  on  pharmacy  and  medicine,  with  great  focus  on  
problems  of  infectious  diseases,  their  causes  and  possible  remedies.  And  in  1887,  the  
Laboratorio   Municipal   de   Ciudad   de   Manila   was   created   and   whose   functions   were   to  
conduct  biochemical  analyses  for  public  health  and  to  undertake  specimen  examinations  
for  clinical  and  medico-­legal  cases.  Its  publication,  probably  the  first  scientific  journal  in  
the   country   was   titled   Cronica   de   Ciencias   Medicas   de   Filipinas   showed   the   studies  
undertaken  during  that  time.  
 
As  the  colonization  of  the  Spaniards  lengthened,  they  began  to  exploit  the  natural  
resources   of   the   country   through   agriculture,   mining   of   metals   and   minerals   and  
establishing   various   kinds   of   industries   to   further   promote   economic   growth.   As   such,  
scientific  research  on  these  fields  were  encouraged  by  the  government.  By  the  nineteenth  
century,   Manila   has   become   a   cosmopolitan   center   and   modern   amenities   were  
introduced  to  the  city.  However,  little  is  known  about  the  accomplishments  of  scientific  
bodies   commissioned   by   the   Spanish   government   during   this   time.   Because   of   limited  
scientific   research   and   its   consequent   translation   to   technology   during   the   Spanish  
regime,   none   of   the   industries   prosper.   The   Philippines   had   evolved   into   a   primary  
agricultural  exporting  economy,  and  this  is  not  because  of  the  researches  undertaken  on  

19
this  field,  but  was  largely  because  of  the  influx  of  foreign  capital  and  technology  which  
brought  modernization  of  some  sectors,  notably  sugar  and  hemp  production.    
 
American  Period  
 
If   the   development   in   science   and   technology   was   very   slow   during   the   Spanish  
regime,   the   Philippines   saw   a   rapid   growth   during   the   American   occupation   and   was  
made  possible  by  the  government’s  extensive  public  education  system  from  elementary  
to  tertiary  schools.  The  establishment  of  various  public  tertiary  schools  like  the  Philippine  
Normal   School   and   University   of   the   Philippines   provided   the   needs   for   professionally  
trained  Filipinos  in  building  the  government’s  organization  and  programs.  The  growth  and  
application   of   science   were   still   concentrated   on   the   health   sector   in   the   form   of  
biochemical  analyses  in  hospitals.  The  government  supported  basic  and  applied  research  
in   the   medical,   agricultural   and   related   sciences.  The   University   of   the   Philippines   Los  
Baños  opened  the  College  of  Agriculture  in  1909  while  the  University  of  the  Philippines  –  
Diliman  opened  the  Colleges  of  Arts,  Engineering  and  Veterinary  Medicine  in  1910.  The  
College  of  Medicine  was  opened  four  years  later.  
 
During  this  time,  there  were  already  quite  a  number  of  qualified  Filipino  physicians  
who   held   teaching   positions   in   the   College   of   Medicine,   whereas   most   of   the   early  
instructors  and  professors  in  other  colleges  such  as  in  the  sciences  and  engineering  were  
Americans   and   foreigners.   Capacity   building   programs   that   include   sending   qualified  
Filipinos  abroad  for  advanced  training  were  conducted  to  eventually  fill  up  the  teaching  
positions   in   Philippine   universities.   Moreover,   the   American   colonial   government   sent  
Filipino   youths   to   be   educated   as   teachers,   engineers,   physicians   and   lawyers   in  
American  colleges  to  further  capacitate  the  Filipinos  in  various  fields.    
 
However,   there   was   difficulty   in   recruiting   students   for   science   and   technology  
courses   like   veterinary   medicine,   engineering,   agriculture,   applied   sciences   and  
industrial-­vocational   courses.   The   enrollment   in   these   courses   were   dismal   that   the  
government   had   to   offer   scholarships   to   attract   students.   The   unpopularity   of   these  
courses  stemmed  from  the  Filipinos’  disdain  toward  manual  work  that  developed  from  the  
400  years  under  Spanish  colonization.  The  Filipinos  then  prefer  prestigious  professions  
at  that  time  like  priesthood,  law  and  medicine.    
 
The  government  provided  more  support  for  the  development  of  science  and  created  
the  Bureau  of  Government  Laboratories  in  and  was  later  changed  to  Bureau  of  Science.  
It  was  composed  of  a  biological  laboratory,  chemical  laboratory,  serum  laboratory  for  the  
production   of   virus   vaccine,   serums   and   prophylactics,   and   a   library.   The   bureau   was  
initially  managed  by  American  senior  scientists  but  as  more  Filipinos  were  trained  and  
acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  and  skills,  they  eventually  took  over  their  positions.  The  
Bureau  of  Science  served  as  the  primary  training  ground  for  Filipino  scientists  and  paved  
the  way  for  pioneering  scientific  research,  most  especially  on  the  study  of  various  tropical  
diseases   that   were   prevalent   during   those   times   like   leprosy,   tuberculosis,   cholera,  
dengue  fever,  malaria  and  beri-­beri.  Another  great  contribution  of  the  Bureau  of  Science  
to  the  development  of  science  and  technology  in  the  country  was  the  publication  of  the  

20
Philippine  Journal  of  Science.  This  scientific  journal  published  researches  done  in  local  
laboratories   and   reported   global   scientific   developments   that   had   relevance   to   the  
Philippine   society.   The   Bureau   of   Science   became   the   primary   research   center   of   the  
Philippines   until   World   War   II.   Lastly,   on   December   8,   1933,   the   National   Research  
Council  of  the  Philippines  was  established.    
 
 
Commonwealth  Period  
 
When  the  Americans  granted  independence  and  the  Commonwealth  government  
was   established,   the   Filipinos   were   busy   in   working   towards   economic   reliance   but  
acknowledge  the  importance  and  vital  role  of  science  and  technology  for  the  economic  
development  of  the  country  by  declaring  that  “The  State  shall  promote  scientific  research  
and   invention…”   The   short-­lived   Commonwealth   Government   was   succeeded   by   the  
Japanese  occupation  when  the  Pacific  war  broke  out  in  1941.  The  prevailing  situations  
during   the   time   of   Commonwealth   period   to   the   Japanese   regime   had   made  
developments  in  science  and  technology  practically  impossible.  This  is  also  true  when  
World  War  II  ended  and  left  Manila,  the  country’s  capital,  in  ruins.  The  government  had  
to  rebuild  again  and  normalize  the  operations  in  the  whole  country.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  since  Independence  
 
In  1946  the  Bureau  of  Science  was  replaced  by  the  Institute  of  Science  and  was  
placed  under  the  Office  of  the  President  of  the  Philippines.  However,  the  agency  faced  
lack  of  financial  support  from  the  government  and  experienced  planning  and  coordination  
problems.  In  a  report  by  the  US  Economic  Survey  to  the  Philippines  in  1950,  there  is  a  
lack  of  basic  information  which  were  necessities  to  the  country's  industries,  lack  of  support  
of   experimental   work   and   minimal   budget   for   scientific   research   and   low   salaries   of  
scientists  employed  by  the  government.  In  1958,  during  the  regime  of  President  Carlos  
P.  Garcia,  the  Philippine  Congress  passed  the  Science  Act  of  1958  which  established  the  
National  Science  Development  Board  (NSDB).    
 
 
The   Philippine   government   focused   on   science   and   technology   institutional  
capacity-­building  which  were  undertaken  by  establishing  infrastructure-­support  facilities  
such  as  new  research  agencies  and  development  trainings.  However  good  these  projects  
were,   it   produced   insignificant   effects   because   of   lack   of   coordination   and   planning,  
specifically  technology  planning,  between  concerned  agencies  which  hindered  them  from  
performing  their  assigned  functions  effectively.  This  was  aptly  illustrated  in  the  unplanned  
activities  of  the  researchers  within  the  agencies.  Most  areas  of  research  were  naively  left  
to  the  discretion  of  the  researchers  under  the  assumption  that  they  were  working  for  the  
interests   of   the   country.   They   were   instructed   to   look   for   technologies   and   scientific  
studies  with  good  commercialization  potential.  Without  clear  research  policy  guidelines,  
researches  were  done  for  their  own  sake,  leaving  to  chance  the  commercialization  of  the  
results.  

21
  
Likewise,  during  this  time,  rebuilding  the  country  involved  establishing  more  state  
funded   manual   and   trading   schools   which   would   eventually   become   the   current   state  
universities   and   colleges.   The   trade   schools   produced   craftsmen,   tradesmen   and  
technicians  that  helped  in  shaping  a  more  technological  Philippines  while  still  being  an  
agricultural  based  nation.  Eventually,  when  these  trade  schools  were  elevated  to  college  
and  university  status,  they  produced  much  of  the  country’s  professionals,  although  there  
was  a  great  disparity  on  the  low  proportion  of  those  in  agriculture,  medical  and  natural  
sciences  with  those  from  teacher  training  and  commerce/business  administration  courses  
which  had  higher  number  of  graduates.  The  increase  in  the  number  of  graduates  led  to  
the   rise   of   professional   organizations   of   scientists   and   engineers.   These   organizations  
were  formed  to  promote  professional  interests  and  create  and  monitor  the  standards  of  
practice.    
 
As   summarized   by   Caoili,   “There   has   been   little   innovation   in   the   education   and  
training  of  scientists  and  engineers  since  independence  in  1946.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  
conservative   nature   of   self-­regulation   by   the   professional   associations.   Because   of  
specialized   training,   vertical   organizations   by   disciplines   and   lack   of   liaison   between  
professions,   professional   associations   have   been   unable   to   perceive   the   dynamic  
relationship   between   science,   technology   and   society   and   the   relevance   of   their  
training  to  Philippine  conditions.  
 
 
Science  and  Technology  in  the  1960s  to  1990s  
 
During   these   years,   the   government   gave   greater   importance   to   science   and  
technology.  The  government  declared  in  Section  9(1)  of  the  1973  Philippine  Constitution  
that   the   “advancement   of   science   and   technology   shall   have   priority   in   the   national  
development.”      
 
On  April  6,  1968,  Pres.  Ferdinand  Marcos  proclaimed  the  35-­hectare  land  in  Bicutan,  
Taguig  as  the  site  of  the  Philippine  Science  Community.  Then  in  1969,  the  government  
provided  funds  to  private  universities  to  encourage  them  to  conduct  research  and  create  
courses  in  science  and  technology.  The  government  also  conducted  seminars  for  public  
and  private  high  school  and  college  science  teachers,  training  programs  and  scholarships  
for   graduate   and   undergraduate   science   scholars,   and   workshops   on   fisheries   and  
oceanography.    
 
In  the  1970s,  focus  on  science  and  technology  was  given  to  applied  research  and  
the  main  objective  was  to  generate  products  and  processes  that  were  supposed  to  have  
a  greater  beneficial  impact  to  the  society.  Relative  to  this,  several  research  institutes  were  
established  under  the  National  Science  Development  Board  (NSDB)  which  includes  the  
Philippine   Coconut   Research   Institute   and   Philippine   Textile   Research   Institute.  
Moreover,   the   Philippine   Atomic   Energy   Commission,   another   agency   under   NSDB,  
explored  the  uses  of  atomic  energy  for  economic  development.  To  prepare  the  pool  of  
scientists   who   will   work   on   Philippine   Atomic   Commission,   Pres.   Marcos   assisted   107  

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institutions   in   undertaking   nuclear   energy   work   by   sending   scientists   abroad   to   study  
nuclear  science  and  technology,  and  providing  basic  training  to  482  scientists,  doctors,  
engineers   and   technicians.   Then   in   1972,   by   virtue   of   Presidential   Decree   No.   4,   the  
National   Grains   Authority   was   created   and   it   was   tasked   to   improve   the   rice   and   corn  
industry  and  thereby  help  in  the  economic  development  of  the  country.  This  was  followed  
by  the  creation  of  Philippine  Council  for  Agricultural  Research  to  support  the  progressive  
development   of   agriculture,   forestry,   and   fisheries   in   the   country.   The   Marcos  
administration   also   established   the   Philippine   Atmospheric   Geophysical   and  
Astronomical   Service   Administration   (PAGASA)   under   the   Department   of   National  
Defense  to  provide  environmental  protection  and  to  utilize  scientific  knowledge  to  ensure  
the  safety  of  the  people  through  Presidential  Decree  No.  78,  s.  1972.  On  the  following  
year,  the  Philippine  National  Oil  Company  was  created  by  virtue  of  Presidential  Decree  
No.  334,  s.  1973,  to  promote  industrial  and  economic  development  through  effective  and  
efficient   use   of   energy   sources.   To   strengthen   the   scientific   culture   in   the   country,   the  
National  Academy  of  Science  and  Technology  was  established  under  Presidential  Decree  
No.  1003-­A,  s.  1976.  The  National  Academy  of  Science  and  Technology  was  composed  
of   scientists   with   “innovative   achievement   in   the   basic   and   applied   sciences”   who   will  
serve  as  the  reservoir  of  scientific  and  technological  expertise  for  the  country.  
 
In  the  1980s,  science  and  technology  was  still  focused  on  applied  research.  In  1982,  
NSDB  was  further  reorganized  into  a  National  Science  and  Technology  Authority  (NSTA)  
composed  of  four  research  and  development  Councils;;  Philippine  Council  for  Agriculture  
and  Resources  Research  and  Development  (PCARRD);;  Philippine  Council  for  Industry  
and  Energy  Research  Development  (PCIERD);;  Philippine  Council  for  Health  Research  
and   Development   (PCHRD)   and   the   National   Research   Council   of   the   Philippines  
(NRCP).  NSTA  has  also  eight  research  and  development  institutes  and  support  agencies  
under  it.  These  are  actually  the  former  organic  and  attached  agencies  of  NSDB  which  
have  themselves  been  reorganized.  
 
The   expanding   number   of   science   agencies   has   given   rise   to   a   demand   for   high  
calibre  scientists  and  engineers  to  undertake  research  and  staff  universities  and  colleges.  
Hence,   measures   have   also   been   taken   towards   the   improvement   of   the   country’s  
science   and   manpower.   In   March   1983,   Executive   Order   No.   889   was   issued   by   the  
President   which   provided   for   the   establishment   of   a   national   network   of   centers   of  
excellence   in   basic   sciences.   As   a   consequence,   six   new   institutes   were   created:   The  
National   Institutes   of   Physics,   Geological   Sciences,   Natural   Sciences   Research,  
Chemistry,   Biology   and   Mathematical   Sciences.   Related   to   this   efforts   was   the  
establishment  of  a  Scientific  Career  System  in  the  Civil  Service  by  Presidential  Decree  
No.  901  on  19  July  1983.  This  is  designed  to  attract  more  qualified  scientists  to  work  in  
government  and  encourage  young  people  to  pursue  science  degrees  and  careers.  
 
In   1986,   under   the   Aquino   administration,   the   National   Science   and   Technology  
Authority   was   replaced   by   the   Department   of   Science   and   Technology,   giving   science  
and   technology   a   representation   in   the   cabinet.   Under   the   Medium   Term   Philippine  
Development  Plan  for  the  years  1987-­1992,  science  and  technology's  role  in  economic  
recovery   and   sustained   economic   growth   was   highlighted.   In   this   period,   science   and  

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technology   was   one   of   the   top   three   priorities   of   the   government   towards   economic  
recovery.  
 
With  the  agency's  elevation  to  full  cabinet  stature  by  virtue  of  Executive  Order  128  
signed   on   30   January   1987,   the   functions   and   responsibilities   of   DOST   expanded  
correspondingly  to  include  the  following:  (1)  Pursue  the  declared  state  policy  of  supporting  
local   scientific   and   technological   effort;;   (2)   Develop   local   capability   to   achieve  
technological  self-­reliance;;  (3)  Encourage  greater  private  sector  participation  in  research  
and  development.  moreover,  funding  for  the  science  and  technology  sector  was  tripled  
from  464  million  in  1986  to  1.7  billion  in  1992.  
   
The  Department  of  Science  and  Technology  (DOST)  is  the  premiere  science  and  
technology   body   in   the   country   charged   with   the   twin   mandate   of   providing   central  
direction,  leadership  and  coordination  of  all  scientific  and  technological  activities,  and  of  
formulating  policies,  programs  and  projects  to  support  national  development.  The  Science  
and   Technology   Master   Plan   was   formulated   which   aimed   at   the   modernization   of   the  
production   sector,   upgrading   research   activities,   and   development   of   infrastructure   for  
science   and   technological   purposes.   A   Research   and   Development   Plan   was   also  
formulated  to  examine  and  determine  which  areas  of  research  needed  attention  and  must  
be  given  priority.  The  criteria  for  identifying  the  program  to  be  pursued  were,  development  
of  local  materials,  probability  of  success,  potential  of  product  in  the  export  market,  and  
the   its   strategic   nature.   The   grants   for   the   research   and   development   programs   was  
included  in  the  Omnibus  Investment  Law.  
 
During  President  Fidel  Ramos’s  term,  there  was  a  significant  increase  in  personnel  
specializing  in  the  science  and  technology  field.  In  1998,  there  was  an  estimated  3,000  
competent  scientists  and  engineers  in  the  Philippines.  Adding  to  the  increase  of  scientists  
would  be  the  result  of  the  two  newly  built  Philippine  Science  High  Schools  in  Visayas  and  
Mindanao   which   promotes   further   development   of   young   kids   through   advance   S&T  
curriculum.  The  government  provided  3,500  scholarships  for  students  who  were  taking  
up  professions  related  to  S&T.  Priority  for  S&T  personnel  increased  when  Magna  Carta  
for   Science   and   Technology   Personnel   (Republic   Act   No.   8439)   was   established.   The  
award  was  published  in  order  to  give  incentives  and  rewards  for  people  who  have  been  
influential  in  the  field  of  S&T.    
 
Still   under   the   Ramos   administration,   DOST   established   the   “Science   and  
Technology  Agenda  for  National  Development  (STAND)”,  a  program  that  was  significant  
to  the  field  of  S&T.  It  identified  seven  export  products,  11  domestic  needs,  three  other  
supporting  industries,  and  the  coconut  industry  as  priority  investment  areas.  The  seven  
identified  export  products  were  computer  software;;  fashion  accessories;;  gifts,  toys,  and  
houseware;;  marine  products;;  metal  fabrications;;  furniture;;  and  dried  fruits.  The  domestic  
needs   identified   were   food,   housing,   health,   clothing,   transportation,   communication,  
disaster   mitigation,   defense,   environment,   manpower   development,   and   energy.   Three  
additional   support   industries   were   included   in   the   list   of   priority   sectors,   namely,  
packaging,  chemicals,  and  metals  because  of  their  linkages  with  the  above  sectors.    
 

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 In  the  Gloria  Macapagal-­Arroyo  administration,  numerous  laws  and  projects  were  
implemented  which  concerns  both  the  environment  and  science  to  push  technology  as  a  
tool  to  increase  the  country’s  economic  level.  This  is  to  help  increase  the  productivity  from  
Science,  Technology  and  Innovations  (STI)  and  help  benefit  the  poor  people.  Moreover,  
the  term  “Filipinnovation”  was  the  coined  term  used  in  helping  the  Philippines  to  be  an  
innovation  hub  in  Asia.  
 
The  STI  was  developed  further  by  strengthening  the  schools  and  education  system  
such   as   the   Philippine   Science   High   School   (PSHS),   which   focuses   in   science,  
technology   and   mathematics   in   their   curriculum.   This   helps   schools   produce   get   more  
involve  in  this  sector.  Private  sectors  were  also  encouraged  to  participate  in  developing  
the  schools  through  organizing  events  and  sponsorships.  Future  Filipino  scientists  and  
innovators  can  be  produced  through  this  system.  
 
Recently,  the  Philippines  ranked  73rd  out  of  128  economies  in  terms  of  Science  and  
Technology   and   Innovation   (STI)   index,   citing   the   country’s   strength   in   research   and  
commercialization  of  STI  ideas  (DOST,  2018).  However,  a  study  by  the  Philippine  Institute  
for  Development  Studies  highlighted  the  weak  ties  between  innovation-­driven  firms  and  
the   government,   and   it   also   identified   the   country’s   low   expenditure   in   research   and  
development  (R&D).  This  is  the  reason  the  government  is  now  extending  all  its  efforts  to  
reach  out  with  the  private  sector,  explaining  that  STI  plays  an  important  role  in  economic  
and  social  progress  and  is  a  key  driver  for  a  long-­term  growth  of  an  economy.  Technology  
adoption  allows  a  country’s  firms  and  citizens  to  benefit  from  innovations  created  in  other  
countries,  and  allows  it  to  catch  up  and  even  leap-­frog  obsolete  technologies.  Technology  
adoption,  the  official  said,  allows  a  country’s  firms  and  citizens  to  benefit  from  innovations  
created   in   other   countries,   and   allows   it   to   catch   up   and   even   leap-­frog   obsolete  
technologies.  

Hopes  in  Philippine  Science  and  Technology  

 
Despite  the  many  inadequacies,  from  funding  to  human  capital,  there  are  some  
science  and  technology-­intensive  research  and  capacity-­building  projects  which  resulted  
in  products  which  are  currently  being  used  successfully  and  benefits  the  society.  

One  of  these  is  the  micro-­satellite.  In  April  2016,  the  country  launched  into  space  
its   first   micro-­satellite   called   Diwata-­1.   It   was   designed,   developed   and   assembled   by  
Filipino  researchers  and  engineers  under  the  guidance  of  Japanese  experts.  The  Diwata  
(deity   in   English)   satellite   provides   real-­time,   high-­resolution   and   multi-­color   infrared  
images   for   various   applications,   including   meteorological   imaging,   crop   and   ocean  
productivity   measurement   and   high-­resolution   imaging   of   natural   and   man-­made  
features.   It   enables   a   more   precise   estimate   of   the   country’s   agricultural   production,  
provides   images   of   watersheds   and   floodplains   for   a   better   understanding   of   water  
available   for   irrigation,   power   and   domestic   consumption.   The   satellite   also   provides  
accurate  information  on  any  disturbance  and  degradation  of  forest  and  upland  areas.  

25
 The  country  also  has  the  Nationwide  Operational  Assessment  of  Hazards  (NOAH),  
which  uses  the  Lidar  (light  detection  and  ranging)  technology.  Project  NOAH  was  initiated  
in  June  2012  to  help  manage  risks  associated  with  natural  hazards  and  disasters.  The  
project  developed  hydromet  sensors  and  high-­resolution  geo-­hazard  maps,  which  were  
generated  by  light  detection  and  ranging  technology  for  flood  modeling.  Noah  helps  the  
government  in  providing  timely  warning  with  a  lead  time  of  at  least  six  hours  in  the  wake  
of  impending  floods.  The  country  is  now  training  the  Cambodians  on  this  technology,  as  
part   of   the   partnerships   among   ASEAN   countries,   just   like   in   the   case   of   Japan   which  
assisted  the  country’s  scientists  and  engineers  in  building  its  first  micro-­satellite.  

Another   hope   lies   in   the   so-­called   Intelligent   Operation   Center   Platform.  

Established  through  a  collaboration  between  the  local  government  of  Davao  City  and  IBM  
Philippines  Inc.,  the  center  resulted  in  the  creation  of  a  dashboard  that  allows  authorized  
government  agencies,  such  as  police,  fire  and  anti-­terrorism  task  force,  to  use  analytics  
software  for  monitoring  events  and  operations  in  real  time.  

Current  Initiatives  in  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Country  

DOST,  in  cooperation  with  HEIs  and  research  institutions,  established  advanced  
facilities  that  seek  to  spur  R&D  activities  and  provide  MSMEs  access  to  testing  services  
needed  to  increase  their  productivity  and  competitive  advantage.  

One   is   the   Advanced   Device   and   Materials   Testing   Laboratories.   The   center  
houses  advanced  equipment  for  failure  analysis  and  materials  characterization  to  address  
advanced  analytical  needs  for  quality  control,  materials  identification  and  R&D.  Closely  
related  to  this  facility  is  the  Electronics  Products  Development  Center,  used  to  design,  
develop  and  test  hardware  and  software  for  electronic  products.  

There  are  also  high-­performance  computing  facilities  that  perform  tests  and  run  
computationally   intensive   applications   for   numerical   weather   prediction,   climate  
modeling,  as  well  as  analytics  and  data  modeling  and  archiving.  

The   Philippines   could   also   boast   of   its   Genome   Center,   a   core   facility   that  
combines   basic   and   applied   research   for   the   development   of   health   diagnostics,  
therapeutics,  DNA  forensics  and  preventive  products,  and  improved  crop  varieties.  

The  country  also  has  drug-­discovery  facilities,  which  address  the  requirements  for  
producing  high-­quality  and  globally  acceptable  drug  candidates.  She  said  the  Philippines  
also   has   nanotechnology   centers,   which   provide   technical   services   and   enabling  
environment   for   interdisciplinary   and   collaborative   R&D   in   various   nanotechnology  
applications.  

There   are   also   radiation   processing   facilities   that   are   used   to   degrade,   graft,   or  
crosslink   polymers,   monomers,   or   chemical   compounds   for   industrial,   agricultural,  
environmental  and  medical  applications.  The  Philippines  could  also  boast  of  its  Die  and  

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Mold   Solutions   Center,   which   enhances   the   competitiveness   of   the   local   tool   and   die  
sector  through  the  localization  of  currently  imported  dies  and  molds.  

These   are   reflections   that   we   are   advancing,   albeit   slowly,   to   a   culture   that  
embraces  STI  as  a  sure  path  to  growth.  

 
Activity:  
 
Identify  a  contemporary  Filipino  invention  and  discuss  how  it  improved  the  lives  of  our  
countrymen.  (Example:  SALt  lamp  or  “sustainable  alternative  lighting”  lamp  powered  by  
galvanic  reaction  of  an  anode  with  saline  water  invented  by  Aisa  Mijeno)  
 
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 D.   Paradigm  Shift  
 
What  is  a  paradigm?  
 
A  scientific  paradigm  is  a  framework  containing  all  the  commonly  accepted  views  
about  a  subject,  conventions  about  what  direction  research  should  take  and  how  it  should  
be  performed.  
 
The  philosopher  Thomas  Kuhn  suggested  that  a  paradigm  includes  “the  practices  
that   define   a   scientific   discipline   at   a   certain   point   in   time."   Paradigms   contain   all   the  
distinct,  established  patterns,  theories,  common  methods  and  standards  that  allow  us  to  
recognize  an  experimental  result  as  belonging  to  a  field  or  not.  
 
Science  proceeds  by  accumulating  support  for  hypotheses  which  in  time  become  
models   and   theories.   But   those   models   and   theories   themselves   exist   within   a   larger  
theoretical  framework.  The  vocabulary  and  concepts  in  Newton’s  three  laws  or  the  central  
dogma  in  biology  are  examples  of  scientific  “open  resources"  that  scientists  have  adopted  
and  which  now  form  part  of  the  scientific  paradigm.  
 
Paradigms  are  historically  and  culturally  bound.  For  example,  a  modern  Chinese  
medical  researcher  with  a  background  in  eastern  medicine,  will  operate  within  a  different  
paradigm  than  a  western  doctor  from  the  1800s.  
 
A  paradigm  dictates:  
 
what  is  observed  and  measured  
the  questions  we  ask  about  those  observations  
how  the  questions  are  formulated  
how  the  results  are  interpreted  
how  research  is  carried  out  
what  equipment  is  appropriate  
 
Many   students   who   opt   to   study   science   do   so   with   the   belief   that   they   are  
undertaking  the  most  rational  path  to  learning  about  objective  reality.  But  science,  much  
like   any   other   discipline,   is   subject   to   ideological   idiosyncrasies,   preconceptions   and  
hidden  assumptions.  
 
In  fact,  Kuhn  strongly  suggested  that  research  in  a  deeply  entrenched  paradigm  
invariably  ends  up  reinforcing  that  paradigm,  since  anything  that  contradicts  it  is  ignored  
or   else   pressed   through   the   preset   methods   until   it   conforms   to   already   established  
dogma.  
 
The  body  of  pre-­existing  evidence  in  a  field  conditions  and  shapes  the  collection  
and  interpretation  of  all  subsequent  evidence.  The  certainty  that  the  current  paradigm  is  
reality  itself  is  precisely  what  makes  it  so  difficult  to  accept  alternatives.  
 

28
 What  is  a  Paradigm  Shift?  
 
"The  successive  transition  from  one  paradigm  to  another  via  revolution  is  the  usual  
developmental  pattern  of  mature  science"  -­  Kuhn,  The  Structure  of  Scientific  Revolutions.  

Figure 1 Paradigm shift. Source: https://thesaurus.plus/

 
The   shift   from   one   paradigm   to   another   occurs   when   enough   anomalies   to   the  
current  paradigm  build  up,  causing  scientists  to  question  the  foundational  principles  upon  
which   their   worldview   rests.   During   “normal   science,”   when   the   current   paradigm   is   in  
place,   these   anomalies   are   discounted   as   acceptable   levels   of   error.   However,   during  
“revolutionary   science”   or   a   paradigm   shift,   these   anomalies   become   the   center   of  
attention   as   scientists   attempt   to   construct   a   new   world   view   that   incorporates   and  
explains  them.  This  period  of  intense  focus  on  explaining  anomalies  and  developing  a  
new   paradigm   is   considered   “revolutionary   science,”   and   it   is   sparked   by   a   “crisis”  
where  the  old  paradigm  fails  explain  key  anomalies  or  outliers.  Once  a  new  paradigm  is  
developed,  however,  there  is  a  return  to  “normal  science”  under  the  new  worldview.  
 

Figure 2 Paradigm Shift

Source: https://edtosavetheworld.com

29
 An  Example  of  a  Paradigm  Shift  
 
Many  physicists  in  the  19th  century  were  convinced  that  the  Newtonian  paradigm  
that  had  reigned  for  200  years  was  the  pinnacle  of  discovery  and  that  scientific  progress  
was   more   or   less   a   question   of   refinement.   When   Einstein   published   his   theories   on  
General  Relativity,  it  was  not  just  another  idea  that  could  fit  comfortably  into  the  existing  
paradigm.  Instead,  Newtonian  Physics  itself  was  relegated  to  being  a  special  subclass  of  
the   greater   paradigm   ushered   in   by   General   Relativity.   Newton’s   three   laws   are   still  
faithfully  taught  in  schools,  however  we  now  operate  within  a  paradigm  that  puts  those  
laws  into  a  much  broader  context.  
 
 
Interestingly,  Kuhn’s  theory  itself  was  something  of  a  game  changer  at  the  time,  
since   scientists   were   not   accustomed   to   thinking   of   what   they   were   doing   in   such  
metaphysical   terms.   Kuhn’s   theories   are   today   understood   to   be   part   of   a   greater  
paradigm   shift   in   the   social   sciences,   and   have   also   been   modified   since   their   original  
publication.  
 
Kuhn   later   conceded   that   the   process   of   scientific   advancement   might   be   more  
gradual.   For   example,   Relativity   did   not   completely   prove   Newton   wrong,   but   merely  
reframed  his  theory.  Even  the  Copernican  revolution  was  a  little  more  gradual  in  replacing  
Ptolemy's  beliefs.  
 
The  concept  of  paradigm  is  closely  related  to  the  Platonic  and  Aristotelian  views  
of  knowledge.  Aristotle  believed  that  knowledge  could  only  be  based  upon  what  is  already  
known,  the  basis  of  the  scientific  method.  Plato  believed  that  knowledge  should  be  judged  
by  what  something  could  become,  the  end  result,  or  final  purpose.  Plato's  philosophy  is  
more   like   the   intuitive   leaps   that   cause   scientific   revolution;;   Aristotle's   the   patient  
gathering  of  data.  
 
 
 
Activity:  
 
  Create  a  poster  or  caricature  that  depicts  a  paradigm  shift  in  science  history.  Share  
and  explain  your  work  in  the  class.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

30
 Chapter  2  
Intellectual  Revolutions  that  Defined  Society  
 
Introduction  
   
  This  section  provides  students  with  background  on  the  different  intellectuals  who  
made  great  contributions  to  science  that  propelled  scientific  and  technological  revolutions.  
Emphasis  is  given  on  how  these  intellectual  revolutions  shape  and  transform  society.    
 
Intended  Learning  Outcomes:  
 
1.   Articulate  ways  by  which  society  is  transformed  by  science  and  technology.    
 
 
What  is  an  Intellectual  Revolution?  
 
  An  intellectual  revolution  is  a  period  where  paradigm  shifts  occurred  and  where  
scientific   beliefs   that   have   been   widely   embraced   and   accepted   by   the   people   were  
challenged  and  opposed.  Historically,  this  intellectual  revolution  can  be  summed  up  as  
the  “replacement  of  Aristotelian  ethics  and  Christian  morality  by  a  new  type  of  decision  
making  which  may  be  termed  instrumental  reasoning  or  cost-­benefit  analysis”  (Wootton  
as  cited  by  McCarthy,  2019).    
 
 
The  Birth  of  Modern  Science  
 
Western  science,  like  so  many  other  aspects  of  Western  Civilization,  was  born  with  
the  ancient  Greeks.  They  were  the  first  to  explain  the  world  in  terms  of  natural  laws  rather  
than  myths  about  gods  and  heroes.  They  also  passed  on  the  idea  of  the  value  of  math  
and   experiment   in   science,   although   they   usually   thought   only   in   terms   of   one   to   the  
exclusion  of  the  other.    
 
The   most   influential   figure   in   Western   science   until   the   1600's,   was   the  
philosopher,  Aristotle,  who  created  a  body  of  scientific  theory  that  towered  like  a  colossus  
over   Western   Civilization   for   some   2000   years.   Given   the   limitations   under   which   the  
Greeks  were  working  compared  to  now,  Aristotle's  theories  made  sense  when  taken  in  a  
logical  order.  
 
However,   there   were   several   factors   that   worked   both   to   overthrow   Aristotle's  
theories  and  to  preserve  it.  First  of  all,  Aristotle's  theories  relied  very  little  on  experiment,  
which   left   them   vulnerable   to   anyone   who   chose   to   perform   such   experiments.   But  
attacking  one  part  of  Aristotle's  system  involved  attacking  the  whole  thing,  which  made  it  
a   daunting   task   for   even   the   greatest   thinkers   of   the   day.   Secondly,   the   Church   had  
grafted  Aristotle's  theories  onto  its  theology,  thus  making  any  attack  on  Aristotle  an  attack  
on  the  tradition  and  the  Church  itself.  
 

31
 Finally,  there  were  the  Renaissance  scholars  who  were  uncovering  other  Greek  
authors   who   contradicted   Aristotle.   This   was   unsettling,   since   these   scholars   had   a  
reverence   for   all   ancient   knowledge   as   being   nearly   infallible.   However,   finding  
contradicting  authorities  forced  the  Renaissance  scholars  to  try  to  figure  out  which  ones  
were  right.  When  their  findings  showed  that  neither  theory  was  right,  they  had  to  think  for  
themselves  and  find  a  new  theory  that  worked.  This  encouraged  skepticism,  freethinking,  
and  experimentation,  all  of  which  are  essential  parts  of  modern  science.  

Pattern  of  development  

The  combination  of  these  factors  generated  a  cycle  that  undermined  Aristotle,  but  
also  slowed  down  the  creation  of  a  new  set  of  theories.  New  observations  would  be  made  
that  seemed  to  contradict  Aristotle's  theories.  This  would  lead  to  new  explanations,  but  
always  framed  in  the  context  of  the  old  beliefs,  thus  patching  up  the  Aristotelian  system.  
However,   more   observations   would   take   place,   leading   to   more   patching   of   the   old  
system,   and   so   on.   The   first   person   who   started   this   slow   process   of   dismantling  
Aristotle's  cosmology  was  Copernicus.  His  findings  would  reinforce  the  process  of  finding  
new  explanations,  which  would  lead  to  the  work  of  Kepler  and  Galileo.  The  work  of  these  
three  men  would  lead  to  many  new  questions  and  theories  about  the  universe  until  Isaac  
Newton  would  take  the  new  data  and  synthesize  it  into  a  new  set  of  theories  that  more  
accurately  explained  the  universe.  

A.   Copernican  Revolution  

Nicolas  Copernicus  was  a  Polish  scholar  working  at  the  University  of  Padua  in  
northern   Italy.   The   problem   he   wrestled   with   was   the   paths   of   planetary   orbits.  
Through  the  centuries  close  observations  had  shown  that  the  heavens  do  not  always  
appear   to   move   in   perfect,   uninterrupted   circles.   Rather,   they   sometimes   seem   to  
move  backwards  in  what  are  known  as  retrogradations.  In  order  to  account  for  these  
irregularities,  astronomers  did  not  do  away  with  Aristotle's  theory  of  perfectly  circular  
orbits  around  the  earth.  Instead,  they  expanded  upon  it,  adding  smaller  circular  orbits  
(epicycles)   that   spun   off   the   main   orbits.   These   more   or   less   accounted   for   the  
retrogradations   seen   in   orbits.   Each   time   a   new   irregularity   was   observed,   a   new  
epicycle  was  added.  By  the  1500's,  the  model  of  the  universe  had  some  80  epicycles  
attached  to  ten  crystalline  spheres  (one  for  the  moon,  sun,  each  of  the  five  known  
planets,  the  totality  of  the  stars,  a  sphere  to  move  the  other  spheres,  and  heaven).  
The  second  century  Greek  astronomer,  Ptolemy  was  the  main  authority  who  put  order  
to  and  passed  this  cumbersome  system  of  epicycles  to  posterity.  

Copernicus'  solution  was  basically  geometric.  By  placing  the  sun  at  the  center  
of   the   universe   and   having   the   earth   orbit   it,   he   reduced   the   unwieldy   number   of  
epicycles  from  80  to  34.  His  book,  Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds,  
published  in  1543,  laid  the  foundations  for  a  revolution  in  how  Europeans  would  view  
the  world  and  its  place  in  the  universe.  However,  Copernicus'  intention  was  not  to  
create  a  radically  new  theory,  but  to  get  back  to  even  older  ideas  by  such  Greeks  as  

32
Plato  and  Pythagoras  who  believed  in  a  heliocentric  (sun  centered)  universe.  Once  
again,   ancient   authorities   were   set   against   one   another,   leaving   it   for   others   to  
develop  their  own  theories.  

It  took  some  150  years  after  Copernicus'  death  in  1543  to  achieve  a  new  model  
of  the  universe  that  worked.  The  first  step  was  compiling  more  data  that  tarnished  the  
perfection  of  the  Ptolemaic  universe  and  forced  men  to  re-­evaluate  their  beliefs.  

Johannes  Kepler  

At  this  time,  Tycho  Brahe,  using  only  the  naked  eye,  tracked  the  entire  orbits  
of  various  stars  and  planets.  Previously,  astronomers  would  only  track  part  of  an  orbit  
at  a  time  and  assume  that  orbit  was  in  a  perfect  circle.  Brahe  kept  extensive  records  
of  his  observations,  but  did  not  really  know  what  to  do  with  them.  That  task  was  left  
to  his  successor,  Johannes  Kepler.  

Kepler   was   a   brilliant   mathematician   who   had   a   mystical   vision   of   the  

mathematical  perfection  of  the  universe  that  owed  a  great  deal  to  the  ancient  Greek  
mathematician  Pythagoras.  Despite  these  preoccupations,  Kepler  was  open  minded  
enough   to   realize   that   Brahe's   data   showed   the   planetary   orbits   were   not   circular.  
Finally,  his  calculations  showed  that  those  orbits  were  elliptical.  

Galileo  

As  important  as  Kepler's  conclusions  was  his  method  of  arriving  at  it.  He  was  
the  first  to  successfully  use  math  to  define  the  workings  of  the  cosmos.  Although  such  
a  conclusion  as  elliptical  orbits  inevitably  met  with  fierce  opposition,  the  combination  
of   Brahe's   observations   and   Kepler's   math   helped   break   the   perfection   of   the  
Aristotelian   universe.   However,   it   was   the   work   of   an   Italian   astronomer,   Galileo  
Galilei  (1564-­1642),  armed  with  a  new  invention,  the  telescope,  which  would  further  
shatter  the  old  theory  and  lead  the  way  to  a  new  one.  

Using  his  telescope,  Galileo  saw  the  sun's  perfection  marred  by  sunspots  and  
the  moon's  perfection  marred  by  craters.  He  also  saw  four  moons  orbiting  Jupiter.  In  
his   book,   The Starry Messenger   (1611),   he   reported   these   disturbing   findings   and  
spread  the  news  across  Europe.  Most  people  could  not  understand  Kepler's  math,  
but  anyone  could  look  through  a  telescope  and  see  for  himself  the  moon's  craters  
and  Jupiter's  moons.  

The   Church   tried   to   preserve   the   Aristotelian   and   Ptolemaic   view   of   the  
universe   by   clamping   down   on   Galileo   and   his   book   and   made   him   promise   not  
to  preach  his  views.  However,  in  1632,  Galileo  published  his  next  book,  Dialogue on
the Great World Systems,  which  technically  did  not  preach  the  Copernican  theory  (which  
Galileo  believed  in),  but  was  only  a  dialogue  presenting  both  views  "equally".  Galileo  
got   his   point   across   by   having   the   advocate   of   the   Church   and   Aristotelian   view  

33
named   Simplicius   (Simpleton).   He   was   quickly   faced   with   the   Inquisition   and   the  
threat  of  torture.  Being  an  old  man  of  70,  he  recanted  his  views.  However,  it  was  too  
late.  Word  was  out,  and  the  heliocentric  heresy  was  gaining  new  followers  daily.  

Galileo's  work  was  the  first  comprehensive  attack  on  the  Aristotelian/Ptolemaic  
cosmic   model.   He   treated   celestial   objects   as   being   subject   to   the   same   laws   as  
terrestrial  objects.  However,  Galileo  was  still  enthralled  with  perfect  circular  motion  
and,  as  a  result,  did  not  come  up  with  the  synthesis  of  all  these  new  bits  of  information  
into   a   new   comprehensive   model   of   the   universe.   This   was   left   to   the   last,   and  
probably  greatest,  giant  of  the  age,  Isaac  Newton.  

Isaac  Newton  

The  story  of  Newton  being  hit  on  the  head  by  an  apple  may  very  well  be  true.  
However,  the  significance  of  this  popular  tale  is  usually  lost.  People  had  seen  apples  
fall  out  of  trees  for  thousands  of  years,  but  Newton  realized,  in  a  way  no  one  else  had  
realized,  that  the  same  force  pulling  the  apples  to  earth  was  keeping  the  moon  in  its  
orbit.  In  order  to  prove  this  mathematically,  Newton  had  to  invent  a  whole  new  branch  
of  math,  calculus,  for  figuring  out  rates  of  motion  and  change.  The  genius  of  Newton  
in  physics,  as  well  as  William  Harvey  in  medicine  and  Mendeleev  in  chemistry,  was  
not  so  much  in  his  new  discoveries,  as  in  his  ability  to  take  the  isolated  bits  and  pieces  
of  the  puzzle  collected  by  his  predecessors  and  fit  them  together.  In  retrospect,  his  
synthesis  seems  so  simple,  but  it  took  tremendous  imagination  and  creativity  to  break  
the  bonds  of  the  old  way  of  thinking  and  see  a  radically  different  picture.  

The  implications  of  Newton's  theory  of  gravity  can  easily  escape  us,  since  we  
now  take  it  for  granted  that  physical  laws  apply  the  same  throughout  the  universe.  To  
the  mentality  of  the  1600’s,  which  saw  a  clear  distinction  between  the  laws  governing  
the  terrestrial  and  celestial  elements,  it  was  a  staggering  revelation.  His  three  laws  of  
motion  were  simple,  could  be  applied  everywhere,  and  could  be  used  with  calculus  
to  solve  any  problems  of  motion  that  came  up.  

The  universe  that  emerged  was  radically  different  from  that  of  Aristotle.  Thanks  
to  Newton,  it  was  within  our  grasp  to  understand,  predict,  and  increasingly  manipulate  
the  laws  of  the  universe  in  ways  no  one  had  been  able  to  do  before.  Newton's  work  
also  completed  the  fusion  of  math  promoted  by  Renaissance  humanists,  Aristotelian  
logic  pushed  by  medieval  university  professors,  and  experiment  to  test  a  hypothesis  
pioneered   by   such   men   as   Leonardo   da   Vinci   and   Galileo   into   what   we   call   the  
scientific  method.  This  fusion  had  gradually  been  taking  place  since  the  Renaissance,  
but  the  invention  of  calculus  made  math  a  much  more  dynamic  tool  in  predicting  and  
manipulating  the  laws  of  nature.  

The  printing  of  Newton's  book,  Principia Mathematica,  in  1687  is  often  seen  as  
the  start  of  the  Enlightenment  (1687-­1789).  It  was  a  significant  turning  point  in  history,  
for,   armed   with   the   tools   of   Newton's   laws   and   calculus,   scientists   had   an  

34
unprecedented  faith  in  their  ability  to  understand,  predict,  and  manipulate  the  laws  of  
nature   for   their   own   purposes.   This   sense   of   power   popularized   science   for   other  
intellectuals   and   rulers   in   Europe,   turning   it   into   virtual   religion   for   some   in   the  
Enlightenment.   Even   the   geometrically   trimmed   shrubbery   of   Versailles   offers  
testimony  to  that  faith  in  our  power  over  nature.  Not  until  this  century  has  that  faith  
been  seriously  undermined  or  put  into  a  more  realistic  perspective.  

B.   The  Darwinian  Revolution  

The  publication  in  1859  of  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Charles  Darwin  ushered  
in  a  new  era  in  the  intellectual  history  of  humanity.  Darwin  is  deservedly  given  credit  
for   the   theory   of   biological   evolution:   he   accumulated   evidence   demonstrating   that  
organisms   evolve   and   discovered   the   process,   natural   selection,   by   which   they  
evolve.   But   the   importance   of   Darwin's   achievement   is   that   it   completed  
the   Copernican   revolution   initiated   three   centuries   earlier,   and   thereby   radically  
changed  our  conception  of  the  universe  and  the  place  of  humanity  in  it.  

The  discoveries  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galileo,  and  Newton  in  the  sixteenth  
and  seventeenth  centuries,  had  gradually  ushered  in  the  notion  that  the  workings  of  
the  universe  could  be  explained  by  human  reason.  It  was  shown  that  the  earth  is  not  
the  center  of  the  universe,  but  a  small  planet  rotating  around  an  average  star;;  that  the  
universe  is  immense  in  space  and  in  time;;  and  that  the  motions  of  the  planets  around  
the   sun   can   be   explained   by   the   same   simple   laws   that   account   for   the   motion   of  
physical  objects  on  our  planet.  These  and  other  discoveries  greatly  expanded  human  
knowledge,   but   the   intellectual   revolution   these   scientists   brought   about   was   more  
fundamental:  a  commitment  to  the  postulate  that  the  universe  obeys  immanent  laws  
that  account  for  natural  phenomena.  The  workings  of  the  universe  were  brought  into  
the  realm  of  science:  explanation  through  natural  laws.  Physical  phenomena  could  
be  accounted  for  whenever  the  causes  were  adequately  known.  

Darwin   completed   the   Copernican   revolution   by   drawing   out   for   biology   the  
notion  of  nature  as  a  lawful  system  of  matter  in  motion.  The  adaptations  and  diversity  
of   organisms,   the   origin   of   novel   and   highly   organized   forms,   even   the   origin   of  
humanity  itself  could  now  be  explained  by  an  orderly  process  of  change  governed  by  
natural  laws.  

The  origin  of  organisms  and  their  marvelous  adaptations  were,  however,  either  
left  unexplained  or  attributed  to  the  design  of  an  omniscient  Creator.  God  had  created  
the  birds  and  bees,  the  fish  and  corals,  the  trees  in  the  forest,  and  best  of  all,  man.  
God  had  given  us  eyes  so  that  we  might  see,  and  He  had  provided  fish  with  gills  to  
breathe  in  water.  Philosophers  and  theologians  argued  that  the  functional  design  of  
organisms  manifests  the  existence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  Wherever  there  is  design,  
there  is  a  designer;;  the  existence  of  a  watch  evinces  the  existence  of  a  watchmaker.  

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 The   English   theologian   William   Paley   in   his   Natural   Theology   (1802)  
elaborated  the  argument-­from-­design  as  forceful  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  
the   Creator.   The   functional   design   of   the   human   eye,   argued   Paley,   provided  
conclusive  evidence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  he  wrote,  
that   the   human   eye   by   mere   chance   "should   have   consisted,   first,   of   a   series   of  
transparent  lenses  ...  secondly  of  a  black  cloth  or  canvas  spread  out  behind  these  
lenses  so  as  to  receive  the  image  formed  by  pencils  of  light  transmitted  through  them,  
and  placed  at  the  precise  geometrical  distance  at  which,  and  at  which  alone,  a  distinct  
image   could   be   formed   ...   thirdly   of   a   large   nerve   communicating   between   this  
membrane  and  the  brain."  The  Bridgewater  Treatises,  published  between  1833  and  
1840,  were  written  by  eminent  scientists  and  philosophers  to  set  forth  "the  Power,  
Wisdom,   and   Goodness   of   God   as   manifested   in   the   Creation."   The   structure   and  
mechanisms  of  man's  hand  were,  for  example,  cited  as  incontrovertible  evidence  that  
the   hand   had   been   designed   by   the   same   omniscient   Power   that   had   created   the  
world.  

The  advances  of  physical  science  had  thus  driven  humanity's  conception  of  
the  universe  to  a  split-­personality  state  of  affairs,  which  persisted  well  into  the  mid-­
nineteenth  century.  Scientific  explanations,  derived  from  natural  laws,  dominated  the  
world   of   nonliving   matter,   on   the   earth   as   well   as   in   the   heavens.   Supernatural  
explanations,  depending  on  the  unfathomable  deeds  of  the  Creator,  accounted  for  
the  origin  and  configuration  of  living  creatures—the  most  diversified,  complex,  and  
interesting   realities   of   the   world.   It   was   Darwin's   genius   to   resolve   this   conceptual  
schizophrenia  (Ayala,  no  date).  

C.   Freudian  Revolution  

Sigmund  Freud  was  born  in  1856,  before  the  advent  of  telephones,  radios,  
automobiles,  airplanes,  and  a  host  of  other  material  and  cultural  changes  that  had  
taken  place  by  the  time  of  his  death  in  1939.  Freud  saw  the  entirety  of  the  first  
World  War–a  war  that  destroyed  the  empire  whose  capital  city  was  his  home  for  
more  than  seventy  years–and  the  beginning  of  the  next.  He  began  his  career  as  
an  ambitious  but  isolated  neurologist;;  by  the  end  of  it,  he  described  himself,  not  
inaccurately,   as   someone   who   had   had   as   great   an   impact   on   humanity's  
conception  of  itself  as  had  Copernicus  and  Darwin.  
 
Freud's  most  obvious  impact  was  to  change  the  way  society  thought  about  
and  dealt  with  mental  illness.  Before  psychoanalysis,  which  Freud  invented,  mental  
illness  was  almost  universally  considered  'organic';;  that  is,  it  was  thought  to  come  
from   some   kind   of   deterioration   or   disease   of   the   brain.   Research   on   treating  
mental   illness   was   primarily   concerned–at   least   theoretically–with   discovering  
exactly  which  kinds  of  changes  in  the  brain  led  to  insanity.  Many  diseases  did  not  
manifest   obvious   signs   of   physical   difference   between   healthy   and   diseased  

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brains,  but  it  was  assumed  that  this  was  simply  because  the  techniques  for  finding  
the  differences  were  not  yet  sufficient.  
 
The   conviction   that   physical   diseases   of   the   brain   caused   mental   illness  
meant  that  psychological  causes–the  kinds  that  Freud  would  insist  on  studying–
were   ignored.   It   also   meant   that   people   drew   a   sharp   dividing   line   between   the  
"insane"  and  the  "sane."  Insane  people  were  those  with  physical  diseases  of  the  
brain.  Sane  people  were  those  without  diseased  brains.  
 
Freud  changed  all  of  this.  Despite  his  background  in  physicalism  (learned  
during   his   stay   in   Ernst   Brücke's   laboratory),   his   theories   explicitly   rejected   the  
purely  organic  explanations  of  his  predecessors.  One  of  Freud's  biggest  influences  
during  his  early  days  as  a  neurologist  was  Jean-­Martin  Charcot,  the  famous  French  
psychiatrist.  Charcot  claimed  that  hysteria  had  primarily  organic  causes,  and  that  
it  had  a  regular,  comprehensible  pattern  of  symptoms.  Freud  agreed  with  Charcot  
on   the   latter   point,   but   he   disagreed   entirely   on   the   former.   In   essence,   Freud  
claimed   that   neurotic   people   had   working   hardware,   but   faulty   software.   Earlier  
psychiatrists  like  Charcot,  in  contrast,  had  claimed  that  the  problems  were  entirely  
in  the  hardware.  As  psychoanalysis  became  increasingly  popular,  psychology  and  
psychiatry  turned  away  from  the  search  for  organic  causes  and  toward  the  search  
for  inner  psychic  conflicts  and  early  childhood  traumas.  As  a  consequence,  the  line  
between   sane   and   insane   was   blurred:   everyone,   according   to   Freud,   had   an  
Oedipal  crisis,  and  everyone  could  potentially  become  mentally  ill.  
 
Psychoanalysis  has  had  an  enormous  impact  on  the  practice  of  psychiatry,  
particularly   within   the   United   States,   but   today   it   is   regarded   by   most   sources–
medical,   academic,   governmental,   and   others–as   almost   entirely   incorrect   in   its  
conception   of   the   mind.   This   judgment   is   based   on   the   crucial   test   of  
psychoanalysis:   whether   or   not   it   really   helps   patients   with   behavioral   or  
psychological  problems.  The  consensus  is  that  is  does  not.  Psychoanalysis  in  its  
many   varieties   appears   to   have   little   or   no   efficacy   in   treating   mental   illness.   In  
contrast,  psychopharmacology  and  cognitive-­  behavioral  therapies  (therapies  that  
simply  try  to  change  what  the  patient  thinks  and  does  rather  than  analyzing  the  
causes  of  the  behavior),  while  far  from  perfect,  do  appear  to  help.  
 
If  this  is  true–and  we  have  a  great  deal  of  evidence  that  it  is–why  is  Freud  
still  so  important?  Why  do  we  generally  speak  of  him  as  a  great  figure  in  Western  
thought,   instead   of   as   a   strange   and   misguided   figure   of   turn-­of-­the-­   century  
Europe?  
 
There  are  at  least  two  reasons.  The  first  is  purely  practical:  psychoanalysis  
has  enormous  historical  significance.  Mental  illness  affects  an  large  proportion  of  
the   population,   either   directly   or   indirectly,   so   any   curative   scheme   as   widely  
accepted  as  was  Freud's  is  important  to  our  history  in  general.  The  second,  more  
important,  reason  is  that  Freud  gave  people  a  new  way  of  thinking  about  why  they  
acted  the  way  they  did.  He  created  a  whole  new  way  of  interpreting  behaviors:  one  

37
 could  now  claim  that  a  person  had  motives,  desires,  and  beliefs–all  buried  in  the  
unconscious–which   they   knew   nothing   about   but   which   nonetheless   directly  
controlled  and  motivated  their  conscious  thought  and  behavior.  This  hypothesis,  
derived  from  but  independent  of  Freud's  psychiatric  work,  was  the  truly  radical  part  
of  his  system  of  thought.  
 
D.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Mesoamerica  
 
Meso-­America  is  the  region  from  Mexico  to  Guatemala,  Belize  and  parts  of  
Honduras  and  El  Salvador.  There  were  no  major  ancient  civilization  that  developed  
in   North   America.   The   Mesoamerican   civilization   were   isolated   from   the  
accumulated   scientific   knowledge   of   Africa,   Asia   and   Europe.   They   were  
confronted  with  much  harder  conditions  than  the  ancient  civilizations  of  the  Indus  
valley,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt  which  developed  in  parallel  with  each  other  and  
established  contacts  between  each  other  at  a  very  early  stage.  This  exchange  of  
knowledge  between  these  ancient  civilizations  was  critical  in  the  development  of  
their   scientific   knowledge.   Because   of   this   isolation,   Mesoamerican   civilization  
developed  on  their  own  and  became  much  more  self-­reliant.    
 
The  most  advanced  Mesoamerican  civilization  was  the  Maya  civilization  that  
was  well  on  its  way  to  develop  true  science.  They  knew  how  to  make  paper  and  
had   pictorial   script   called   Maya   hieroglyphs   that   allowed   them   to   record   all  
knowledge  on  long  strips  of  paper  folded  harmonica-­style  into  books.  One  of  the  
three   books   recovered   called   The   Dresden   Codex   contains   predictions   of   solar  
eclipses   for   centuries   and   a   table   of   predicted   positions   of   Venus.   Unlike   the  
European  scientists  who  used  astronomical  instruments  like  telescopes,  the  Maya  
made  predictions  by  aligning  stars  with  two  objects  that  were  separated  by  a  large  
distance,  a  technique  that  achieved  great  accuracy  of  angular  measurement.  As  a  
result,  the  Maya  developed  the  most  accurate  calendar  ever  designed.  
 
The  Aztec  followed  the  same  road.  They  kept  their  own  script  and  languages  
but  assimilated  all  they  could  learn  from  Maya  society.  Their  manuscripts  describe  
how  the  Maya  performed  their  astronomical  observations.    
 
Several  outstanding  achievements  can  be  reported  in  the  area  of  technology  
and   invention.   The   manufacture   of   rubber   was   one   of   the   earliest   inventions,  
documented  by  the  use  of  a  rubber  ball  in  the  ball  game  tlachtli,  a  game  played  by  
Meso-­American  civilizations  from  earliest  times.  In  architecture  the  Maya  were  the  
first   to   use   pitched   ceilings   in   their   buildings   after   the   invention   of   the   corbelled  
vault.   Aztec   city   builders   also   understood   the   need   for   public   sanitation;;   public  
latrines  were  found  along  all  highways,  and  to  prevent  pollution  of  Lake  Texcoco  
canoes  transported  the  sewage  from  Tenochtitlán  to  the  mainland  every  morning.  
(von  Hagen,  1957)  
 
American  people  were  gifted  horticulturalists  and  cultivated  crop  plants  from  
the   earliest   times.   Among   the   plants   that   originated   in   Meso-­America   are   corn  

38
 (maize),  papaya,  avocado  and  cocoa.  Maize  is  the  only  cultivated  plant  that  was  
developed  so  early  in  human  history  that  its  wild  ancestor  is  no  longer  known.  It  
can,   however,   still   be   crossed   with   two   other   plants   found   only   on   the   Yucatan  
Peninsula.  
 
Finally,  several  sculptures  found  at  Meso-­American  sites  in  1975,  1979  and  
1983  and  dating  back  to  2000  -­  1500  BC  have  clear  magnetic  properties.  In  some  
of  these  sculptures  the  north  and  south  poles  are  in  most  conspicuous  positions,  
for  example  at  the  snout  and  at  the  back  of  the  head  of  a  frog  or  turtle.  Another  
magnetic   object   found   in   1966   was   shaped   as   if   it   was   to   be   used   to   indicate  
direction.  These  finds  strongly  suggest  that  the  early  Meso-­American  civilizations  
knew  about  and  used  magnetism.  (Malmström,  1976,  1979)  
 
E.   Asian  Scientific  Revolution  
 
Aside   from   China,   there   were   other   Asian   countries   that   contributed   to   the  
development  of  science  and  technology  in  the  world,  although  it  varied  depending  
on  country  and  time,  specially  in  the  present  times.  Currently,  Japan  is  probably  
the   most   notable   country   in   Asia   in   terms   of   scientific   and   technological  
achievement,  particularly  in  terms  of  its  electronics  and  automobile  products.  Other  
countries  are  also  notable  in  other  scientific  fields  such  as  chemical  and  physical  
achievements.    
The   general   conception   is   that   many   of   the   cutting-­edge   technological  
developments,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  scientific  advancements,  emanate  from  Asia.  
For   instance,   Japan,   Taiwan,   South   Korea,   and   China   together   produce   a  
staggering  90%  of  the  world’s  digital  gadgets.  Aside  from  the  region’s  hardware  
dominance,  nations  across  Asia  are  becoming  increasingly  important  to  the  global  
supply  of  digital  content  and  services,  something  which  will  only  increase  as  the  
continent  develops  over  the  coming  decades.    
South  Korea’s  cultural  popularity  around  the  world  has  caused  a  number  of  
startup’s   to   emerge   working   within   the   digital   and   technology   sectors,   including  
website  viki.com.    
Taiwan   is   following   a   similar   path   to   Japan   meanwhile,   moving   away   from  
hardware  production,  instead  turning  to  software  and  content  development.  
Together,   the   points   raised   throughout   this   article   proves   Asia   is   truly   a  
crucible   of   innovative   technological   development;;   a   continent   that   will   play   an  
incredibly  important  role  in  the  evolution  of  our  digital  age.  
 
 
F.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Middle  East  
 
During  the  3,000  years  of  urbanized  life  in  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  tremendous  
strides   were   made   in   various   branches   of   science   and   technology.   The   greatest  
advances  were  made  in  Mesopotamia—very  possibly  because  of  its  constant  shift  of  
population  and  openness  to  foreign  influence,  in  contrast  to  the  relative  isolation  of  
Egypt  and  the  consequent  stability  of  its  population.  The  Egyptians  excelled  in  such  

39
applied  sciences  as  medicine,  engineering,  and  surveying;;  in  Mesopotamia  greater  
progress  was  made  in  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  development  of  astronomy  
seems   to   have   been   greatly   accelerated   by   that   of   astrology,   which   took   the   lead  
among  the  quasi-­sciences  involved  in  divination.  The  Egyptians  remained  far  behind  
the  Babylonians  in  developing  astronomy,  while  Babylonian  medicine,  because  of  its  
chiefly  magical  character,  was  less  advanced  than  that  of  Egypt.  In  engineering  and  
architecture  Egyptians  took  an  early  lead,  owing  largely  to  the  stress  they  laid  on  the  
construction  of  such  elaborate  monuments  as  vast  pyramids  and  temples  of  granite  
and  sandstone.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Babylonians  led  in  the  development  of  such  
practical  arts  as  irrigation  (Albright,  2014).    
 
Both   sciences   and   pseudosciences   spread   from   Egypt   and   Mesopotamia  
to   Phoenicia   and   Anatolia.   The   Phoenicians   in   particular   transmitted   much   of   this  
knowledge  to  the  various  lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  especially  to  the  Greeks.  The  
direction  taken  by  these  influences  can  be  followed  from  Egypt  to  Syria,  Phoenicia,  
and  Cyprus,  thanks  to  a  combination  of  excavated  art  forms  that  prove  the  direction  
of  movement,  as  well  as  to  Greek  tradition,  which  lays  great  stress  on  what  the  early  
Greek   philosophers   learned   from   Egypt.   Mesopotamian   influence   can   be   traced  
especially  through  the  partial  borrowing  of  Babylonian  science  and  divination  by  the  
Hittites  and  later  by  the  transmission  of  information  through  Phoenicia.  The  Egyptians  
and  Mesopotamians  wrote  no  theoretical  treatises;;  information  had  to  be  transmitted  
piecemeal  through  personal  contacts.  
 
Of   all   the   accomplishments   of   the   ancient   Middle   East,   the   invention   of   the  
alphabet  is  probably  the  greatest.  While  pre-­alphabetic  systems  of  writing  in  the  Old  
World  became  steadily  more  phonetic,  they  were  still  exceedingly  cumbersome,  and  
the  syllabic  systems  that  gradually  replaced  them  remained  complex  and  difficult.  In  
the  early  Hyksos  period  (17th  century  BC)  the  Northwestern  Semites  living  in  Egypt  
adapted  hieroglyphic  characters—in  at  least  two  slightly  differing  forms  of  letters—to  
their   own   purposes.   Thus   was   developed   the   earliest   known   purely   consonantal  
alphabet,   imitated   in   northern   Syria,   with   the   addition   of   two   letters   to   designate  
vowels  used  with  the  glottal  catch.  
 
This   alphabet   spread   rapidly   and   was   in   quite   common   use   among   the  
Northwestern   Semites   (Canaanites,   Hebrews,   Aramaeans,   and   especially   the  
Phoenicians)  soon  after  its  invention.  By  the  9th  century  BC  the  Phoenicians  were  
using  it  in  the  western  Mediterranean,  and  the  Greeks  and  Phrygians  adopted  it  in  
the  8th.  The  alphabet  contributed  vastly  to  the  Greek  cultural  and  literary  revolution  
in   the   immediately   following   period.   From   the   Greeks   it   was   transmitted   to   other  
Western   peoples.   Since   language   must   always   remain   the   chief   mode   of  
communication   for   people,   its   union   with   hearing   and   vision   in   a   uniquely   simple  
phonetic   structure   has   probably   revolutionized   civilization   more   than   any   other  
invention  in  history.  
 
 
 

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G.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Africa  

The  history  of  the  sciences  in  Africa  is  rich  and  diverse.  The  applied  sciences  of  
agronomy,   metallurgy,   engineering   and   textile   production,   as   well   as   medicine,  
dominated  the  field  of  activity  across  Africa.  So  advanced  was  the  culture  of  farming  
within  West  Africa,  that  ‘New  World‘  agricultural  growth  was  spawned  by  the  use  of  
captives  from  these  African  societies  that  had  already  made  enormous  strides  in  the  
field  of  agronomy.  In  her  work  Black  Rice,  Judith  Carnoy  demonstrates  the  legacy  of  
enslaved  Africans  to  the  Americas  in  the  sphere  of  rice  cultivation.  We  know  also  that  
a  variety  of  African  plants  were  adopted  in  Asia,  including  coffee,  the  oil  palm,  fonio  
or   acha   (digitaria   exilis),   African   rice   (oryza   glabberima),   and   sorghum   (sorghum  
bicolor).  Plants,  whether  in  terms  of  legumes,  grain,  vegetables,  tubers,  or,  wild  or  
cultivated   fruits,   also   had   medicinal   implications   for   Africans   and   were   used   as  
anesthetics   or   pain   killers,   analgesics   for   the   control   of   fever,   antidotes   to   counter  
poisons,   and   anthelmints   aimed   at   deworming.   They   were   used   also   in  
cardiovascular,  gastro-­intestinal,  and  dermatological  contexts.  Some  of  these  such  
as  hoodia  gordonii  and  combrettum  caffrum  are  being  integrated  within  contemporary  
pharmaceutical  systems  (Emeagwali,  n.d.).  
 
Africa’s  areas  of  scientific  investigation  include  the  fields  of  astronomy,  physics,  
and  mathematics.  Laird  Scranton,  making  use  of  the  extensive  collections  of  Marcel  
Griaule,   has   deepened   our   understanding   of   Malian   cosmological   myths   and   their  
perceptions   of   the   structure   of   matter   and   the   physical   world.   Dogon   knowledge  
systems  have  also  been  explored  in  terms  of  their  perceptions  on  astronomy.  Dogon  
propositions   about   Sirius   B   have   been   discussed   by   Charles   Finch   in   The   Star   of  
Deep  Beginnings.  The  solar  calendar  that  we  use  today  evolved  from  the  Egyptian  
calendar  of  twelve  months,  calibrated  according  to  the  day  on  which  the  star  Sirius  
rose  on  the  horizon  with  the  Sun.  Scranton  suggests  major  interconnections  between  
the  thought  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Malians  of  West  Africa.  
 
In  the  field  of  Mathematics,  Nubian  builders  calculated  the  volumes  of  masonry  
and  building  materials,  as  well  as  the  slopes  of  pyramids,  for  construction  purposes.  
Bianchi  points  to  a  Nubian  engraving  at  Meroe,  in  ancient  Sudan,  dated  to  the  first  
century   B.C.E.,   which   reflects   “a   sophisticated   understanding   of   mathematics.”  
Included  in  the  engraving  were  several  lines,  inclined  at  a  72-­degree  angle,  running  
diagonally   from   the   base   of   a   pyramid.   Bianchi   suggests   that   the   Nubian   King  
Amanikhabale  of  the  first  century  BCE  was  the  owner  of  that  pyramid.  Interestingly,  
the   Nubians   of   Meroe,   who   constructed   more   pyramids   than   the   Egyptians,   built  
steep,  flat-­topped  pyramids.  
 
In   the   field   of   medicine,   common   patterns   and   trends   emerged   across   the  
continent.  These  included  scientifically  proven  methods,  as  well  as  techniques  and  
strategies  which  were  culturally  specific  and  psychologically  significant.  Among  the  
common   principles   and   procedures   were   hydrotherapy,   heat   therapy,   spinal  
manipulation,   quarantine,   bone-­setting   and   surgery.   Incantations   and   other  
psychotherapeutic   devices   sometimes   accompanied   other   techniques.   The  

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 knowledge   of   specific   medicinal   plants   was   quite   extensive   in   some   kingdoms,  
empires,   and   city   states   such   as   Aksum,   and   Borgu   (in   Hausaland).   The   latter  
continues  to  be  well  known  for  orthopedics  (bone-­setting),  as  is  the  case  of  Funtua  in  
Northern  Nigeria.  Many  traditional  techniques  are  still  utilized  in  some  areas.  Others  
have  undergone  change  over  time,  have  been  revived  in  more  recent  periods,  or  have  
fallen  into  oblivion.  

Various  types  of  metal  products  have  been  used  over  time  by  Africans,  ranging  
from   gold,   tin,   silver,   bronze,   brass,   and   iron/steel.   The   Sudanic   empires   of   West  
Africa  emerged  in  the  context  of  various  commercial  routes  and  activities  involving  
the  gold  trade.  In  the  North  and  East,  Ethiopia  and  Sudan  were  the  major  suppliers  
of  gold,  with  Egypt  a  major  importer.  In  Southern  Africa,  the  kingdom  of  Monomotapa  
(Munhumutapa)  reigned  supreme  as  a  major  gold  producer.  In  the  various  spheres  
of  metal  production,  specific  techniques  and  scientific  principles  included:  excavation  
and  ore  identification;;  separation  of  ore  from  non-­ore  bearing  rock;;  smelting  by  the  
use  of  bellows  and  heated  furnaces;;  and  smithing  and  further  refinement.  
The   use   of   multishaft   and   open-­shaft   systems   facilitated   circulation   of   air   in  
intense  heating  processes,  while  the  bellows  principle  produced  strong  currents  of  air  
in  a  chamber  expanded  to  draw  in  or  expel  air  through  a  valve.  The  various  metal  
products   served   a   wide   range   of   purposes,   including:   armor   (as   in   some   northern  
Nigerian  city-­states),  jewelry  (of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper  and  brass),  cooking  utensils,  
cloth  dyeing,  sculpture,  and  agricultural  tools.  The  technical  know-­how  and  expertise  
of   blacksmiths   helped   to   enhance   their   status,   although   they   were   also   often  
associated  with  supernatural  and  psychic  powers,  as  well.  
 
In   various   parts   of   ancient,   medieval,   and   contemporary   Africa,   building  
constructions  of  various  dimensions,  shapes,  and  types  emerged,  reflecting  various  
concepts,  techniques,  raw  material  preferences,  and  decorative  principles.  Builders  
integrated   the   concepts   of   the   arch,   the   dome,   and   columns   and   aisles   in   their  
constructions.   The   underground   vaults   and   passages,   as   well   as   the   rock-­hewn  
churches,   of   Axum   are   matched   in   Nubia   and   Egypt   with   pyramids   of   various  
dimensions.  In  the  Sahelian  region,  adobe,  or  dried  clay,  was  preferred  in  the  context  
of  moulded  contours,  at  times  integrated  with  overall  moulded  sculpture.  Permanent  
scaffolding  made  of  protruding  planks  characterized  the  Malian  region.  The  principle  
of  evaporative  cooling  was  integrated  into  building  design.  Mats  were  used  as  part  of  
the   decor   and   also   to   be   saturated   repeatedly   in   order   to   cool   the   room.  
Derelict   ruins   from   walled   cities—such   as   Kano,   Zazzau,   and   other   city-­states   of  
Hausaland  in  the  central  Sudanic  region  of  West  Africa—complement  structures  such  
as   the   rock-­hewn   and   moulded   churches   of   Lalibela   in   Ethiopia   or   the   Zimbabwe  
enclosures.  The  structures  of  ancient  Nubia,  as  well  as  those  of  Egypt,  are  parallel  
structures  in  the  northeast.    
 
 
 
 
 

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 H.   Information  Revolution  
 
Information   revolution   is   a   period   of   change   that   describes   current  
economic,  social  and  technological  trends  beyond  the  Industrial  Revolution.  The  
information   revolution   was   fueled   by   advances   in   semiconductor   technology,  
particularly   the   metal-­oxide-­semiconductor   field-­effect   transistor   (MOSFET)   and  
the   integrated   circuit   (IC)   chip,   leading   to   the   Information   Age   in   the   early   21st  
century  (Lukasiak,  2010;;  Orton,  2009).  
 
Information   revolution   might   prove   as   significant   to   the   lives   of   people.  
Computer  technology  is  at  the  root  of  this  change,  and  continuing  advancements  
in   that   technology   seem   to   ensure   that   this   revolution   would   touch   the   lives   of  
people.   Computers   are   unique   machines;;   they   help   to   extend   the   brain   power.  
Computerized  robots  have  been  replacing  blue-­collar  workers;;  they  might  soon  be  
replacing  white  collar  workers  as  well.  Computers  are  merely  devices  that  follow  
sets  of  instructions  called  computer  programs,  or  software,  that  have  been  written  
by  people  called  computer  programmers.  Computers  offer  many  benefits,  but  there  
are  also  many  dangers.  They  could  help  others  invade  one's  privacy  or  wage  war.  
They  might  turn  one  into  button  pusher  and  cause  massive  unemployment.  User-­
friendly   systems   can   be   easily   used   by   untrained   people.   The   key   development  
that  made  personal  computers  possible  was  the  invention  of  the  microprocessor  
chip  at  Intel  in  1971.  
 
The   information   revolution   led   us   to   the   age   of   the   internet,   where  
optical  communication  networks  play  a  key  role  in  delivering  massive  amounts  of  
data.   The   world   has   experienced   phenomenal   network   growth   during   the   last  
decade,  and  further  growth  is  imminent.  The  internet  will  continue  to  expand  due  
to   user   population   growth   and   internet   penetration:   previously  
inaccessible   geographical   regions   in   Africa   and   Asia   will   come   online.   Network  
growth   will   only   be   accelerated   by   improvements   in   integrated  
circuits.  Transistor  size  has  been  halved  every  two  years  since  the  middle  of  the  
last  century.  The  new  internet-­based  global  economy  requires  a  worldwide  network  
with   high   capacity   and   availability,   which   is   currently   limited  
by  submarine  optical  communication  cables.  
 
New  ideas  keep  coming  from  the  information  transport  community.  Since  
the   first   edition   of   Undersea   Fiber   Communication   Systems   in   2002,   the   optical  
fiber  communication  industry  moved  into  the  “coherent”  era.  We  transport  an  order  
of  magnitude  more  bits  than  just  five  years  ago.  We  encode  information  into  phase,  
polarization,  and  amplitude  of  electromagnetic  waves.  Michael  Faraday  would  be  
proud,  knowing  that  we  send  over  10,000,000,000,000  bits  every  second  across  
the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  a  single  strand  of  fiber.  We  would  leave  in  awe  Sir  William  
Thomson   (known   as   Lord   Kelvin),   who   was   the   scientific   leader   of   an   1858  
endeavor  that  built  the  first  submarine  cable  with  a  transmission  speed  of  one  word  
per   minute.   Sir   Thomson   and   Cyrus   Field,   an   American   businessman  
and  telecommunications  pioneer,  would  be  surprised  to  find  out  how  many  tools  

43
 developed   during   their   first   transatlantic   expedition   are   still   in   use   today.   At   first  
glance,  the  modern  cable  looks  similar  to  the  1858  cable,  which  was  copper  based  
with   a   gutta-­percha   (trans-­poly   isoprene)   isolator.   In   modern   day   cables,   gutta-­
percha   has   been   replaced   with   polyethylene.   We   still   use   copper   to   power  
submarine  repeaters,  and  have  added  optical  fibers  during  the  last  decade  of  the  
last  century.    
 
The  uniqueness  of  this  engineering  marvel  is  a  combination  of  information  
science,   nonlinear   optics,   electrical   engineering,   material   science,   engineering  
practices,   project   management,   marine   expertise,   and   high   reliability   standard.  
Undersea  fiber  communication  systems  will  continue  to  serve  society.  
 
  Impact  of  Information  Revolution  
 
The  truly  revolutionary  impact  of  the  Information  Revolution  is  just  beginning  
to   be   felt.   But   it   is   not   "information"   that   fuels   this   impact.   It   is   not   "artificial  
intelligence."   It   is   not   the   effect   of   computers   and   data   processing   on   decision-­
making,  policymaking,  or  strategy.  It  is  something  that  practically  no  one  foresaw  
or,  indeed,  even  talked  about  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago:  e-­commerce—that  is,  the  
explosive   emergence   of   the   Internet   as   a   major,   perhaps   eventually   the   major,  
worldwide   distribution   channel   for   goods,   for   services,   and,   surprisingly,   for  
managerial   and   professional   jobs.   This   is   profoundly   changing   economies,  
markets,  and  industry  structures;;  products  and  services  and  their  flow;;  consumer  
segmentation,  consumer  values,  and  consumer  behavior;;  jobs  and  labor  markets.  
But  the  impact  may  be  even  greater  on  societies  and  politics  and,  above  all,  on  the  
way  we  see  the  world  and  ourselves  in  it.  
At  the  same  time,  new  and  unexpected  industries  will  no  doubt  emerge,  and  
fast.  One  is  already  here:  biotechnology.  And  another:  fish  farming.  Within  the  next  
fifty  years  fish  farming  may  change  us  from  hunters  and  gatherers  on  the  seas  into  
"marine  pastoralists"—just  as  a  similar  innovation  some  10,000  years  ago  changed  
our   ancestors   from   hunters   and   gatherers   on   the   land   into   agriculturists   and  
pastoralists.  
It  is  likely  that  other  new  technologies  will  appear  suddenly,  leading  to  major  
new  industries.  What  they  may  be  is  impossible  even  to  guess  at.  But  it  is  highly  
probable—indeed,  nearly  certain—that  they  will  emerge,  and  fairly  soon.  And  it  is  
nearly  certain  that  few  of  them—and  few  industries  based  on  them—will  come  out  
of  computer  and  information  technology.  Like  biotechnology  and  fish  farming,  each  
will  emerge  from  its  own  unique  and  unexpected  technology.  
Of  course,  these  are  only  predictions.  But  they  are  made  on  the  assumption  
that   the   Information   Revolution   will   evolve   as   several   earlier   technology-­based  
"revolutions"   have   evolved   over   the   past   500   years,   since   Gutenberg's   printing  
revolution,   around   1455.   In   particular,   the   assumption   is   that   the   Information  
Revolution   will   be   like   the   Industrial   Revolution   of   the   late   eighteenth   and   early  
nineteenth   centuries.   And   that   is   indeed   exactly   how   the   Information   Revolution  
has  been  during  its  first  fifty  years.  
 

44
Activity:  Standing  on  the  Shoulders  of  Giants  
 
Motivation:  
Please  refer  to  the  following  quote  in  answering  the  given  questions  below.  
 
“If  I  have  seen  further  than  others,  it  is  by  standing  on  the  shoulders  of  giants.”  
-­   Sir  Isaac  Newton  
 
1.   What  do  you  think  Newton  has  seen?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________  
 
2.   Who  do  you  think  Newton  refers  to  as  giants?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________  
 
3.   What  do  you  think  this  quote  tells  you  about  Newton’s  character?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________  
 
 
Pre-­Activity  Discussion  
Scientists  today  build  on  the  knowledge  and  discoveries  made  by  others.  It  might  
be   that   they   continue   and   grow   the   work   of   the   scientists   who   have   mentored   and  
supervised  them  or  that  they  build  on  prior  discoveries  –  both  recent  and  historical.    
 
Tying   in   stories   of   science   in   history   and   scientific   breakthroughs   can   offer  
engaging   opportunities   for   further   exploration   and   learning.   For   example,   the   periodic  
table  that  we  know  today  was  actually  a  result  of  numerous  experiments  and  discoveries  
that   spanned   for   centuries   starting   from   1669   when   the   first   scientific   discovery   of   an  
element  was  made  by  Hennig  Brand.  Over  the  next  200  years,  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  
about  elements  and  compounds  was  gained.  By  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  about  60  
elements  had  been  discovered.  Scientists  began  to  recognize  patterns  in  the  properties  
of  these  elements  and  set  about  developing  classification  schemes.  
 
 

45
 Scientists   are   constantly   working   on   discovering   new   materials   and   further  
investigating  the  properties  of  existing  elements.  The  periodic  table  can  be  reviewed  and  
new  elements  can  be  added,  but  only  added  after  rigorous  scientific  examination.  The  
International  Union  of  Pure  and  Applied  Chemistry  (IUPAC)  verifies  the  additions  of  new  
elements   and   at   the   end   of   2015   the   7th   period   of   the   periodic   table   of   elements   was  
completed  with  the  addition  of  four  new  elements.  
 
Activity  Task:  
 
The  following  timeline  summarizes  the  development  of  the  periodic  table.  Using  
the  brief  history  of  the  periodic  table  as  an  example  and  applying  what  you  have  learned  
about  intellectual  revolutions,  select  any  topic  (can  be  an  object  or  theory)  and  present  its  
historical  evolution  to  its  present  day  form.  Identify  the  key  persons  who  are  instrumental  
in   its   development   and   how   each   key   person   worked   on   the   findings   of   his/her  
predecessors   in   the   field   to   further   improve   the   work.   Be   creative   in   presenting   your  
timeline  and  in  presenting  your  work.  
 

46
  

1862
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois plotted
the atomic weights of elements on paper tape and
wound them, spiral like, around a cylinder. He called
his model the telluric helix or screw.

1864
English chemist John Newlands proposed
his Law of octaves based on the periodic
similarity every seventh element.

1868
Lothar Meyer compiled a periodic table based on
regular repeating pattern of physical property such
as molar volume. Once again the elements were
arranged in order of increasing atomic weights.

1869
Dmitri Mendeleev produced a periodic table
based on atomic weights but arranged
“periodically”. Elements with similar
properties appeared under each other. Gaps

1894
William Ramsay discovered the noble gases
were left for yet to be discovered elements.

and realized that they represented a new group

in the periodic table. The noble gases added
further proof to the accuracy of Mendeleev’s
table.
1913
Henry Moseley determined the atomic number
of each of the known elements. He realized that
arranging the elements in order of increasing
atomic number rather than atomic weight gave
a better fit within the “periodic table”.

1944
Glenn Seaborg proposed an ‘actinide hypothesis’
and published his version of the table in 1945. The
lanthanide and actinide series form the two rows
under the periodic table of elements.

47
 Chapter  3  
Science,  Technology  and  Nation  Building  
 
Introduction  
 
This   section   presents   the   policies   of   the   government   regarding   science   and  
technology,  how  it  is  being  implemented  through  its  various  departments  and  agencies,  
and   its   role   in   nation   building.   It   also   includes   a   list   of   Filipino   inventors   and   their  
inventions.  
 
Intended  Learning  Outcomes  
1.   Discuss  the  role  of  science  and  technology  in  Philippine  nation  building.  
2.   Evaluate   government   policies   on   science   and   technology   in   terms   of   their  
contributions  to  nation  building.  
3.   Identify  actual  science  and  technology  government  policies  and  appraise  their  
impact  on  the  development  of  the  Filipino  nation.  
 
 
A.   The  Philippine  Government  Science  and  Technology  Agenda  
 
Scientists  and  technologists  are  the  backbone  of  an  industrialized  nation  that  
propels   socioeconomic   gain   and   national   progress.   They   are   the   key   players   and  
lifeblood  of  research  and  innovation  and  plays  an  important  role  in  the  industry  and  
manufacturing   sector.   As   such,   it   can   be   said   that   scientists   and   technologists   are  
essential  players  in  nation  building.    
 
In  the  Philippines,  the  Department  of  Science  and  Technology  (DOST)  is  tasked  
to  oversee  and  manage  national  technology  development  and  acquisition,  undertake  
technological   and   scientific   research   and   promote   public   consciousness   of   science  
and  technology.  DOST  is  responsible  for  formulating  and  adopting  a  comprehensive  
National   Science   and   Technology   plan   for   the   Philippines   and   subsequently,   to  
monitor  and  coordinate  its  funding  and  implementation.  It  undertakes  policy  research,  
technology   assessment,   feasibility   and   technical   studies,   and   maintains   a   national  
information  system  and  databank  on  science  and  technology.  
 
In  2017,  DOST  launched  the  Science  for  the  People  thru  Administrative  Order  
No.  003  s.  2017.  This  is  in  response  to  the  government’s  call  to  address  inequity  in  
developments  within  and  among  countries  and  is  aligned  with  the  national  goals  and  
plans.  It  aims  to  make  science  and  technology  more  relevant  to  the  conditions,  needs  
and  opportunities  for  contributing  to  regional  development  while  keeping  abreast  with  
the  trends  and  development  in  the  country  and  in  the  world.    Likewise,  the  program  
intends  to  maximize  the  use  of  science,  enhance  innovation  and  the  creative  capacity  
of  the  Filipinos  towards  the  achievement  of  inclusive  and  sustainable  growth.    
 
 
 

48
 Stipulated  in  the  strategic  plan  are  the  seven  outcomes  that  the  agency  strives  
to  achieve.  These  are  as  follows:  
 
1.   Innovation  and  stimulus  
2.   Technology  and  adoption  promoted  and  accelerated  
3.   Critical  mass  of  globally  competitive  STI  human  resources  developed    
4.   Productivity  and  efficiency  of  communities  and  the  production  sector,  
particularly  MSMEs  improved    
5.   Resiliency  to  disaster  risks  and  climate  change  ensured    
6.   Inequality  in  STI  capacities  and  opportunities  reduced    
7.   Effective  STI  governance  achieved  
 
The  strategies  to  attain  these  outcomes  are  embodied  in  the  DOST  Eleven  Point  
Agenda  as  follows:    
 
1.   Pursue  R&D  to  address  pressing  national  problems.    
2.   Conduct   R&D   to   enhance   productivity   and   improve   management   of  
resources.    
3.   Engage   in   R&D   to   generate   and   apply   new   knowledge   and   technologies  
across  sectors.    
4.   Strengthen  and  utilize  regional  R&D  capabilities.    
5.   Maximize   utilization   of   R&D   results   through   technology   transfer   and  
commercialization.    
6.   Develop  STI  human  resources  and  build  a  strong  STI  culture.    
7.   Upgrade  STI  facilities  and  capacities  to  advance  R&D  activities  and  expand  
S&T  services.    
8.   Expand   STI   assistance   to   communities   and   the   production   sector,  
particularly  MSMEs.    
9.   Provide   STI-­based   solutions   for   disaster   risks   and   climate   change  
adaptation  and  mitigation.    
10.  Strengthen   industry-­academe-­government   and   international   STI  
collaboration.    
11.  Enhance  effectiveness  of  STI  governance.  
 
Agenda   1   highlights   the   latest   advancements   in   research   and   development  
geared  towards  the  shared  goal  of  improved  nutrition  and  health  for  all.  Focused  on  
health  technology  development,  drug  discovery  and  development  remains  to  be  the  
high-­impact  and  big  ticket  program  supported  by  the  Department  in  the  area  of  health.  
Central   to   this   R&D   program   is   the   study   of   endemic   resources,   partnered   with  
documentation  of  traditional  knowledge  and  practices  in  health,  that  could  eventually  
lead  to  decreased  cost  of  medicines  and  health  interventions  for  diseases  that  affect  
the  quality  of  lives  of  many  Filipinos.  
 
Agenda  2  presents  how  R&D  can  be  utilized  to  make  key  traditional  industries  
steadfast  and  competitive  through  technological  innovations  that  can  address  gaps  in  
productivity   and   increase   production   yield.   Enhancing   the   capacity   of   marginalized  

49
sub-­sectors  and  people  groups  to  use  better  and  new  technologies  can  expand  their  
access  to  participate  in  economic  activities  and  progress.  The  primary  industries  that  
will  benefit  from  the  featured  major  R&D  programs  include  the  agriculture,  specifically  
coconut  and  rice  production,  non-­wood  forest  products,  i.e.,  bamboo  processing  and  
utilization,  and  natural  textile  among  others.  
 
Agenda   3   engages   R&D   in   emerging   scientific   and   technological   platforms  
which  lay  the  inroads  to  the  development  of  new  products,  services,  and  industries.  
Promising   new   technologies   may   potentially   disrupt   and   change   the   way   things   are  
done.   Recognizing   this,   the   Department   anticipates   impact   of   new   technologies   in  
existing  industries  in  the  country  by  supporting  local  capability  programs  in  the  areas  
of   artificial   intelligence   for   new   industry   development   and   supporting   research   in  
nanotechnology  for  new  materials  development.    
 
Agenda  4  focuses  in  strengthening  institutional  capacity  to  undertake  research  
and  development  and  contribute  to  regional  development.  Utilizing  local  researchers  
equalize  opportunities  in  generating  new  knowledge  and  technologies  suited  for  the  
specific  need  of  the  region.  The  Department  partners  with  Higher  Education  Institutions  
in   the   regions   in   establishing   niche   R&D   centers   which   may   also   serve   as   hubs   for  
developing  R&D  capability  of  adjacent  localities.  
 
Agenda  5  includes  mechanisms  to  encourage  technology  transfer  and  avenues  
where  R&D  results  are  promoted  in  the  bid  to  maximize  its  utilization.  The  Department  
provided   support   in   bringing   R&D   results   to   its   final   stage   of   development   up   to  
commercialization.  

Agenda   6   aims   to   build   a   critical   mass   of   competitive   researchers,   scientists,  

and   engineers   (RSEs)   and   promoting   a   culture   of   STI.   Towards   this   goal,   the  
Department   continues   to   provide   scholarship   programs   to   scale   up   the   number   of  
RSEs.    
 
Agenda  7  features  various  S&T  facilities  that  offer  technical  services  for  carrying  
out  research  and  development,  as  well  as  addressing  the  needs  of  the  industry  in  terms  
of  quality  assurance,  adherence  to  standards,  product  development,  and  innovation.  
The   electronics,   semi-­conductor,   automotive   parts,   gear   assembly   manufacturing,  
agriculture   produce,   and   food   manufacturing   industries   can   benefit   from   the   various  
S&T  facilities  and  technical  services.    
 
Agenda   8   focuses   on   S&T   assistance   provided   to   upgrade   the   technological  
capabilities  and  improve  the  productivity  and  efficiency  of  Micro,  Small  and  Medium  
Enterprises   (MSMEs).   The   Department   has   continued   to   provide   technological  
interventions   such   as   process   and   system   improvement,   technical   consultancy,  
packaging  and  labelling,  training,  testing  and  calibration,  and  product  development  to  
empower   MSMEs   to   innovate,   move   up   the   technology   scale   and   become   more  
competitive.    
 

50
 Agenda  9  highlights  the  role  of  the  Department  in  building  a  disaster-­resilient  
community   through   the   provision   of   accurate   and   timely   information.   Specifically,  
progress   was   made   by   establishing   and   upgrading   observation   and   monitoring  
systems,   efforts   in   hazard   and   risk   assessment,   and   researches   for   disaster   risk  
management,  as  well  as  climate  change  adaptation  and  mitigation.    
 
Agenda   10   focuses   on   the   linkages   and   networks   being   pursued   by   the  
Department   in   terms   of   S&T   collaboration.   In   2017,   the   Department   took   part   in   24  
bilateral   engagements   and   participated   in   a   number   of   activities   which   involved   14  
international  organizations.  
 
Agenda   11   (Enhance   effectiveness   of   STI   governance)   provides   the   policy  
framework  that  governs  the  implementation  of  the  programs,  projects  and  activities  of  
the  Department  in  contribution  to  national  development  and  progress.  Taking  off  from  
the   National   0+10   Socioeconomic   Agenda   and   Philippine   Development   Plan,   the  
Department   crafted   the   Science   for   the   People   11-­point   Agenda,   Harmonized   R&D  
Agenda,  and  Regional  Offices  Strategy  Map.    
 
 
In  Focus:  Batangas  State  University  KIST  Park  
 
  Batangas  State  University  made  history  as  it  officially  launched  the  country’s  first  
Knowledge,  Innovation  and  Science  Technology  (KIST)  Park  on  July  20,  2020.  This  
milestone  placed  Batangas  State  University  at  the  forefront  of  national  development.  
BatStateU  KIST  Park  was  designated  as  a  Special  Economic  Zone  under  Presidential  
Proclamation  No.  947,  s.  2020.  The  theme  of  the  launching  event  was  “Towards  a  New  
Frontier  of  Knowledge-­building  and  Innovation  in  Science  and  Technology.”  
 
  BatStateU   headed   by   Dr.   Tirso   A.   Ronquillo   became   a   key   partner   of   the  
government   in   fostering   industry-­academe   linkages,   knowledge   and   technology  
transfer,  and  promoting  the  commercialization  of  innovations.  The  KIST  Park  will  serve  
as   a   catalyst   for   industrial   productivity   and   increased   economic   growth   in  
CaLaBaRZon.   This   manifestation   of   the   strong   collaboration   between   government,  
industry  and  academe  is  central  to  inclusive  innovation  strategy.  
 
  BatStateU  KIST  Park  is  now  open  and  spearheads  a  long-­term  vision  for  “state  
universities   and   colleges   in   the   country   to   expand   their   programs   for   industry,  
academe,  market  synergy,  technopreneurship,  [innovation-­based]  business  incubation  
and   acceleration,   and   knowledge   co-­creation   in   science   and   technology.”  
(http://batstateukistpark.com.ph/#/main/home)
 
 
Question:   Which   of   the   11-­point   Agenda   relates   to   the   launching   and   operation   of  
BatStateU  KIST  Park?  Expound  your  answer.  

51
B.  Major  Development  Programs  and  Personalities  in  Science  and                              
       Technology  in  the  Philippines  
 
 
Major  Development  Programs  in  Science  and  Technology    
 
The   Science   for   Change   Program   (S4CP)   was   created   by   the   Department   of  
Science  and  Technology  (DOST)  to  accelerate  STI  in  the  country  in  order  to  keep  up  with  
the   developments   in   our   time   wherein   technology   and   innovation   are   game   changers.  
Through  the  Science  for  Change  Program  (S4CP),  the  DOST  can  significantly  accelerate  
STI  in  the  country  and  create  a  massive      
 
S4CP   focuses   on   Accelerated   R&D   Program   for   Capacity   Building   of   R&D  
Institutions   and   Industrial   Competitiveness   which   is   composed   of   four   (4)   programs  
namely:  (1)  Niche  Centers  in  the  Regions  for  R&D  (NICER)  Program,  (2)  R&D  Leadership  
(RDLead)  Program,  (3)  Collaborative  R&D  to  Leverage  PH  Economy  (CRADLE)  for  RDIs  
and  Industry  Program,  (4)  Business  Innovation  through  S&T  (BIST)  for  Industry  Program.  
 
The   NICER   Program   capacitates   Higher   Education   Institutions   (HEIs)   in   the  
regions   to   make   significant   improvement   in   regional   research   by   integrating   its  
development   needs   with   the   existing   R&D   capabilities   and   resources.   It   provides  
institutional  grants  for  HEIs  in  the  regions  for  R&D  capacity  building  to  improve  their  S&T  
infrastructure.   The   NICER   Program   was   established   in   consultation   with   the   academe  
and   industry;;   and   endorsed   by   the   Regional   Development   Council   (RDC).   Hence,   a  
NICER  is  a  unique  center  for  collaborative  R&D  to  address  specific  S&T  needs  of  local  
communities  and  industries,  thereby  accelerating  regional  development.  It  caters  to  the  
specific  needs  of  the  Regions,  which  include  upgrading,  development,  and  acquisition  of  
R&D  equipment  to  undertake  collaborative  R&D  activities.  Currently,  there  are  18  existing  
NICERs  across  14  regions  for  a  total  funding  of  P641M.  
 
The   R&D   Leadership   Program   complements   the   establishment   of   R&D   Centers  
thru  the  NICER  Program.  RDLead  provides  the  mechanism  to  bring  in  experts  and  highly  
skilled  professionals  with  strong  leadership,  management  and  innovative  policy-­making  
proficiencies   to   be   in   charge   of   strengthening   the   research   capabilities   of   the   HEIs,  
National  Government  Agencies  (NGAs)  and  Research  Development  Institutions  (RDIs)  
in  the  regions.  Together,  the  RDLead  and  NICER  Programs  will  capacitate  HEIs  to  help  
improve  and  hasten  the  use  of  research  results  that  will  contribute  to  the  socio-­economic  
development   of   the   country   and   help   address   pressing   challenges.   The   NRCP   is   the  
implementing  agency  for  this  program.  
 
The   Collaborative   Research   and   Development   to   Leverage   Philippine   Economy  
(CRADLE)  Program  is  specifically  designed  to  foster  collaboration  between  academe  and  
local  companies  to  improve  competitiveness  and  catalyze  innovation.    It  aims  to  improve  
the   country’s   innovation   ecosystem   by   facilitating   the   smooth   transition   of   new  
technologies   from   universities   and   research   and   development   institutes   (RDI)   to  
industries   -­   from   lab   to   market.     The   framework   of   CRADLE   is   a   trihelix   partnership  

52
between  the  government,  the  industry  and  the  academe  wherein  the  government  finances  
the  collaboration  of  the  private  company  and  the  partner  university  or  RDI.  The  Program  
aims   to   address   a   problem   of   a   Filipino   company   using   R&D   to   develop   innovative  
solutions.  To  date,  the  DOST  has  already  provided  almost  Php  125  M  of  funding  to  29  
academe-­industry  collaborations  all  over  the  country.  
 
The  Business  Innovation  through  S&T  (BIST)  for  Industry  Program  aims  to  level-­
up   the   innovation   capacity   of   the   Philippine   Industrial   Sector   through   R&D   by   helping  
private  companies  and  industries  acquire  novel  and  strategic  technologies,  such  as  state-­
of-­the-­art  equipment  and  machinery,  technology  licenses  and  patent  rights  among  others.  
The  program  will  cover  up  to  70%  of  the  total  eligible  cost  of  the  needed  technology  at  
zero  percent  interest.  To  date,  the  BIST  Program  has  approved  one  project  from  an  herbal  
company,   Herbanext   Laboratories   Inc.,   providing   a   total   financial   assistance   of  
Php11.7M.  
 
A  Steering  committee  for  CRADLE  and  BIST  Programs  was  created  through  the  
DOST   Special   Order   No.   0276   which   was   approved   on   02   April   2018.   The   Steering  
Committee  is  headed  by  Dr.  Rowena  Cristina  L.  Guevara,  Undersecretary  for  R&D,  and  
the   members   include   the   Department   of   Trade   and   Industry   (DTI),   Federation   of  
Philippine   Industries   (FPI),   Philippine   Chamber   of   Commerce   and   Industry   (PCCI),  
Philippine   Council   for   Agriculture,   Aquatic   and   Natural   Resources   Research   and  
Development   (PCAARRD),   Philippine   Council   for   Health   Research   and   Development  
(PCHRD)   and   Philippine   Council   for   Industry,   Energy   and   Emerging   Technology  
Research  and  Development  (PCIEERD)  
 
The   committee   performs   the   following   functions:   (1)   Review/formulate   policies  
relating   to   the   implementation   of   CRADLE   and   BIST   Program;;   (2)   Provide   advice   and  
guidance  in  the  management  and  administration  of  the  projects;;  and  (3)  Other  functions  
necessary  for  the  successful  implementation  of  CRADLE  and  BIST  Programs.  Since  the  
implementation  of  the  S4CP  in  2017,  the  DOST  has  spent  a  total  of  Php  407,585,946.60  
to  the  four  programs.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

53
Personalities  in  Science  and  Technology  in  the  Philippines  
Aisa  Mijeno  
 

To   light   up   the   rest   of   the  

Philippines   sustainably   was   the   vision   of  
Filipina   scientist   Aisa   Mijeno   when   she  
made  the  Sustainable  Alternative  Lighting  
(SALt)   lamp.   The   product   concept   was  
formed  after  living  with  the  Butbut  tribe  for  
weeks   relying   only   on   kerosene   lamps  
and  moonlight  to  do  evening  chores.  Her  
mission   and   advocacy   is   to   address   the  
light   inequality   gap   and   end   the   use   of  
combustion   based   light   sources  
https://www.asianscientist.com/2015/05/features
(kerosene  lamps  and  candles)  for  the  16   /asias-­rising-­scientists-­aisa-­mijeno/  
Million   Filipinos   and   1.4   Billion   people  
across  the  world.  
The  SALt  Lamp  is  an  environment-­friendly  and  sustainable  alternative  light  source  
that  runs  on  saltwater,  making  it  suitable  to  those  who  live  in  coastal  areas.  It  can  also  
function  well  in  remote  barrios.  With  just  two  table  spoons  of  salt  and  one  glass  of  tap  
water,  this  ecologically  designed  lamp  can  run  for  eight  hours.  

The  idea  behind  the  SALt  lamp  is  the  chemical  conversion  of  energy.  It  utilizes  the  
scientific  process  behind  the  Galvanic  cell,  but  instead  of  electrolytes,  the  SALt  lamp  uses  
saline   solution,   making   it   harmless   and   non-­toxic.   Compared   with   kerosene   lamp,   the  
SALt  lamp  is  also  a  lot  safer  since  it  does  not  have  components  and  compounds  that  may  
spark  fire.  Moreover,  it  does  not  emit  toxic  gases  and  leaves  minimal  carbon  footprint.  
Because   of   its   inspiring   vision   and   ground-­breaking   innovation,   the   SALt   lamp   has  
received  various  awards  and  recognition  from  organizations  in  the  Philippines,  Singapore,  
Japan,  and  South  Korea.  SALt  have  won  several  awards  including  KOTRA  Top  5  Best  
Global   Startup   at   Startup   Nations   Summit   2014,   People's   Choice   at   Startup   Nations  
Summit   2014   and   recognized   by   the   ASEAN   Corporate   Sustainability   Summit   and  
Awards  2015  giving  them  the  SME  Sustainability  Commitment  Category.  

One   of   Mijano’s   career   highlights   was   when   she   was   invited   as   an   APEC   CEO  
Summit  panel  member  together  with  ex-­President  Barack  Obama  and  Alibaba  CEO  Jack  
Ma.  Looking  forward,  she  wishes  to  distribute  more  lanterns  to  communities  across  the  
Philippines  and  possibly  throughout  South  East  Asia.  
 

54
Ramon  C.  Barba    

He   is   a   Filipino   scientist,   inventor   and  

https://joinpase.weebly.com/pases-­of-­
success/ramon-­cabanos-­barba  
successfully  applied  on  other  fruit  trees  including  cashew.
horticulturist  who  is  known  for  his  successful  
experiment  on  the  inducement  of  flowering  of  
mango  trees  by  spraying  them  with  ethrel  and  
potassium   nitrate.   He   developed   a   process  
that   caused   the   flowering   and   fruiting   of  
mango   trees   three   times   a   year,   instead   on  
once  a  year,  so  dramatically  improving  yields.  
Since  his  discovery,  the  mango  industry  in  the  
Philippines  expanded.  Apart  from  the  mango  
producers   themselves,   other   business  
sectors   such   as   the   producers   of   the   pest  
control  chemicals,  harvesters,  sellers,  and  all  
the  other  smaller  groups  of  workers  related  to  
mango   industry   have   benefitted   from   his  
invention.   This   technology   has   also   been  
 

Barba  also  developed  a  tissue  culture  procedure  for  the  banana  plant  and  sugar  
cane  which  enabled  production  of  large  quantities  of  planting  materials  that  were  robust  
and  disease-­free.  With  his  research  team,  Barba  devised  micro  propagation  protocols  for  
more   than   40   important   species   of   fruit   crops,   ornamental   plants,   plantation   crops,  
aquarium  plants,  and  forest  trees.  In  2013,  Ramon  C.  Barba  was  conferred  the  rank  and  
title  of  National  Scientist  in  the  Philippines  for  his  distinguished  achievements  in  the  field  
of  plant  physiology.  

Fe  V.  del  Mundo  

She   is   known   as   the   Mother   of   Philippine  
Pediatrics,  a  very  great  scientist  and  a  symbol  of  
female   empowerment   in   medicine,   both   in   the  
Philippines   and   abroad.   The   first   Asian   woman  
admitted   into   Harvard,   she   pursued   graduate  
degrees   in   America   after   receiving   her   medical  
degree  from  the  University  of  the  Philippines.    Del  
Mundo  pioneered  numerous  inventions  throughout  
her   more   than   70-­year   medical   career.   She  
revolutionized   Philippine   medicine,   making   major  
breakthroughs   in   immunization   and   in   the  
treatment  of  jaundice,  and  providing  healthcare  to  
thousands   of   poor   families.   She   is   credited   with  
https://www.thefamouspeople.com/pro
studies   that   led   to   the   invention   of   the   incubator   files/fe-­del-­mundo-­25104.php  
and  a  jaundice  relieving  device.  Her  methods,  like  
the  BRAT  diet  for  curing  diarrhea,  have  spread  throughout  the  world  and  saved  millions.  
Del  Mundo’s  field  of  natural  science  and  the  field  of  public  health  was  something  she  was  

55
actively  involved  in.  When  she  was  not  busy  treating  and  taking  care  of  children,  she  did  
some  pioneering  work  on  infectious  diseases  in  Philippine  communities  and  authored  the  
Textbook  of  Pediatrics,  as  well  as  hundreds  of  articles  and  medical  reports  on  diseases  
such  as  dengue,  polio  and  measles.    
During   her   lifetime,   del   Mundo   won   numerous   awards   and   recognition   for   her  
outstanding  work.  Among  these  was  the  Ramon  Magsaysay  Award  for  Public  Service,  
which  she  received  in  1977.  She  became  the  Philippines’  first  female  National  Scientist  
in  1980,  in  recognition  of  her  work  in  Pediatrics.  The  rank  of  National  Scientist  is  awarded  
to   science   practitioners   with   “distinguished   individual   or   collaborative   achievement   in  
science  and  technology.”  In  2010,  del  Mundo  was  awarded  the  Order  of  Lakandula,  rank  
of   Bayani,   as   a   Filipina   who   lived   a   life   “worthy   of   emulation.”   Posthumously,   she   was  
conferred  the  Grand  Collar  of  the  Order  of  the  Golden  Heart  Award  in  2011,  by  President  
Benigno  Aquino  III.    
 
Maria  Y.  Orosa
Advances   in   modern   Filipino   food  
technology   owe   a   great   deal   to   the   creative  
researches   and   salutary   inventiveness   of   a  
woman   chemist   and   pharmacist   from  
Batangas   –   Maria   Y.   Orosa.   The   now-­
commercially   available   thirst   quencher,   the  
calamansi   juice,   is   just   one   of   the   popular  
native  food  products  in  whose  preparation  and  
preservation   she   had   a   hand.   She   produced  
the   “calamansi   nip,”   the   desiccated   and  
powdered   form   of   the   fruit   which   could   be  
made  into  juice.  The  most  notable  of  her  food  
inventions,   is   “Soyalac,”   a   powdered  
preparation  of  soya-­beans,  which  helped  save  
the  lives  of  thousands  of  Filipinos,  Americans,   https://food52.com/blog/24700-­maria-­
and  other  nationals  who  ever  held  prisoners  in   orosa-­profile  
different   Japanese   concentration   camps  
during  World  War  II.  It  became  known  to  them  as  the  “magic  food.”    
She   is   also   credited   with   the   making   of   the   banana   ketchup;;   wines   from   native  
fruits,  like  casuy  and  guava;;  vinegar  from  pineapples;;  banana  starch;;  soyamilk;;  banana  
flour;;   cassava   flour;;   jelly   from   guava,   santol,   mango,   and   other   fruits,   as   well   as   the  
invention  of  rice  cookies,  known  as  ricebran  or  darak,  which  is  effective  in  the  treatment  
of   patients   with   beri-­beri.   Aside   from   making   food   preparations,   Miss   Orosa   taught  
Filipinos   how   to   preserve   such   native   delicacies   as   the   adobo,   dinuguan,   kilawen   and  
escabeche.  Together  with  her  associates  in  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  she  invented  
“Oroval”  and  “Clarosa.”    
In  1923,  she  helped  organize  the  food  preservation  division  under  the  Bureau  of  
Science.   On   June   3,   1927,   she   became   the   acting   division   head.   Orosa   also   tried   her  
hand  in  improving  household  wares.  She  invented  the  “Orosa  Palayok  Oven”  for  cooking  
various   dishes.   In   1928,   the   government,   recognizing   her   dynamism   and   strong  
leadership,   sent   her   to   various   countries   as   a   state   scholar   to   specialize   in   food  

56
processing  and  canning.  To  perpetuate  her  memory,  the  government  has  named  after  
her  a  street  stretching  from  T.M.  Kalaw  to  Padre  Faura  in  Ermita,  Manila,  as  well  as  a  
building  in  the  Bureau  of  Plants  and  Industry.  She  was  one  of  the  19  scientists  who  were  
conferred  awards  on  the  occasion  of  the  65th  anniversary  of  the  Institute  of  Science  and  
Technology.  On  November  29,  1983,  the  National  Historical  Institute  installed  a  marker  
in  her  honor  at  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  in  San  Andres,  Manila.    
 
Angel  Alcala  
He   is   a   Filipino   scientist   whose  
biological   contributions   to   the  
environment  and  ecosystems  have  made  
him  a  hero  for  natural  sciences.  During  his  
30   years   of   experience   as   a   biologist,  
Alcala   made   major   contributions   to  
marine   biology   research   efforts   in   the  
Philippines   and   authored   over   160  
scientific  papers  as  well  as  books.  Alcala  
was  the  first  Filipino  scientist  to  engage  in  
comprehensive   studies   concerning  
Philippine   reptiles   and   amphibians   and  
minor   studies   on   mammals   and   birds.  
From   the   400   already   known   species   of   http://heroes.aseanbiodiversity.org/2017/09/
07/asean-­biodiversity-­hero-­dr-­angel-­c-­
reptiles  and  amphibians,  50  more  species   alcala-­philippines/
were  identified  due  to  his  efforts.  Because  
of  his  work,  conservation  programs  in  the  
Philippines  are  now  well  established.  
Alcala   also   made   a   highly   valuable   and   groundbreaking   contribution   to   marine  
ecosystems   when   he   established   the   first   artificial   reef   around   the   coastline   of   the  
Philippines,  greatly  boosting  the  ecosystem's  health  and  viability.  
.   In   1994,   he   was   given   the   Field   Museum   Founders’   Council   Award   of   Merit   for  
contributions   to   environmental   biology.   He   is   a   recipient   of   the   Magsaysay   Award   for  
Public   Service.   In   September   2011   he   received   the   Gregorio   Y.   Zara   Award   for   Basic  
Science  from  the  Philippine  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science  Inc.  In  2014,  he  
was  proclaimed  National  Scientist  by  President  Benigno  S.  Aquino  III  through  Presidential  
Decree  782  on  June  6,  2014.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

57
Activity:  Small  Group  Activity  
  Work   with   your   three   (3)   classmates   and   discuss   your   answers   to   the   following  
questions.  
1.   What  are  the  best  and  the  most  useful  inventions  in  the  20th  and  21st  centuries?  

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________  
2.   What   do   you   think   is   the   worst   invention   of   mankind?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
__________________________________  

3.   What  kinds  of  things  do  inventors  need  to  think  about  before  they  try  to  build  
something?  Why?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________  
 
4.   Can  you  name  some  inventions  you  are  looking  forward  to?    
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________  
 
5.   What  would  you  invent  if  you  are  a  scientist?  
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________  
.    
C.  Science  Education  in  the  Philippines    
The   role   and   goal   of   science   in   education   should   always   be   the   same.   Since  
science  is  considered  both  knowledge  and  method,  operating  independent  of  time  and  
place,  the  benefits  of  science  anywhere  can  only  be  the  same.  The  value  of  science  lies  
not   only   in   the   knowledge   that   it   imparts   and   bequeaths   to   the   learner   but   also   in   its  

58
methods   and   techniques   that   inculcate   in   the   learner’s   scientific   habits,   skills,   and  
attitudes.   Science,   even   as   it   is   considered   a   body   of   knowledge,   it   is   also   taken   as  
methodology.  It  has  given  a  tangible  method  and  system  to  what  would  otherwise  be  by  
chance  and  accident.  From  the  utilization  of  scientific  methods  and  techniques,  one  is  
able  to  very  possibly  explain  the  past  and  predict  what  the  future  holds.  
The   general   benefits   of   science   have   greatly   challenged   education   of   the  
Philippines.  While  the  country  might  have  been  a  beneficiary  of  the  methods  of  science  
even   before   the   program   of   formal   education,   it   was   during   the   American   period   that  
brought  about  a  most  significant  and  essential  change  in  the  nature  of  education.  There  
has  been  a  corresponding  increase  in  knowledge  and  understanding  of  natural  and  social  
phenomena  covered  by  all  the  disciplines  of  science  available  now.  It  is  this  education  
that  has  been  largely  credited  for  the  development  of  science  in  the  Philippines.  
 
Early  Efforts  to  Improve  Science  Education  
 
  As  early  as  the  decade  of  the  1950s,  scientists  were  concerned  with  the  state  of  
science  education  in  the  schools.  Leading  scientists  made  Philippine  authorities  aware  
that  the  teaching  of  science  from  grade  school  level  to  college  levels  in  both  public  and  
private   schools   was   very   inadequate.   The   inadequacies   and   weaknesses   of   science  
teaching   were   recognized   as   those   relating   to   undertrained   teachers,   the   inadequate  
science  curriculum  in  schools  and  colleges,  the  minimum  allotted  to  science,  the  lack  of  
books,   equipment   and   teaching   aids.   In   1957,   the   Philippine   government   made   the  
teaching   of   science   compulsory   in   all   elementary   and   secondary   schools.   A   National  
Committee   for   Science   Education   was   set   up   in   1958   to   formulate   objectives   for   the  
teaching  of  science  education  at  all  levels  and  to  recommend  steps  that  would  upgrade  
the  teaching  of  science.  The  committee  identified  the  areas  to  which  improvement  efforts  
were   needed   such   as   integration   of   science   with   classroom   instruction,   acquisition   of  
more   science   equipment   and   tools,   coordination   of   efforts   with   other   agencies,  
negotiations   for   a   science   institute   for   teachers,   national   science   talent   search   and  
fellowships,   higher   salaries   of   science   and   mathematics   teachers   and   promotion   of  
science  teachers  competence.  
 
The  BSCS  Adaptation  Project  
 
In1959,   biological   sciences   curriculum   study   (BSCS)   project   was   launched   by  
American  Institute  of  Biological  Science,  university  of  Colorado  in  order  to  improve  biology  
education  in  secondary  schools.  A  steering  committee  of  biological  scientists,  teachers  
and   educators   was   constituted.   The   project   was   financed   by   National   Science  
Foundation,  USA.  
The   BSCS   project   was   started   to   design   high   school   biology   course   with   the  
objectives   to:   provide   recent   and   latest   knowledge   in   biological   sciences;;   develop  
understanding   of   the   conceptual   structure   of   biological   sciences;;   develop   skills   and  
processes  of  biology  among  the  students;;  create  an  opportunity  to  use  inquiry  approach  
in  teaching  and  learning  of  biology;;  prepare  rich  supplementary  or  support  materials  to  
enrich  learning  experiences  in  biological  sciences  and  present  current  status  of  biological  
sciences  

59
 The  organization  of  the  BSCS  project  necessitated  because  of  the  inadequacies  
and  defects  felt  in  the  ongoing  or  conventional  biological  sciences  teaching.  Defects  were  
observed  in  conventional  biological  science  teaching  such  as  inclusion  of  dead  or  useless  
contents  in  syllabus,  little  practical  work,  no  correlation  of  biological  sciences  and  physical  
science,   lack   of   integrated   approach   and   no   proper   consideration   of   psychological  
aspects  of  teaching  learning.  
 
 
 
 
The  Science  Education  Project  
 
  These   were   the   total   efforts   of   SEP   TO   improve   science   education   in   the  
Philippines.   First,   the   dissemination   of   improved   curricula,   teaching   techniques   and  
approaches   in   science   and   mathematics   on   basic   levels   of   education   through   the  
introduction   of   new   curriculum   and   the   application   of   new   teaching   techniques   and  
approaches    by  the  returned  Master  of  Arts  in  Teaching    trainees  and  the  teachers  that  
they  teach.  On  the  other  hand,  these  institutions  disseminated  many  of  the  curriculum  
materials   by   the   UP   Science   Education   Center.   Second,   quality   science   and   math  
education   programs   in   the   recipient-­sponsor   institutions   through   new   and/or   improved  
course  offerings  and  a  generally  improved  teacher  education  program.  
 
Activity:    
  Answer  the  following  questions:  
1.   What   are   the   current   trends   in   Science   Education   in   the   Programme   for  
International  Student  Assessment  (PISA)  results?  
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2.   What  are  the  science-­related  issues  and  problems  in  the  Philippines?  

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________________________________  
3.   How  do  new  information  technologies  change  the  science  education  process?  

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60
  
PART  II  
SCIENCE  AND  TECHNOLOGY  AND  THE  HUMAN  CONDITION  
 
Introduction  
    Society  applauds  the  recent  advancements  of  scientific  technology  in  fields  
such  as  medicine,  energy,  and  communication.  While  humankind  profits  in  many  ways  
from   this   technology,   a   few   voices   are   heard   cautioning   society   to   consider   the  
implications  of  this  developments.  
    This  section  provides  students  deeper  appreciation  of  man’s  existence  and  
his  purpose  in  a  world  of  technology.  It  also  discusses  the  concept  of  a  good  life  and  
how  it  can  be  attained.  Moreover,  it  also  focuses  on  the  ethical  and  moral  dilemma  
brought  about  by  the  emergence  of  the  robotic  industry.  
 
Learning  Outcomes  
At  the  end  of  this  section,  the  students  are  expected  to:  
1.   Examine  the  human  condition  to  deeply  reflect  and  express  philosophical  
ramifications  that  are  meaningful  to  the  student  as  a  part  of  society.  
2.   Critique  human  flourishing  vis-­a  vis  the  progress  of  Science  and  Technology  
to  define  the  meaning  of  the  good  life.  
3.   Examine  shared  concerns  that  make  up  the  good  life  in  order  to  come  up  
with  innovative  and  creative  solutions  to  the  contemporary  issues  guided  by  
ethical  standards  
4.   Examine   human   rights   in   order   to   uphold   such   rights   in   technological  
dilemnas.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER  4  The  Human  Person  Flourishing  in  terms  of    
Science  and  Technology  
 
A.   Technology  as  a  Way  of  Revealing  
 
A  German  philosopher  Martin  Heidegger  wrote  an  essay  entitled  “The  Question  
Concerning   Technology”   which   addresses   modern   technology   and   its   essence   as   an  
instrumental   way   of   revealing   the   world.   He   goes   beyond   the   traditional   view   of  
technology  as  machines  and  technical  procedures.  Moreover,  he  tries  to  think  through  
the  essence  of  technology  as  a  way  in  which  humans  encounter  entities  such  as  nature,  
self,   and,   indeed,   everything.     That   is   to   say,   that   modern   technology   is   conceived   as  
means  to  achieve  ends.  As  instrumental,  the  essence  of  technology  concerns  causality.  
A  deeper  look  into  causality  reveals  that  the  end  is  the  beginning;;  a  cause  is  that  to  which  
something  is  indebted  and  the  purpose  for  which  an  instrument  is  designed  is  the  primary  
cause  of  its  coming  into  being.    
 
Heidegger’s   understanding   of   technology   was   based   on   its   essence.   First,   the  
essence  of  technology  is  not  something  we  make;;  it  is  a  mode  of  being,  or  of  revealing.  
This  means  that  technological  things  have  their  own  novel  kind  of  presence,  endurance,  
and   connections   among   parts   and   wholes.   They   have   their   own   way   of   presenting  
themselves   and   the   world   in   which   they   operate.   The   essence   of   technology   is,   for  
Heidegger,  not  the  best  or  most  characteristic  instance  of  technology,  nor  is  it  a  nebulous  
generality,  a  form  or  idea.  Rather,  to  consider  technology  essentially  is  to  see  it  as  an  
event   to   which   we   belong:   the   structuring,   ordering,   and   “requisitioning”   of   everything  
around  us,  and  of  ourselves.  The  second  point  is  that  technology  even  holds  sway  over  
beings  that  we  do  not  normally  think  of  as  technological,  such  as  gods  and  history.  Third,  
the  essence  of  technology  as  Heidegger  discusses  it  is  primarily  a  matter  of  modern  and  
industrial  technology.  He  is  less  concerned  with  the  ancient  and  old  tools  and  techniques  
that  antedate  modernity;;  the  essence  of  technology  is  revealed  in  factories  and  industrial  
processes,  not  in  hammers  and  plows.  And  fourth,  for  Heidegger,  technology  is  not  simply  
the   practical   application   of   natural   science.   Instead,   modern   natural   science   can  
understand   nature   in   the   characteristically   scientific   manner   only   because   nature   has  
already,  in  advance,  come  to  light  as  a  set  of  calculable,  orderable  forces  —  that  is  to  
say,  technologically.  
 
According  to  him  there  are  two  characteristics  of  modern  technology  as  a  revealing  
process.  First,  the  mode  of  revealing  of  modern  technology  is  a  challenging.  Things  are  
revealed  or  brought  forth  by  challenging  or  demanding  them.  It  is  putting  to  nature  the  
unreasonable  demand  that  it  supply  energy  that  can  be  extracted  and  stored.  The  mining  
technology   today   is   a   good   example   for   this   mode   of   revealing   things.   Tracks   of   land  
reveal  as  something  challenged  because  man  sees  them  as  objects  where  coal  and  ore  
can  be  demanded.  Man  sees  them  as  source  of  energy.  These  energies  can  be  stored  
so   that   man   can   summon   them   at   his   bidding.   Shortly,   nature   reveals   itself   in   modern  
technology  as  things  of  manipulation,  as  things  that  yield  energy  whenever  man  demands  
them  to  do  so.  “Challenging”  as  a  mode  of  revealing  nature  could  be  sharply  contrasted  
“Physis”  which  is  the  arising  of  something  from  itself,  a  bringing-­forth  or  poieses.  A  flower  

62
blossoming  or  fading  in  the  changes  of  the  season  is  an  example  of  this  form  of  revealing.  
The  revelation  has  its  own  autonomy  and,  at  best,  man  can  only  witness.  This  is  a  natural  
way  of  revealing.  
 
The  mode  of  revealing  in  modern  technology  brought  about  new  world  ordering.  
This  kind  of  ordering  is  best  described  as  “artificial”  in  contrast  to  “natural  ordering.  It  sees  
nature   as   an   object   of   manipulation   and   not   anymore   as   an   autonomous   reality  
demanding  respect  and  admiration.  The  network  of  things  is  now  reduced  into  the  network  
of  manipulation.  The  second  characteristic  of  modern  technology  as  a  revealing  process  
is   that   the   challenging   that   brings   forth   the   energy   of   nature   is   an   “expediting”.   In   the  
modern  use  of  word,  expediting  means  to  hasten  the  movement  of  something.  However,  
in  its  original  sense,  expediting  is  also  a  process  of  revealing  inasmuch  as  it  “unlocks”  
and  “exposes”  something.  But  what  is  exposed  is  still  directed  towards  something  else,  
i.e.  toward  the  maximum  yield  at  the  minimum  expense.  In  short,  things  that  are  revealed  
in  an  expedited  manner  are  brought  forth  as  resources  that  must  be  used  efficiently.  In  
mining  for  example,  man  digs  coal  not  simply  to  know  what  coals  are.  Yes,  man  “exposes”  
these  coals  but  not  simply  to  know  them.  They  uncover  them  because  he  wants  to  use  
them.   Coals   are   mined   from   track   loads   of   land   so   as   to   use   their   energy.   This   is   the  
characteristic   of   the   things   revealed   in   modern   technology.   They   are   there   “for”  
something.  
 
Heidegger  uses  a  technical  word  to  name  the  things  that  are  revealed  in  modern  
technology   as   “standing   in   reserve”.   Things   as   standing   in   reserve   are   not   “objects”.  
Objects  on  the  other  hand,  are  things  that  “stand  against  us”  as  things  with  autonomy.  
They   are   revealed   mainly   in   human   thinking   and   do   not   allow   further   manipulations.  
Things  as  standing  in  reserve,  on  the  other  hand,  are  called  to  come  forth  in  challenging  
and  expediting.  They  are  reduced  into  the  objectlessness  of  modern  technology.    Nothing  
anymore  “stands  against  us”  as  objects  of  autonomy  and  wonder.  Everything  is  regressed  
into  an  interlocking  of  things  that  yield  what  man  wants  whenever  he  demands  them  to  
do  so.  Even  nature  is  now  revealed  as  standing  in  reserve  and  not  anymore  objects  of  
autonomy.  
 
Unlike   the   modern   technologies,   the   old   technology   still   respects   nature   as   an  
object   of   autonomy.   The   modern   and   the   old   technologies   are   of   different   modes   of  
revealing,   the   former   artificial   and   the   latter   natural.   Take   for   example,   the   contrast  
between  how  the  modern  technology  of  the  hydropower  plant  and  the  old  technology  of  
a  wooden  bridge  reveal  the  presence  of  a  river.  However,  the  hydropower  plant  reveals  
the  river  that  supplies  it  energy  simply  as  another  thing  standing  in  reserve.  It  is  a  source  
of   energy   which   completes   the   interlocking   of   things   in   the   system   of   hydropower  
generation.  The  river  is  not  anymore  seen  as  an  object  with  autonomy  but  an  object  on  
call  to  be  used.  Conversely,  the  technology  of  building  a  wooden  bridge  reveals  the  river  
not   as   a   key   link   in   completing   the   bridge.it   rather   respects   it   as   a   part   of   nature,   a  
“landscape”  using  Heidegger’s  own  term,  that  is  somewhat  permanent  and  stand  against  
us  as  another  entity.  We  move  “around”  it  so  to  say  and  we  only  see  what  we  can  do  to  
overcome  its  dominating  presence,  in  other  words,  we  do  not  manipulate  it,  but  rather,  
we  act  according  to  its  rules.  

63
  
For  Heidegger  enframing  is  the  “essence”  of  modern  technology.  Enframing  simply  
means  putting  into  the  frame  of  modern  technology  everything  in  nature.  This  “frame”  of  
modern  technology  is  the  network  or  interlocking  things  standing  in  reserve.  It  is  the  world  
centered   on   man’s   caprices   and   demands.   It   is   a   world   of   manipulation   and  
demystification.  In  here  nothing  is  mysterious  anymore.  This  is  what  Heidegger  was  afraid  
of,  that  the  process  of  truth  will  revert  back  into  the  realm  of  erring.  It  must  be  remembered  
that  for  truth  to  be,  it  must  retain  its  sense  of  mystery.  Truth  is  for  the  most  part  untruth.  
To  disregard  this  essentially  limited  process  of  revelation  is  also  to  disregard  the  entirety  
of  its  essence.  We  cannot  have  absolute  knowledge  of  reality,  more  so,  we  cannot  have  
full  dominion  over  it.  As  they  say,  we  are  only  “guardians”  of  creation.  To  disregard  this  
nature  of  reality  is  also  putting  ourselves  into  the  brink  of  danger.    
 
Because  of  man’s  arrogance,  nature  is  in  the  verge  of  destruction.  He  thinks  he  
knows  how  nature  works  and  tends  to  hasten  or  “expedite”  its  processes.  He  demands  
too  much  from  it  and  in  turn  disrupts  its  natural  flow.  Nature  is  beyond  our  control.  Its  truth  
is   beyond   our   grips.   For   all   we   know,   it   is   the   one   that   controls   us.   If   we   ever   try   to  
dominate  it,  nature  will  surely  revolt  against  us  in  a  very  humbling  manner.  
 
Activity:  Question  for  Reflection  
Is  there  something  unusual  about  the  pace  and  nature  of  technological  change  today?  
Should  we  be  more  worried  about  the  world  we  are  creating?  
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B.   Human  Flourishing  
 
Human  flourishing  is  said  to  be  the  best  translation  for  the  Greek  word  Eudaimonia,  
which  for  both  Plato  and  Aristotle,  means  not  only  good  fortune  and  material  prosperity  
but  a  situation  achieved  through  virtue,  knowledge  and  excellence.  Learning  to  be  human  
is  central  to  Confucian  humanism  and  its  “creative  transformation”  of  the  self  through  an  
“ever-­expanding  network  of  relationships  encompassing  the  family,  community,  nation,  
world  and  beyond.  It  is  thus  inseparable  from  self-­awareness  and  self-­cultivation,  and  this  
“self”   far   from   being   an   isolated   individual,   is   experientially   and   practically   a   center   of  
relationships.  

64
  
The  affirmation  that  human  flourishing  implies  development  of  the  individual  in  his  
intellectual,  affective,  moral  and  spiritual  dimensions  obviously  needs  elaboration.  Plato  
in   the   Republic,   contends   that   the   soul,   or   mind,   has   three   motivating   parts:   rational,  
spirited   or   emotional   and   appetitive.   Each   of   these   have   their   own   desired   ends,   and    
Eudomenia   or   human   flourishing   requires   an   ordering   of   this   tripartite   structure   of   the  
soul:   the   rational   and   spirited   parts.   Virtue   ensues.   In   the   same   vein,   Aristotle,   in   the  
Nicomachean   Ethics,   states   that   Eudaimonia   is   constituted   not   by   honor,   or   wealth  
power,  but  by  rational  activity  in  accordance  with  excellence  in  the  virtues  of  character  
including   courage,   honesty,   pride,   friendliness   and   wittiness,   the   intellectual   virtues  
notably  rationality  and  judgment,  as  well  as  mutually  beneficial  friendships  and  scientific  
knowledge,  particularly  of  things  that  are  fundamental  and  unchanging.    
 
According  to  Aristotle,  all  humans  seek  to  flourish.  It’s  the  proper  and  desired  end  
of   all   of   our   actions.   Flourishing,   however,   is   a   functional   definition.   To   understand  
something’s  function,  you  have  to  understand  its  nature.  In  Aristotle’s  schema,  there  are  
four  aspects  of  human  nature:  physical,  emotional,  social  and  rational.  As  physical  beings,  
we  require  nourishment,  exercise,  rest  and  all  the  other  things  that  it  takes  to  keep  our  
bodies   functioning   properly.   As   emotional   beings,   we   have   wants,   desires,   urges   and  
reactions.  We  perceive  something  in  the  world  that  we  want  and  we  have  the  power  of  
volition   to   get   it;;   likewise,   we   have   the   power   to   avoid   the   things   we   don’t   want.   For  
humans,  these  wants  can  get  pretty  complex,  but  at  rock  bottom  we  all  have  emotional  
needs  and  wants  that  spring  from  rather  basic  sources.  As  social  beings,  we  must  live  
and   function   in   particular   societies.   Our   social   nature   stacks   on   top   of   our   emotional  
nature,  such  that  we  have  wants  and  needs  that  we  would  not  have  were  we  not  social  
creatures.  As  rational  beings,  we  are  creative,  expressive,  knowledge-­seeking  and  able  
to  obey  reason.  We  might  not  always  obey  reason  and  we  may  sometimes  not  want  to  
exercise  our  minds,  but  a  large  part  of  our  existence  relate  to  our  being  rational  animals.  
An   individual   cannot   truly   flourish   if   he   is   not   flourishing   in   one   of   the   four   aspects   of  
human  nature.  
 
Human  flourishing  also  known  as  personal  flourishing  involves  the  rational  use  of  
one’s  individual  potentialities,  including  talents,  abilities  and  virtues  in  the  pursuit  of  his  
freely  and  rationally  chosen  values  and  goals.  An  action  is  considered  to  be  proper  if  it  
leads  to  the  flourishing  of  the  person  performing  the  action.  Human  flourishing  is,  at  the  
same  time,  a  moral  accomplishment  and  a  fulfillment  of  human  capacities,  and  it  is  one  
through  being  the  other.  Self-­actualization  is  moral  growth  and  vice-­versa.  
 
Not   an   abstraction,   human   flourishing   is   real   and   highly   personal   by   nature,  
consists  in  the  fulfillment  of  both  a  man’s  human  nature  and  unique  potentialities,  and  is  
concerned   with   choices   and   actions   that   necessarily   deal   with   the   particular   and   the  
contingent.  One  man’s  self  –realization  is  not  the  same  as  another’s.  What  is  called  for  in  
terms  of  concrete  actions  such  as  choice  of  career,  education,  friends,  home  and  others,  
varies  from  person  to  person.  Human  flourishing  becomes  an  actuality  when  one  uses  
his  practical  reason  to  consider  his  unique  needs,  circumstances  and  capabilities,  and  so  
on,  to  determine  which  concrete  instantiations  of  human  values  and  virtues  will  comprise  

65
his   well-­being.   The   idea   of   human   flourishing   is   inclusive   and   can   encompass   a   wide  
variety   of   constitutive   ends   such   as   knowledge,   the   development   of   character   traits,  
productive   work,   religious   pursuits,   community   building,   love,   charitable   activities,  
allegiance   to   persons   and   causes,   self-­efficacy,   material   well-­being,   pleasurable  
sensations,  etc.  
 
To  flourish,  a  man  must  pursue  goals  that  are  both  rational  for  him  individually  and  
also  as  a  human  being.  Whereas  the  former  will  vary  depending  upon  one’s  particular  
circumstances,  the  latter  are  common  to  man’s  distinctive  nature  –  man  has  the  unique  
capacity  to  live  rationally.  The  use  of  reason  is  a  necessary,  but  not  a  sufficient,  condition  
for  human  flourishing.  Living  rationally  (  i.e.,  consciously  )  means  dealing  with  the  world  
conceptually.  Living  consciously  implies  respect  for  the  facts  of  reality.  The  principle  of  
living  consciously  is  not  affected  by  the  degree  of  one’s  intelligence  not  the  extent  of  one’s  
knowledge;;   rather,   it   is   the   acceptance   of   use   of   one’s   reason   in   the   recognition   and  
perception   of   reality   and   in   his   choice   of   values   and   actions   to   the   best   of   his   ability,  
whatever  that  ability  may  be.  To  pursue  rational  goals  through  rational  means  is  the  only  
way  to  cope  successfully  with  reality  and  achieve  one’s  goals.  Although  rationality  is  not  
always  rewarded,  the  fact  remains  that  it  is  through  the  use  of  one’s  mind  that  a  man  not  
only  discovers  the  values  required  for  personal  flourishing,  he  attains  them.  Values  can  
be  achieved  in  reality  if  a  man  recognizes  and  adheres  to  the  reality  of  his  unique  personal  
endowments  and  contingent  circumstances.  Human  flourishing  is  positively  related  to  a  
rational  man’s  attempts  to  externalize  his  values  and  actualize  his  internal  views  of  how  
things  ought  to  be  in  the  outside  world.  Practical  reason  can  be  used  to  choose,  create,  
and  integrate  all  the  values  and  virtues  that  comprise  personal  flourishing.    
 
 
Activity:  Film  Viewing  
Watch  the  movie  clip  (You  tube)  The  Magician’s  Twin:  CS  Lewis  and  the  Case  
against  Scientism.  Answer  the  following  questions:  
 
1.   What  is  scientism  according  to  the  magician’s  twin?  
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2.   Why   did   CS   Lewis   think   that   modern   science   is   far   more   dangerous   than  
magic?  
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 3.   How   can   you   prevent   good   from   being   twisted   into   evil   ends?   How   can   you  
prevent  science  from  becoming  scientism?  Share  and  explain  your  answer.  
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4.   Do  you  agree  or  disagree  with  the  different  quotes  cited  in  the  movie?  Explain  
your  answer.  
 
•   Only  science  can  save  us  from  natural  catastrophe  –  John  Gray  
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•   Forget  faith,  only  science  can  save  us  –  Melanie  Gosling  
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Activity:  Questions  for  Reflection  
 
1.   Does  the  idea  of  human  flourishing  reflect  in  progress  and    
development?    
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 2.   As  you  look  at  your  daily  life  and  in  the  past  years,  what  are  the      
aspects  of  your    life  that  have  been  the  most  rewarding  and  enriching?  When  
was  the  happiest?  
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 CHAPTER  5      
The  Good  Life  
 
 
A.   What  is  a  Good  Life?  
 
    This   is   one   of   the   oldest   philosophical   questions.   It   has   been   posed   in   different  
ways—How  should  one  live?  What  does  it  mean  to  “live  well”?—but  these  are  really  just  
the  same  question.  After  all,  everyone  wants  to  live  well,  and  no  one  wants  “the  bad  life.”  
But  the  question  isn’t  as  simple  as  it  sounds.  Philosophers  specialize  in  unpacking  hidden  
complexities,  and  the  concept  of  the  good  life  is  one  of  those  that  needs  quite  a  bit  of  
unpacking.  
 
One  basic  way  we  use  the  word  “good”  is  to  express  moral  approval.  So  when  we  
say  someone  is  living  well  or  that  they  have  lived  a  good  life,  we  may  simply  mean  that  
they  are  a  good  person,  someone  who  is  courageous,  honest,  trustworthy,  kind,  selfless,  
generous,  helpful,  loyal,  principled,  and  so  on.  They  possess  and  practice  many  of  the  
most   important   virtues.   And   they   don’t   spend   all   their   time   merely   pursuing   their   own  
pleasure;;  they  devote  a  certain  amount  of  time  to  activities  that  benefit  others,  perhaps  
through   their   engagement   with   family   and   friends,   or   through   their   work,   or   through  
various   voluntary   activities.   This   moral   conception   of   the   good   life   has   had   plenty   of  
champions.   Socrates   and   Plato   both   gave   absolute   priority   to   being   a   virtuous   person  
over  all  other  supposedly  good  things  such  as  pleasure,  wealth,  or  power.  
 
In  Plato’s  dialogue  Gorgias,  Socrates  takes  this  position  to  an  extreme.  He  argues  
that  it  is  much  better  to  suffer  wrong  than  to  do  it;;  that  a  good  man  who  has  his  eyes  
gouged  out  and  is  tortured  to  death  is  more  fortunate  than  a  corrupt  person  who  has  used  
wealth   and   power   dishonorably.   In   his   masterpiece,   the   Republic,   Plato   develops   this  
argument  in  greater  detail.  The  morally  good  person,  he  claims,  enjoys  a  sort  of  inner  
harmony,  whereas  the  wicked  person,  no  matter  how  rich  and  powerful  he  may  be  or  how  
many  pleasure  he  enjoys,  is  disharmonious,  fundamentally  at  odds  with  himself  and  the  
world.  
 
It  is  worth  noting,  though,  that  in  both  the  Gorgias  and  the  Republic,  Plato  bolsters  
his   argument   with   a   speculative   account   of   an   afterlife   in   which   virtuous   people   are  
rewarded  and  wicked  people  are  punished.  Many  religions  also  conceive  of  the  good  life  
in   moral   terms   as   a   life   lived   according   to   God’s   laws.   A   person   who   lives   this   way—
obeying   the   commandments   and   performing   the   proper   rituals—is   pious.   And   in   most  
religions,  such  piety  will  be  rewarded.  Obviously,  many  people  do  not  receive  their  reward  
in  this  life.  But  devout  believers  are  confident  that  their  piety  will  not  be  in  vain.  Christian  
martyrs  went  singing  to  their  deaths  confident  that  they  would  soon  be  in  heaven.  Hindus  
expect   that   the   law   of   karma   will   ensure   that   their   good   deeds   and   intentions   will   be  
rewarded,  while  evil  actions  and  desires  will  be  punished,  either  in  this  life  or  in  future  
lives.  
 

69
 The  ancient  Greek  philosopher  Epicurus  was  one  of  the  first  to  declare,  bluntly,  
that   what   makes   life   worth   living   is   that   we   can   experience   pleasure.   Pleasure   is  
enjoyable,   it’s   fun,   it’s...well...pleasant!   The   view   that   pleasure   is   the   good,   or,   to   put   I  
another  way,  that  pleasure  is  what  makes  life  worth  living,  is  known  as  hedonism.  The  
word  “hedonist,”  when  applied  to  a  person,  has  slightly  negative  connotations.  It  suggests  
that  they  are  devoted  to  what  some  have  called  the  “lower”  pleasures  such  as  sex,  food,  
drink,  and  sensual  indulgence  in  general.  
 
Epicurus   was   thought   by   some   of   his   contemporaries   to   be   advocating   and  
practicing  this  sort  of  lifestyle,  and  even  today  an  “epicure”  is  someone  who  is  especially  
appreciative  of  food  and  drink.  But  this  is  a  misrepresentation  of  Epicureanism.  Epicurus  
certainly   praised   all   kinds   of   pleasures.     The   good   life   has   to   be   virtuous.   Although  
Epicurus  disagreed  with  Plato  about  the  value  of  pleasure,  he  fully  agreed  with  him  on  
this  point.  
 
Today,  this  hedonistic  conception  of  the  good  life  is  arguably  dominant  in  Western  
culture.  Even  in  everyday  speech,  if  we  say  someone  is  “living  the  good  life,”  we  probably  
mean   that   they   enjoying   lots   of   recreational   pleasures:   good   food,   good   wine,   skiing,  
scuba  diving,  lounging  by  the  pool  in  the  sun  with  a  cocktail  and  a  beautiful  partner.  
 
What   is   key   to   this   hedonistic   conception   of   the   good   life   is   that   it   emphasizes  
subjective  experiences.  On  this  view,  to  describe  a  person  as  “happy”  means  that  they  
“feel  good,”  and  a  happy  life  is  one  that  contains  many  “feel  good”  experiences.  
 
If  Socrates  emphasizes  virtue  and  Epicurus  emphasizes  pleasure,  another  great  
Greek  thinker,  Aristotle,  views  the  good  life  in  a  more  comprehensive  way.  According  to  
Aristotle,  we  all  want  to  be  happy.  We  value  many  things  because  they  are  a  means  to  
other  things.  For  instance,  we  value  money  because  it  enables  us  to  buy  things  we  want;;  
we   value   leisure   because   it   gives   us   time   to   pursue   our   interests.   But   happiness   is  
something  we  value  not  as  a  means  to  some  other  end  but  for  its  own  sake.  It  has  intrinsic  
value  rather  than  instrumental  value.  
 
So   for   Aristotle,   the   good   life   is   a   happy   life.   But   what   does   that   mean?   Today,  
many  people  automatically  think  of  happiness  in  subjectivist  terms:  To  them,  a  person  is  
happy  if  they  are  enjoying  a  positive  state  of  mind,  and  their  life  is  happy  if  this  is  true  for  
them  most  of  the  time.  
Aristotle  agrees  with  Socrates  that  to  live  the  good  life  one  must  be  a  morally  good  
person.   He   also   agrees   with   Epicurus   that   a   happy   life   will   involve   many   and   varied  
pleasurable  experiences.  We  can’t  really  say  someone  is  living  the  good  life  if  they  are  
often  miserable  or  constantly  suffering.  
 
Michael  Soupios  and  Panos  Mourdoukoutas  wrote  a  book  entitled  The  Ten  Golden  
Rules   on   Living   a   Good   Life   where   they   extracted   “ancient   wisdom   from   the   Greek  
philosophers  on  living  the  good  life”  and  mapped  it  into  modern  times.  Here  is  a  summary  
of  what  they  wrote,  extracted  from  a  Forbes  article  written  by  Dr.  Mourdoukoutas:  
 

70
 1.  Examine  life,  engage  life  with  a  vengeance;;  always  search  for  new  pleasures  
and  new  destinies  to  reach  with  your  mind.  
2.   Worry   only   about   the   things   that   are   in   your   control,   the   things   that   can   be  
influenced   and   changed   by   your   actions,   not   about   the   things   that   are   beyond   your  
capacity  to  direct  or  alter.    
 
3.  Treasure  Friendship,  the  reciprocal  attachment  that  fills  the  need  for  affiliation.  
Friendship  cannot  be  acquired  in  the  market  place,  but  must  be  nurtured  and  treasured  
in  relations  imbued  with  trust  and  amity.  
 
4.  Experience  True  Pleasure.  Avoid  shallow  and  transient  pleasures.  Keep  your  
life   simple.   Seek   calming   pleasures   that   contribute   to   peace   of   mind.   True   pleasure   is  
disciplined  and  restrained.    
 
5.  Master  Yourself.  Resist  any  external  force  that  might  delimit  thought  and  action;;  
stop  deceiving  yourself,  believing  only  what  is  personally  useful  and  convenient;;  complete  
liberty   necessitates   a   struggle   within,   a   battle   to   subdue   negative   psychological   and  
spiritual  forces  that  preclude  a  healthy  existence;;  self-­mastery  requires  ruthless  candor.    
 
6.  Avoid  Excess.  Live  life  in  harmony  and  balance.  Avoid  excesses.  Even  good  
things,   pursued   or   attained   without   moderation,   can   become   a   source   of   misery   and  
suffering.    
 
7.   Be   a   Responsible   Human   Being.   Approach   yourself   with   honesty   and  
thoroughness;;  maintain  a  kind  of  spiritual  hygiene;;  stop  the  blame-­shifting  for  your  errors  
and  shortcomings.    
 
8.  Don’t  Be  a  Prosperous  Fool.  Prosperity  by  itself  is  not  a  cure-­all  against  an  ill-­
led  life  and  may  be  a  source  of  dangerous  foolishness.  Money  is  a  necessary  but  not  a  
sufficient  condition  for  the  good  life,  for  happiness  and  wisdom.    
 
9.   Don’t   Do   Evil   to   Others.   Evildoing   is   a   dangerous   habit,   a   kind   of   reflex   too  
quickly  resorted  to  and  too  easily  justified  that  has  a  lasting  and  damaging  effect  upon  the  
quest  for  the  good  life.  Harming  others  claims  two  victims—the  receiver  of  the  harm,  and  
the  victimizer,  the  one  who  does  harm.  
 
10.  Kindness  towards  others  tends  to  be  rewarded.  Kindness  to  others  is  a  good  
habit  that  supports  and  reinforces  the  quest  for  the  good  life.  Helping  others  bestows  a  
sense  of  satisfaction  that  has  two  beneficiaries—the  beneficiary,  the  receiver  of  the  help,  
and  the  benefactor,  the  one  who  provides  the  help.  
 
 
 
 
 
 

71
Activity:  Questions  for  Reflection  
1.   In  your  opinion,  what  constitutes  a  good  life?  

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2.   What  does  Aristotle  say  about  the  good  life?  Does  it  still  stand  in  the  contemporary  
world?  
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3.   How  is  the  process  in  science  and  technology  a  movement  towards  the  good  life?  
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A.   What  is  Human  Existence?  

The   meaning   of   existence   is   derived   from   philosophical   and   religious  

contemplation  and  scientific  inquiries  about,  social  ties,  consciousness  and  happiness.  
Many   other   issues   are   also   involved,   such   as   symbolic   meaning,   ontology,   value,  
purpose,   ethics,   good   and   evil,   free   will,   the   existence   of   one   and   multiple   Gods,  
conceptions  of  God,  the  soul  and  the  afterlife.  
 
Philosophers   have   tried   to   find   the   secret   of   existence,   the   meaning   of   it   all.  
Aristotle  teaches  that  each  man's  life  has  a  purpose  and  that  the  function  of  one's  life  is  
to   attain   that   purpose.   He   explains   that   the   purpose   of   life   is   earthly   happiness   or  
flourishing  that  can  be  achieved  via  reason  and  the  acquisition  of  virtue.  Articulating  an  
explicit  and  clear  understanding  of  the  end  toward  which  a  person's  life  aims,    Aristotle  
states  that  each  human  being  should  use  his  abilities  to  their  fullest  potential  and  should  
obtain   happiness   and   enjoyment   through   the   exercise   of   their   realized   capacities.   He  
contends   that   human   achievements   are   animated   by   purpose   and   autonomy   and   that  
people  should  take  pride  in  being  excellent  at  what  they  do.  According  to  Aristotle,  human  
beings  have  a  natural  desire  and  capacity  to  know  and  understand  the  truth,  to  pursue  
moral  excellence,  and  to  instantiate  their  ideals  in  the  world  through  action.  

72
  
Plato’s   reputation   comes   from   his   idealism   of   believing   in   the   existence   of  
universalis.   His   Theory   of   Forms   proposes   that   universals   do   not   physically   exist,   like  
objects,   but   as   heavenly   forms.   In   the   dialogue   of   Republic,   the   character   of   Socrates  
describes  the  Form  of  the  Good.  His  theory  on  justice  in  the  soul  relates  to  the  idea  of  
happiness  relevant  to  the  question  of  the  meaning  of  life.  In  Platonism,  the  meaning  of  
life  is  in  attaining  the  highest  form  of  knowledge,  which  is  the  Idea  of  the  Good,  from  which  
all  good  and  just  things  derive  utility  and  value.  
 
B.   What  is  a  Public  Good?  

Rolando   Gripaldo,   a   Filipino   philosopher,   argues   that   the   concept   of   the  

public  good  carries  largely  the  politico-­ethical  sense,  which  subsumes  the  politico-­
ethical  senses.  The  public  good  is  public  in  the  sense  that  the  beneficiaries  are  the  
general  public.  The  government  or  state  pursues  it  with  a  service  orientation  while  
private  corporations  pursue  it  with  a  profit  orientation.  He  also  cites  mixed  public  
goods   which   are   pursued   by   private   organizations   with   a   service   motivation.  
Government  corporations  are  basically  motivated  by  service  through  having  profit  
is  not  precluded.  He  also  talks  about  public  bads,  such  as  corruption,  pollution  and  
crimes.  
 
A  public  good  is  that  which  benefits  by  its  use,  the  communal  or  national  
public.  This  can  be  perceived  in  two  levels.  The  first  level  comes  from  the  people  
themselves.  They  perceive  the  public  good  to  be  beneficial  to  most  if  not  to  all  of  
them.  This  utilitarian  consideration  is  important  in  that,  on  the  other  hand,  it  serves  
as  the  ethical  standard  by  which  the  public-­through  a  civil  society-­unify  themselves  
in  consideration  of  their  individual  and  social  benefits.  As  individuals,  they  may  of  
course  think  in  terms  of  their  own  selfish  benefits  from  a  public  good,  but  there  is  
also   a   recognition   that   unless   they   work   together   for   their   common   welfare,   the  
public  good  aspired  for  may  not  materialistic.  They  as  individuals  may  suffer  as  
beneficiaries  from  its  nonrealization.  In  this  regard,  then  elements  of  unity  (bonding  
together    for  individual  interests)  and  subsidiarity  (working  together  for  the  common  
good)   are   significant   aspects   of   a   national   public   good   from   the   communal   or  
national  people’s  point  of  view.  The  second  level  comes  from  the  local  or  national  
government,   which   believes   or   assumes   with   the   utilitarian   perspective   that   a  
particular   project   or   service   is   desired   by   the   populace   as   necessary   for   their  
common  welfare.  As  such,  the  local  or  national  government  views  it  as  a  public  
good.  Examples  of  these  assumed  necessary  public  services  or  public  goods  are  
national   defense,   education,   public   health,   public   ports/airports   and   highways,  
social  services,  postal  services,  and  the  like.  
 
 
 
 
 
 

73
 Activity:  Film  Viewing  
 
    Watch  the  documentary  “That  Sugar  Film”  directed  by  Damon  Gameau  (  
http://thatsugarfilm.com/  ).  Do  the  following  tasks:  
1.   Discuss  your  initial  reaction  to  the  film.  
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________    
 
 
 
 
 
2.   Did  you  find  the  information  offered  up  in  the  film  to  be  shocking,  or  
were  you  aware  of  the  role  sugar  plays  in  contemporary  life?    
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________  
 
 
 
3.   What  is  your  relationship  to  sugar?  Do  you  know  how  much  sugar  
do  you  consume  on  a  daily  basis?  Do  you  consider  yourself  to  be  a  
healthy  eater?  
________________________________________________________  
________________________________________________________  
________________________________________________________  
________________________________________________________  
________________________________________________________  
 
4.   Why  do  you  believe  Americans  have  such  a  disproportionately  
                               unbalanced  relationship  to  sugar,  as  compared  to  the  rest  of  
                               the  world?  What  is  it  about  American  culture/life  that  feeds  the  
                               unhealthy  overconsumption  of  the  sweet  stuff?  
           ________________________________________________________  
         ________________________________________________________  
         ________________________________________________________  
         ________________________________________________________  
                               ________________________________________________________  
 
 
 

74
 5.   Discuss  the  notion  that  “sugar  is  the  new  tobacco.”  Do  you  believe  
sugar  should  be  taxed,  as  cigarettes  and  other  nicotine  products  are  
today?    
         ________________________________________________________  
         ________________________________________________________  
         ________________________________________________________  
                               ________________________________________________________  
           ________________________________________________________  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

75
 CHAPTER  6    
When  Technology  and  Humanity  Cross  
 
A.  The  Ethical  Dilemmas  of  Robotics  
 
 The  rapid  advancements  in  technology  that  the  world  has  witnessed  over  the  past  
century  have  made  a  reality  of  many  of  mankind’s  wildest  dreams.  From  being  able  to  
cross   the   earth,   air,   and   sea   at   extreme   speeds   to   being   able   to   send   and   receive  
information   instantly   via   the   Internet,   the   technological   advancements   in   recent   years  
have  become  cornerstones  of  modern  society.  One  dream  that  is  still  yet  to  be  perfectly  
fulfilled  by  advancements  in  technology  is  the  development  of  human-­like  and  self-­aware  
robots,  often  referred  to  as  androids.  While  robotic  technology  has  come  a  long  way  since  
its  initial  attempts,  the  robot  which  is  largely  indistinguishable  from  a  human  is  still  far  from  
a  reality.  However,  as  technology  continues  to  develop  and  evolve  exponentially,  many  
people  believe  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time.  If  and  when  truly  "living"  robots  were  to  come  
about,  one  can  foresee  a  slew  of  ethical  dilemmas  developing.    
 
A  complete  consensus  on  the  definition  of  the  word  “robot”  has  yet  to  be  reached.  
However,  it  is  commonly  accepted  that  robots  contain  some  combination  of  the  following  
attributes  such  as  mobility,  intelligent  behavior,  sense  and  manipulation  of  environment.  
The  term  “robot”  truly  extends  to  more  than  just  androids.  The  commonly  accepted  first  
use  of  the  word  was  in  1920  in  the  form  of  a  play  written  by  Karel  Capek.  The  play  was  
entitled   R.U.R.   (Rossum's   Universal   Robots)   and   involves   the   development   of   artificial  
people.   These   people   are   referred   to   as   robots   and   while   they   are   given   the   ability   to  
think,  they  are  designed  to  be  happy  as  servants.  The  use  of  the  word  “robot”  in  Capek's  
play  comes  from  the  Slavic  languages‟  word  for  “work,”  which  is  robota.  
 While  the  word  “robot”  was  not  used  until  1920,  the  idea  of  mechanical  humans  
has  been  around  as  far  back  as  Greek  mythology.  One  example  that  closely  relates  to  
the  servant  robots  seen  in  Capek's  play  is  the  servants  of  the  Greek  god  Hephaestus,  the  
god  of  fire  and  the  forge.  It  is  recorded  that  Hephaestus  had  built  robots  out  of  gold  which  
were  “his  helpers,  including  a  complete  set  of  life-­size  golden  handmaidens  who  helped  
around  the  house”.  Another  example  of  robots  in  Greek  mythology  comes  from  the  stories  
of  Pygmalion,  who  is  said  to  have  crafted  a  statue  of  Galatea  that  would  come  to  life.  
   
Beyond  the  ancient  myths  which  speak  of  humanoid  robots,  one  of  the  milestones  
in  the  design  and  development  of  such  robots  came  with  the  discovery  of  Leonardo  Da  
Vinci's  journals  which  contained  detailed  plans  for  the  construction  of  a  humanoid  robot.  
Inspired  by  the  ancient  myths,  the  robot  was  designed  in  the  form  of  an  armored  knight  
and  was  to  possess  the  ability  to  sit  up,  wave  its  arms,  move  its  head,  and  open  its  mouth.  
The  journals  in  which  the  plans  were  found  date  back  to  1495.  It  is  unknown  if  this  robot  
was  ever  built  by  Da  Vinci,  but  merely  conceiving  it  was  a  milestone  in  the  timeline  of  
robotic   history.   The   Modern   State   of   Robots   From   Da   Vinci   to   the   current   day   the  
development  of  humanoid  robots  has  continued  to  approach  the  goal  of  a  robot  that  is  
indistinguishable  from  a  human.  However,  despite  the  massive  recent  advancements  in  
technology  and  even  the  exponential  growth  of  computing  power  of  the  past  decades,  
this  dream  is  still  far  from  a  reality.    

76
 In  a  comprehensive  article  in  the  New  York  Times,  Robin  Marantz  Henig  discusses  
her  experiences  with  what  are  often  labeled  “social  robots.”  These  robots  are  by  no  means  
what  the  servant  robots  of  Greek  mythology  have  led  many  people  to  hope  for;;  rather  
they   are   infant   versions,   at   best,   of   the   long-­hoped-­for   androids.   Henig   said   these  
machines  are  not  the  docile  companions  of    the  collective  dreams,  robots  designed  to  
flawlessly  serve  dinners,  fold  clothes  and  do  the  dull  or  dangerous  jobs  that  human  do  
not  want  to  do.  Nor  are  they  the  villains  of  the  collective  nightmares,  poised  for  robotic  
rebellion   against   humans   whose   machine   creations   have   become   smarter   than   the  
humans   themselves.   They   are,   instead,   hunks   of   metal   tethered   to   computers,   which  
need  their  human  designers  to  get  them  going  and  to  smooth  the  hiccups  along  the  way.    
 
Despite  the  disappointment  that  many  people  feel  when  they  are  given  the  chance  
to   interact   with   the   latest   robots,   some   major   players   in   the   robotic   industry   are   quite  
optimistic.  Rodney  Brooks  is  an  expert  in  robotics  and  artificial  intelligence.  In  an  article  
written  in  2008,  Brooks  explains  that  it  is  no  longer  a  question  of  whether  human-­level  
artificial   intelligence   will   be   developed,   but   rather   how   and   when.   While   it   is   true   that  
androids   are   not   the   only   robots   which   have   a   great   impact   on   man’s   lives,   their  
development   introduces   a   set   of   unique   ethical   issues   which   industrial   robots   do   not  
evoke.  Working  under  the  assumption  that  it  is  only  a  matter  of  time  until  androids  are  an  
everyday  reality,  it  is  proper  to  begin  thinking  about  what  these  ethical  issues  are  and  
how  they  may  be  dealt  with  in  the  coming  years.  The  overarching  question  that  results  is  
what   exactly   these   robots   are.   Are   they   simply   piles   of   electronics   running   advanced  
algorithms,  or  are  they  a  new  form  of  life?  What  Is  Life?  The  question  of  what  constitutes  
life  is  one  on  which  the  world  may  never  come  to  a  consensus.    
 
From   the   ancient   philosophers   to   the   common   man   on   the   street,   it   seems   that  
everyone  has  an  opinion  on  what  a  living  organism  consists  of.  One  of  the  more  prevailing  
views  throughout  history  has  been  that  of  Aristotle.  The  basic  tenets  of  Aristotle’s  view  
are   that   an   organism   has   both   “matter”   and   “form.”   This   differs   from   the   philosophical  
position  known  as  materialism,  which  has  become  popular  in  modern  times  and  finds  its  
roots  among  the  ancient  Indians.  Materialism  does  not  entertain  any  notion  of  organisms  
having  a  “form”  or  “soul”;;  rather,  organisms  are  made  simply  of  various  types  of  “matter.”  
These   two   views   are   at   odds   with   one   another   and   the   philosophical   position   society  
adopts  will  inevitably  have  a  huge  impact  on  how  humans  interact  with  robots.  Aristotle  
The  view  articulated  by  Aristotle  and  his  modern-­day  followers  describes  life  in  terms  of  
unity,  a  composite  of  both  “matter”  and  “form.”  One  type  of  “matter”  which  Aristotle  speaks  
of   could   be   biological   material   such   as   what   plants,   animals,   and   humans   consist   of.  
Another  type  of  “matter”  could  also  be  the  mechanical  and  electronic  components  which  
make   up   modern-­day   robots.   Clearly   it   is   not   the   “matter”   alone   which   distinguishes  
whether  an  object  is  a  living  organism,  for  if  it  were,  Aristotle‟s  view  would  differ  little  from  
materialism.  The  distinguishing  characteristic  of  Aristotle  is  his  inclusion  of  “form.”  The  
term  simply  means  whatever  it  is  that  makes  a  human  a  human,  a  plant  a  plant,  and  an  
animal   an   animal.   Each   of   these   have   a   specific   “form”   which   is   not   the   same   as   its  
“matter,”  but  is  a  functioning  unity  which  is  essential  to  each    living  organism  in  order  for  
it   to   be   just   that,   living.   The   word   used   to   describe   the   “form”   of   a   living   organism   is  
“psyche”  or  “soul.”    

77
 Unlike   Aristotle's   philosophical   view,   which   was   embraced   by   various   religions,  
perhaps  most  notably  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  more  specifically  by  St.  Thomas  
Aquinas,   materialism   often   finds   itself   at   odds   with   most   religious   views   in   the   world.  
Catholicism   being   a   prime   example   of   this,   one   will   not   find   a   favorable   description   of  
materialism   when   looking   at   the   opening   lines   of   its   definition   in   the   Catholic  
Encyclopedia.   The   encyclopedia's   entry   begins   by   defining   materialism   as   “a  
philosophical   system   which   regards   matter   as   the   only   reality   in   the   world,   which  
undertakes  to  explain  every  event  in  the  universe  as  resulting  from  the  conditions  and  
activity  of  matter,  and  which  thus  denies  the  existence  of  God  and  the  soul.”  Why  does  it  
matter   that   materialism   is   at   odds   with   Catholicism   and   most   other   religions?   More  
specifically,  what  does  this  have  to  do  with  robots  and  androids?  It  is  relevant  because  if  
materialism  is  correct,  then  humans  should  have  the  power  to  develop  new  forms  of  life.  
If   it   is   true   that   everything   in   the   universe   is   simply   material   and   the   result   of   material  
interactions,  then  nothing  should  be  stopping  us  from  creating  androids  and  recognizing  
them  as  just  as  valid  a  life  form  as  humans.  
 
The  decision  of  what  level  of  life  robots  are  to  be  considered  is  an  essential  one.  
In  1942  Isaac  7  Asimov  introduced  to  the  world  of  science  fiction  what  are  known  as  the  
Three  Laws  of  Robotics,  which  were  published  in  his  short  story  “Runaround.”  The  laws  
Asimov  formulated  are:  First,  a  robot  may  not  injure  a  human  being  or,  through  inaction,  
allow  a  human  being  to  come  to  harm.  Second,  a  robot  must  obey  any  orders  given  to  it  
by  human  beings,  except  where  such  orders  would  conflict  with  the  First  Law.  Third,  a    
robot  must  protect  its  own  existence  as  long  as  such  protection  does  not  conflict  with  the  
First  or  Second  Law.  While  these  laws  are  part  of  science  fiction  history,  the  current  state  
of  robotic  technology  demands  that  they  be  considered  in  a  new  light.  As  with  many  ideas  
once  confined  to  the  world  of  science  fiction,  Asimov‟s  laws  are  now  able  to  make  the  
transition   into   reality.   At   first   glance   these   three   laws   seem   to   be   an   excellent   way   to  
ensure  the  safe  development  of  this  supposed  new  life  form.  However,  Asimov‟s  laws  
presuppose  that  human  life  is  of  greater  value  than  that  of  the  androids  being  developed.  
If  we  work  under  the  assumption  that  androids  should  be  considered  just  below  humans,  
Asimov‟s  laws  may  hold  true.  But  what  if  we  hold  to  the  conclusion  materialism  reaches,  
that   androids   should   be   placed   at   or   above   the   level   of   humans?   If   this   is   the   case,  
Asimov‟s  laws  will  not  be  able  to  be  applied.  The  main  reason  is  that  we  could  not  see  
androids  as  equal  forms  of  life  and  implement  Asimov‟s  laws,  which  place  androids  in  
direct  submission  to  humans.  How  can  it  be  that  an  android  should  give  its  life  for  a  human  
if  an  android  has  a  right  to  life  equal  to  that  of  a  human?  Imagine  an  army  made  up  of  
both  androids  and  humans.  Should  the  android  always  give  its  life  to  save  a  human‟s  life?  
Would  human  soldiers  be  willing  to  die  for  an  android?  As  much  as  people  may  believe  
in  materialism  and  come  to  conclusions  that  robots  will  one  day  be  a  life  form  equal  to  
humans,  I  find  it  hard  to  believe  that  many  people  would  actually  die  for  a  robot.  Robot  
Code   of   Ethics   While   it   remains   true   that   robotics   technology   is   not   at   a   place   where  
ethical   codes   for   robots   are   necessary,   it   is   not   stopping   some   countries   from   being  
proactive  and  taking  the  beginning  steps  in  the  development  of  a  robot  code  of  ethics.    
 
South  Korea  is  considered  one  of  the  most  high-­tech  countries  in  the  world  and  
they  are  leading  the  way  in  the  development  of  such  a  code.  Known  officially  as  the  Robot  

78
Ethics  Charter,  it  is  being  drawn  up  “to  prevent  human  abuse  of  robots—and  vice  versa”.  
The  main  focus  of  the  charter  is  said  to  be  on  the  social  problems  the  mass  integration  of  
robots  into  society  is  bound  to  create.  In  particular  it  aims  to  define  how  people  are  to  
properly  interact  with  robots,  in  Stefan  Lovgren‟s  words,  “human  control  over  robots  and  
humans  becoming  addicted  to  robot  interaction”.  Beyond  the  social  problems  robots  may  
bring  with  them,  there  also  is  an  array  of  legal  issues,  the  primary  one  in  the  charter  being  
what  and  how  information  is  collected  and  distributed  by  robots.  To  many  it  seems  as  
though   South   Korea‟s   Robot   Ethics   Charter   is   the   beginning   of   a   modern-­day  
implementation   of   Asimov‟s   Three   Laws   of   Robotics.   However,   many   robot   designers  
such  as  Mark  Tilden  think  this  is  all  a  bit  premature.  Tilden  claims  that  we  are  simply  not  
at  a  point  where  robots  can  be  given  morals  and  compares  it  to  “teaching  an  ant  to  yodel”.  
Tilden  goes  on  to  claim  that  when  we  do  reach  that  point,  the  interactions  will  be  less  than  
pleasant,   stating   that   “as   many   of   Asimov's   stories   show,   the   conundrums   robots   and  
humans  would  face  would  result  in  more  tragedy  than  utility”.  Despite  Tilden‟s  and  others‟  
pessimistic  view  of  what  the  future  holds  for  the  human-­robot  relationship,  technology  will  
slow  down  for  no  one.  It  is  only  a  matter  of  time  before  other  countries  will  follow  in  South  
Korea’s  footsteps  and  create  their  own  code  of  ethics  for  robots  and  their  interactions  with  
humans.    
 
B.  Human,  Morals  and  Machines  
 
  Technology   has   begun   to   change   our   species’long-­standing   experiences   with  
nature.  Now,we  have  technological  nature—technologies  that  in  various  ways  mediate,  
augment,  or  simulate  the  natural  world.  Entire  television  networks,  such  as  the  Discovery  
Channel  and  Animal  Planet,  provide  us  with  mediated  digital  experiences  of  nature:  the  
lion’s   hunt,   the   Monarch’s   migration,   or   a   climb   high   into   the   Himalayan   peaks.   Video  
games,  like  Zoo  Tycoon,  engage  children  with  animal  life.  Zoos  themselves  are  bringing  
technologies,   such   as   webcams   into   their   exhibits   so   that   we   can,   for   example,   watch  
animals  from  the  leisure  of  our  home  or  a  cafe.  Inexpensive  robot  pets  have  been  big  
sellers  in  the  Wal-­Marts  and  Targets  of  the  world.  Sony’s  higher-­end  robot  dog  AIBO  sold  
well.  Real  people  now  spend  substantial  time  in  virtual  environments  (e.g.,  Second  Life).  
In  terms  of  the  physical  and  psychological  wellbeing  of  our  species,  does  it  matter  that  
we   are   replacing   actual   nature   with   technological   nature?   To   support   our   provisional  
answer   that   it   does   matter,   we   draw   on   evolutionary   and   cross-­cultural   developmental  
accounts   of   the   human   relation   with   the   natural   world   and   then   consider   some   recent  
psychological  research  on  the  effects  of  technological  nature.  
 
Scientists  are  already  beginning  to  think  seriously  about  the  new  ethical  problems  
posed  by  current  developments  in  robotics.  Experts  in  South  Korea  were  drawing  up  an  
ethical   code   to   prevent   humans   abusing   robots,   and   vice     versa.   A   group   of   leading  
roboticists  called  the  Chapter  2  81  European  Robotics  Network  (Euron)  has  even  started  
lobbying  governments  for  legislation.  At  the  top  of  their  list  of  concerns  is  safety.  Robots  
were   once   confined   to   specialist   applications   in   industry   and   the   military,   where   users  
received  extensive  training  on  their  use,  but  they  are  increasingly  being  used  by  ordinary  
people.   Robot   vacuum   cleaners   and   lawn   mowers   are   already   in   many   homes,   and  
robotic   toys   are   increasingly   popular   with   children.   As   these   robots   become   more  

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intelligent,  it  will  become  harder  to  decide  who  is  responsible  if  they  injure  someone.  Is  
the   designer   to   blame,   or   the   user,   or   the   robot   itself?   The   ethical   or   moral   sense   for  
machines   canbe   built   on   a   utilitarian   base.   There   are   special   cases   that   will   require  
modifications  of  the  core  rules  that  are  based  on  the  circumstances  of  their  use.  Doctors,  
for  example,  don  not  euthanize  patients  to  spread  the  wealth  of  their  organs,  even  if  it  
means  that  there  is  a  net  positive  with  regard  to  survivors.  They  have  to  conform  to  a  
separate   code   of   ethics   designed   around   the   needs   of   patients   and   their   rights   that  
restricts   their   actions.   The   same   holds   for   lawyers,   religious   leaders,   and   military  
personnel   who   establish   special   relationships   with   individuals   who   are   protected   by  
specific  ethical  codes.  The  simple  utilitarian  model  will  certainly  have  overlays  depending  
on  the  role  that  these  robots  play.  They  will  act  in  accord  with  whatever  moral  or  ethical  
code  we  provide  them  and  the  value  determinations  that  we  set.  They  will  run  the  numbers  
and  do  the  right  thing.  In  emergency  situations,  our  autonomous  cars  will  sacrifice  the  few  
to   protect   the   many.   When   faced   with   dilemmas,   they   will   seek   the   best   outcomes  
independent  of  whether  they  themselves  are  comfortable  with  the  actions.  So,  as  with  all  
other  aspects  of  machine  intelligence,  it  is  crucial  that  these  systems  are  able  to  explain  
their  moral  decisions  to  us.  They  will  need  to  be  able  to  reach  into  their  silicon  souls  and  
explain   the   reasoning   that   supports   their   actions.   We   need   them   to   be   able   to   explain  
themselves  in  all  aspects  of  their  reasoning  and  actions.  Their  moral  reasoning  will  be  
subject  to  the  same  explanatory  requirements  that  we  would  demand  of  explaining  any  
action  they  take.    
 
Today’s   emerging   technologies,   like   Artificial   Intelligence   (AI),   augmented   and  
virtual  reality,  home  robots,  and  cloud  computing,  to  name  only  a  few  of  the  sophisticated  
technologies   in   development   today,   are   capturing   the   imaginations   of   many.   The  
advanced   capabilities   of   today’s   emerging   technologies   are   driving   many   academics,  
entrepreneurs,  and  enterprises  to  envision  futures  in  which  their  impacts  on  society  will  
be   nothing   short   of   transformative.   Whether   these   emerging   technologies   will   realize  
these  ambitious  possibilities  is  uncertain.  What  is  certain  is  that  they  will  intersect  and  
interact  with  powerful  demographic,  economic,  and  cultural  forces  to  upend  the  conditions  
of  everyday  life.  
 
The  article  “Is  Google  Making  Us  Stupid?”  by  Nicholas  Carrs  discusses  the  effects  
that  the  Internet  may  be  having  on  our  ability  to  focus,  the  difference  in  knowledge  that  
we  now  have,  and  our  reliance  on  the  Internet.  The  points  that  are  made  throughout  Carrs’  
article   are   very   thought-­provoking,   but   his   sources   make   them   seem   invaluable.   Carr  
discusses  the  effects  that  the  Internet  has  on  our  minds.  He  feels  that  the  Internet  is  bad  
for  the  brain.  Nicholas  Carr  writes  that  he  spends  much  of  his  leisure  time  from  the  Net.  
Carr  feels  like  he  cannot  concentrate  on  the  long  passages  of  reading  because  his  brain  
is  used  to  the  fast  millisecond  flow  of  the  Net.  “For  more  than  a  decade  now,  I’ve  been  
spending  a  lot  of  time  online,  searching  and  surfing.”  The  supporting  idea  is  that  his  mind  
now   “expects   to   take   in   information   the   way   the   Net   distributes   it-­-­in   a   swiftly   moving  
streams  of  particles.”  His  brain  wants  to  think  as  fast  as  the  Internet  goes.  In  summary,  
the  article  is  split  into  two  pieces.  The  first  is  Nicholas  Carr’s  longing  for  his  brain  to  be  
one  with  the  Internet,  a  man-­made  machine.  The  second  part  of  the  article  is  Google’s  
standpoint  on  how  our  brains  should  be  replaced  by  artificial  intelligence.  

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C.  Why  the  Future  Does  Not  Need  Us?  
 
With  the  accelerating  improvements  of  technology,  computer  scientists  succeed  in  
developing  intelligent  machines  that  can  do  all  things  better  than  human  beings.  In  that  
case  presumably  all  work  will  be  done  by  vast,  highly  organized  systems  of  machines,  
and  no  human  effort  will  be  necessary.  Either  of  two  cases  might  occur.  The  machines  
might  be  permitted  to  make  all  of  their  own  decisions  without  human  oversight,  or  else  
human  control  over  the  machines  might  be  retained.  
 
 If  the  machines  are  permitted  to  make  all  their  own  decisions,  we  cannot  make  
any  conjectures  about  the  results  because  it  is  impossible  to  guess  how  such  machines  
might  behave.  We  only  point  out  that  the  fate  of  the  human  race  would  be  at  the  mercy  of  
the  machines.  It  might  be  argued  that  the  human  race  would  never  be  foolish  enough  to  
hand  over  all  the  power  to  the  machines.  But  human  race  would  voluntarily  turn  power  
over   to   the   machines   or   the   machines   would   willfully   seize   power.   Human   race   might  
easily  permit  itself  to  drift  into  a  position  of  such  dependence  on  the  machines  that  it  would  
have  no  practical  choice  but  to  accept  all  of  the  machines’  decisions.    
 
As  society  and  the  problems  that  it  faces  become  more  and  more  complex  and  
machines  become  more  and  more  intelligent,  people  will  let  machines  make  more  of  their  
decisions  for  them,  simply  because  machine-­made  decisions  will  bring  better  results  than  
man-­made  ones.  Eventually  a  stage  may  be  reached  at  which  the  decisions  necessary  
to  keep  the  system  running  will  be  so  complex  that  human  beings  will  be  incapable  of  
making  them  intelligently.  At  that  stage  the  machines  will  be  in  effective  control.  People  
will  not  be  able  to  just  turn  the  machines  off  because  they  will  be  so  dependent  on  them  
that  turning  them  off  would  amount  to  suicide.    
 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  human  control  over  the  machines  may  be  
retained.  In  that  case  the  average  man  may  have  control  over  certain  private  machines  
of  his  own,  such  as  his  car  or  his  personal  computer,  but  control  over  large  systems  of  
machines  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  tiny  elite  -­  just  as  it  is  today,  but  with  two  differences.  
Because  of  improved  techniques  the  elite  will  have  a  greater  control  over  the  masses  and  
because   human   work   will   no   longer   be   necessary,   the   masses   will   be   superfluous,   a  
useless   burden   on   the   system.   If   the   elite   are   ruthless,   they   may   simply   decide   to  
exterminate  the  mass  of  humanity.  If  they  are  humane  they  may  use  propaganda  or  any  
other   psychological   or   biological   techniques   to   reduce   the   birth   rate   until   the   mass   of  
humanity  becomes  extinct,  leaving  the  world  to  the  elite.  Or,  if  the  elite  consist  of  soft-­
hearted  liberals,  they  may  decide  to  play  the  role  of  good  shepherds  to  the  rest  of  the  
human   race.   They   will   see   to   it   that   everyone’s   physical   needs   are   satisfied,   that   all  
children   are   raised   under   psychologically   hygienic   conditions,   that   everyone   has   a  
wholesome   hobby   to   keep   him   busy,   and   that   anyone   who   may   become   dissatisfied  
undergoes  “treatment”  to  cure  his  “problem.”  Life  will  be  so  purposeless  that  people  will  
have  to  be  biologically  or  psychologically  engineered  either  to  remove  their  need  for  the  
power  process  or  make  them  “sublimate”  their  drive  for  power  into  some  harmless  hobby.  
These   engineered   human   beings   may   be   happy   in   such   a   society,   but   they   will   most  
certainly  not  be  free.  They  will  have  been  reduced  to  the  status  of  domestic  animals.    

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 Theodore   Kaczynskian   American   domestic   terrorist,also   known   as   the    
Unabomber,  killed  three  people  during  a  nationwide  bombing  campaign  targeting  those  
involved  with  modern  technology  and  wounded  many  others.  One  of  his  bombs  gravely  
injured  David  Gelernter,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  visionary  computer  scientists.  His  
actions   were   murderous   and   criminally   insane,   but   his   vision   describes   unintended  
consequences,  a  well-­known  problem  with  the  design  and  use  of  technology,  and  one  
that  is  clearly  related  to  Murphy’s  law–“Anything  that  can  go  wrong,  will.”  Our  overuse  of  
antibiotics  has  led  to  what  may  be  the  biggest  such  problem  so  far:  the  emergence  of  
antibiotic-­resistant   and   much   more   dangerous   bacteria.   Similar   things   happened   when  
attempts   to   eliminate   malarial   mosquitoes   using   DDT   caused   them   to   acquire   DDT  
resistance;;  malarial  parasites,  likewise,  acquired  multi-­drug-­resistant  genes.    
 
The   cause   of   many   such   surprises   seems   clear:   The   systems   involved   are  
complex,  involving  interaction  among  and  feedback  between  many  parts.  Any  changes  
to  such  a  system  will  cascade  in  ways  that  are  difficult  to  predict;;  this  is  especially  true  
when  human  actions  are  involved.  Biological  species  almost  never  survive  encounters  
with   superior   competitors.   Ten   million   years   ago,   South   and   North   America   were  
separated   by   a   sunken   Panama   isthmus.   South   America,   like   Australia   today,   was  
populated   by   marsupial   mammals,   including   pouched   equivalents   of   rats,   deers,   and  
tigers.  When  the  isthmus  connecting  North  and  South  America  rose,  it  took  only  a  few  
thousand   years   for   the   northern   placental   species,   with   slightly   more   effective  
metabolisms  and  reproductive  and  nervous  systems,  to  displace  and  eliminate  almost  all  
the  southern  marsupials.    
 
In  a  completely  free  marketplace,  superior  robots  would  surely  affect  humans  as  
North   American   placentals   affected   South   American   marsupials   (and   as   humans   have  
affected   countless   species).   Robotic   industries   would   compete   vigorously   among  
themselves  for  matter,  energy,  and  space,  incidentally  driving  their  price  beyond  human  
reach.  Unable  to  afford  the  necessities  of  life,  biological  humans  would  be  squeezed  out  
of  existence.    
 
A  textbook  on  dystopia  and  Moravec  discuss  how  our  main  job  in  the  21st  century  
will   be   “ensuring   continued   cooperation   from   the   robot   industries”   by   passing   laws  
decreeing  that  they  be  “nice,”  and  describing  how  seriously  dangerous  a  human  can  be  
once  transformed  into  an  unbounded  superintelligent  robot.  Moravec’s  view  is  that  the  
robots  will  eventually  succeed  us  that  humans  clearly  face  extinction.  
 
 Accustomed  to  living  with  almost  routine  scientific  breakthroughs,  we  have  yet  to  
come  to  terms  with  the  fact  that  the  most  compelling  21st-­century  technologies–robotics,  
genetic  engineering,  and  nanotechnology–pose  a  threat  different  from  the  technologies  
that  have  come  before.  Specifically,  robots,  engineered  organisms,  and  nanobots  share  
a  dangerous  amplifying  factor:  They  can  self-­replicate.  A  bomb  is  blown  up  only  once–
but  one  bot  can  become  many,  and  quickly  get  out  of  control.  For  instance,  the  sending  
and  receiving  of  messages  through  computer  networking  creates  the  opportunity  for  out-­
of-­control  replication.  But  while  replication  in  a  computer  or  a  computer  network  can  be  a  
nuisance,   at   worst   it   disables   a   machine   or   takes   down   a   network   or   network   service.  

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Uncontrolled  self-­replication  in  these  newer  technologies  runs  a  much  greater  risk:  a  risk  
of  substantial  damage  in  the  physical  world.  Each  of  these  technologies  also  offers  untold  
promise:  The  vision  of  near  immortality  that  Kurzweil  sees  in  his  robot  dreams  drives  us  
forward;;  genetic  engineering  may  soon  provide  treatments,  if  not  outright  cures,  for  most  
diseases;;  and  nanotechnology  and  nanomedicine  can  address  more  ills.  Together,  they  
could  significantly  extend  our  average  life  span  and  improve  the  quality  of  our  lives.  With  
each  of  these  technologies,  a  sequence  of  small,  individually  sensible  advances  leads  to  
an  accumulation  of  great  power  and,  concomitantly,  great  danger.  What  was  different  in  
the  20th  century?  Certainly,  the  technologies  underlying  the  weapons  of  mass  destruction  
(WMD)–nuclear,   biological,   and   chemical   (NBC)–were   powerful,   and   the   weapons   an  
enormous  threat.  But  building  nuclear  weapons  required,  at  least  for  a  time,  access  to  
both  rare–  indeed,  effectively  unavailable–raw  materials  and  highly  protected  information;;  
biological  and  chemical  weapons  programs  also  tended  to  require  large-­scale  activities.  
The   21st-­century   technologies–genetics,   nanotechnology,   and   robotics   (GNR)–are   so  
powerful   that   they   can   spawn   whole   new   classes   of   accidents   and   abuses.   Most  
dangerously,  for  the  first  time,  these  accidents  and  abuses  are  widely  within  the  reach  of  
individuals   or   small   groups.   They   will   not   require   large   facilities   or   rare   raw   materials.  
Knowledge  alone  will  enable  their  use;;  thus,  we  have  the  possibility  not  just  of  weapons  
of   mass   destruction   but   of   knowledge-­enabled   mass   destruction   (KMD),   this  
destructiveness  hugely  amplified  by  the  power  of  self-­replication.  Failing  to  understand  
the   consequences   of   our   inventions   while   we   are   in   the   rapture   of   discovery   and  
innovation   seems   to   be   a   common   fault   of   scientists   and   technologists;;   we   have   long  
been  driven  by  the  overarching  desire  to  know  that  is  the  nature  of  science’s  quest,  not  
stopping  to  notice  that  the  progress  to  newer  and  more  powerful  technologies  can  take  
on   a   life   of   its   own.   Because   of   the   recent   rapid   and   radical   progress   in   molecular  
electronics–where   individual   atoms   and   molecules   replace   lithographically   drawn  
transistors–and  related  nanoscale  technologies,  we  should  be  able  to  meet  or  exceed  the  
Moore’s  law  rate  of  progress  for  another  30  years.  By  2030,  we  are  likely  to  be  able  to  
build   machines,   in   quantity,   a   million   times   as   powerful   as   the   personal   computers   of  
today.  As  this  enormous  computing  power  is  combined  with  the  manipulative  advances  
of   the   physical   sciences   and   the   new,   deep   understandings   in   genetics,   enormous  
transformative  power  is  being  unleashed.  These  combinations  open  up  the  opportunity  to  
completely  redesign  the  world,  for  better  or  worse:  The  replicating  and  evolving  processes  
that   have   been   confined   to   the   natural   world   are   about   to   become   realms   of   human  
endeavor.  Given  the  incredible  power  of  these  new  technologies,  should  we  not  be  asking  
how  we  can  best  coexist  with  them?  And  if  our  own  extinction  is  a  likely,  or  even  possible,  
outcome  of  our  technological  development,  should  we  not  proceed  with  great  caution?  
How  soon  could  such  an  intelligent  robot  be  built?  The  coming  advances  in  computing  
power  seem  to  make  it  possible  by  2030.  Once  an  intelligent  robot  exists,  it  is  only  a  small  
step   to   a   robot   species–to   an   intelligent   robot   that   can   make   evolved   copies   of   itself.  
Genetic  engineering  promises  to  revolutionize  agriculture  by  increasing  crop  yields  while  
reducing  the  use  of  pesticides;;  to  create  tens  of  thousands  of  novel  species  of  bacteria,  
plants,  viruses,  and  animals;;  to  replace  reproduction,  or  supplement  it,  with  cloning;;  to  
create  cures  for  many  diseases,  increasing  our  life  span  and  our  quality  of  life;;  and  much,  
much  more.  We  now  know  with  certainty  that  these  profound  changes  in  the  biological  
sciences   are   imminent   and   will   challenge   all   our   notions   of   what   life   is.   Technologies,  

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such  as  human  cloning,  have  in  particular  raised  our  awareness  of  the  profound  ethical  
and  moral  issues  we  face.  If,  for  example,  we  were  to  reengineer  ourselves  into  several  
separate   and   unequal   species   using   the   power   of   genetic   engineering,   then   we   would  
threaten  the  notion  of  equality  that  is  the  very  cornerstone  of  our  democracy.  Awareness  
of  the  dangers  inherent  in  genetic  engineering  is  beginning  to  grow,  as  reflected  in  the  
Lovins’  editorial.  The  general  public  is  aware  of,  and  uneasy  about,  genetically  modified  
foods,  and  seems  to  be  rejecting  the  notion  that  such  foods  should  be  permitted  to  be  
unlabeled.  But  genetic  engineering  technology  is  already  very  far  along.  As  the  Lovins’  
note,  the  USDA  has  already  approved  about  50  genetically  engineered  crops  for  unlimited  
release;;  more  than  half  of  the  world’s  soybeans  and  a  third  of  its  corn  now  contain  genes  
spliced  in  from  some  other  forms  of  life.  Unfortunately,  as  with  nuclear  technology,  it  is  
far   easier   to   create   destructive   uses   for   nanotechnology   than   constructive   ones.  
Nanotechnology   has   clear   military   and   terrorist   uses,   and   you   need   not   be   suicidal   to  
release  a  massively  destructive  nanotechnological  device–such  devices  can  be  built  to  
be  selectively  destructive,  affecting,  for  example,  only  a  certain  geographical  area  or  a  
group  of  people  who  are  genetically  distinct.  The  effort  to  build  the  first  atomic  bomb  was  
led   by   the   brilliant   physicist   J.   Robert   Oppenheimer.   Oppenheimer   was   not   naturally  
interested  in  politics  but  became  painfully  aware  of  what  he  perceived  as  the  grave  threat  
to   Western   civilization   from   the   Third   Reich,   a   threat   surely   grave   because   of   the  
possibility   that   Hitler   might   obtain   nuclear   weapons.   Energized   by   this   concern,   he  
brought  his  strong  intellect,  passion  for  physics,  and  charismatic  leadership  skills  to  Los  
Alamos  and  led  a  rapid  and  successful  effort  by  an  incredible  collection  of  great  minds  to  
quickly  invent  the  bomb.  Physicists  proceeded  with  the  preparation  of  the  first  atomic  test  
called   Trinity   despite   a   large   number   of   possible   dangers.   They   were   initially   worried,  
based  on  a  calculation  by  Edward  Teller,  that  an  atomic  explosion  might  set  fire  to  the  
atmosphere.  A  revised  calculation  reduced  the  danger  of  destroying  the  world  to  a  three-­
ina-­million  chance.  Oppenheimer,  though,  was  sufficiently  concerned  about  the  result  of  
Trinity  that  he  arranged  for  a  possible  evacuation  of  the  southwest  part  of  the  state  of  
New  Mexico.  There  was  the  clear  danger  of  starting  a  nuclear  arms  race.  Within  a  month  
of  that  first,  successful  test,  two  atomic  bombs  destroyed  Hiroshima  and  Nagasaki.  Some  
scientists  had  suggested  that  the  bomb  simply  be  demonstrated  rather  than  dropped  on  
Japanese  cities–saying  that  this  would  greatly  improve  the  chances  for  arms  control  after  
the  war–but  to  no  avail.  With  the  tragedy  of  Pearl  Harbor  still  fresh  in  Americans’  minds,  
it   would   have   been   very   difficult   for   President   Truman   to   order   a   demonstration   of   the  
weapons  rather  than  use  them  as  he  did–the  desire  to  quickly  end  the  war  and  save  the  
lives  that  would  have  been  lost  in  any  invasion  of  Japan  was  very  strong.  The  overriding  
truth  was  probably  very  simple:  As  the  physicist  Freeman  Dyson  later  said,  “The  reason  
that  it  was  dropped  was  just  that  nobody  had  the  courage  or  the  foresight  to  say  no.”  It  is  
important  to  realize  how  shocked  the  physicists  were  in  the  aftermath  of  the  bombing  of  
Hiroshima  on  August  6,  1945.  They  described  a  series  of  waves  of  emotion:  first,  a  sense  
of  fulfillment  that  the  bomb  worked,  then  horror  at  all  the  people  that  had  been  killed,  and  
then  a  convincing  feeling  that  on  no  account  should  another  bomb  be  dropped.  Another  
bomb   was   dropped,   on   Nagasaki,   only   three   days   after   the   bombing   of   Hiroshima.   In  
November   1945,   three   months   after   the   atomic   bombings,   Oppenheimer   stood   firmly  
behind  the  scientific  attitude,  saying,  “It  is  not  possible  to  be  a  scientist  unless  you  believe  
that  the  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  the  power  which  this  gives,  is  a  thing  which  is  of  

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intrinsic  value  to  humanity,  and  that  you  are  using  it  to  help  in  the  spread  of  knowledge  
and  are  willing  to  take  the  consequences.”  In  our  time,  how  much  danger  do  we  face  not  
just  from  nuclear  weapons  but  from  all  of  these  technologies?  How  high  are  the  extinction  
risks?  The  philosopher  John  Leslie  has  studied  this  question  and  concluded  that  the  risk  
of  human  extinction  is  at  least  30  percent  while  Ray  Kurzweil  believes  we  have  a  better  
than  even  chance  of  making  it  through,  with  the  caveat  that  he  has  always  been  accused  
of  being  an  optimist.  Not  only  are  these  estimates  not  encouraging,  but  they  do  not  include  
the   probability   of   many   horrid   outcomes   that   lie   short   of   extinction.   Faced   with   such  
assessments,  some  serious  people  are  already  suggesting  that  we  simply  move  beyond  
the   Earth   as   quickly   as   possible.   We   would   colonize   the   galaxy   using   von   Neumann  
probes,  which  hop  from  star  system  to  star  system,  replicating  as  they  go.  This  step  will  
almost   certainly   be   necessary   billion   years   from   now   (or   sooner   if   our   solar   system   is  
disastrously  impacted  by  the  impending  collision  of  our  galaxy  with  the  Andromeda  galaxy  
within  the  next  three  billion  years),  but  if  we  take  Kurzweil  and  Moravec  at  their  word,  it  
might  be  necessary  by  the  middle  of  this  century.  What  are  the  moral  implications  here?  
If  we  must  move  beyond  Earth  this  quickly  for  the  species  to  survive,  who  accepts  the  
responsibility  for  the  fate  of  those  who  are  left  behind?  And  even  if  we  scatter  to  the  stars,  
is  it  not  likely  that  we  may  take  our  problems  with  us  or  find,  later,  that  they  have  followed  
us?  The  fate  of  our  species  on  earth  and  our  fate  in  the  galaxy  seem  inextricably  linked.  
Another   idea   is   to   erect   a   series   of   shields   to   defend   against   each   of   the   dangerous  
technologies.  The  Strategic  Defense  Initiative,  proposed  by  the  Reagan  administration,  
was   anattempt   to   design   such   a   shield   against   the   threat   of   a   nuclear   attack   from   the  
Soviet  Union.  But  as  Arthur  C.  Clarke,  who  was  privy  to  discussions  about  the  project,  
observed:   “Though   it   might   be   possible,   at   vast   expense,   to   construct   local   defense  
systems  that  would  only  let  through  a  few  percent  of  ballistic  missiles,  the  much-­touted  
idea   of   a   national   umbrella   was   nonsense.”   Luis   Alvarez,   the   greatest   experimental  
physicist,  remarked  that  the  advocates  of  such  schemes  were  very  bright  guys  with  no  
common  sense.  Similar  difficulties  apply  to  the  construction  of  shields  against  robotics  
and  genetic  engineering.  These  technologies  are  too  powerful  to  be  shielded  against  in  
the  time  frame  of  interest;;  even  if  it  were  possible  to  implement  defensive  shields,  the  
side  effects  of  their  development  would  be  at  least  as  dangerous  as  the  technologies  we  
are   trying   to   protect   against.   These   possibilities   are   all,   thus,   either   undesirable   or  
unachievable   or   both.   The   only   realistic   alternative   to   limit   the   development   of   the  
technologies   that   are   too   dangerous   is   by   limiting   our   pursuit   of   certain   kinds   of  
knowledge.  We  have  been  seeking  knowledge  since  ancient  times.  Aristotle  opened  his  
Metaphysics  with  the  simple  statement:  “All  men  by  nature  desire  to  know.”  We  have,  as  
a  bedrock  value  in  our  society,  long  agreed  on  the  value  of  open  access  to  information  
and  recognize  the  problems  that  arise  with  attempts  to  restrict  access  to  and  development  
of   knowledge.   In   recent   times,   we   have   come   to   revere   scientific   knowledge.     It   was  
Nietzsche  who  warned  us,  at  the  end  of  the  19th  century,  not  only  that  God  is  dead  but  
that  “faith  in  science,  which  after  all  exists  undeniably,  cannot  owe  its  origin  to  a  calculus  
of  utility;;  it  must  have  originated  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  disutility  and  dangerousness  
of  the  ‘will  to  truth,’  of  ‘truth  at  any  price’  is  proved  to  it  constantly.”  It  is  this  further  danger  
that  we  now  fully  face  the  consequences  of  our  truth-­seeking.  The  truth  that  science  seeks  
can   certainly   be   considered   a   dangerous   substitute   for   God   if   it   is   likely   to   lead   to   our  
extinction.  Our  Western  notion  of  happiness  seems  to  come  from  the  Greeks,  who  defined  

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it  as  “the  exercise  of  vital  powers  along  lines  of  excellence  in  a  life  affording  them  scope.”  
Clearly,  we  need  to  find  meaningful  challenges  and  sufficient  scope  in  our  lives  if  we  are  
to   be   happy   in   whatever   is   to   come.   We   must   find   alternative   outlets   for   our   creative  
forces,  beyond  the  culture  of  perpetual  economic  growth;;  this  growth  has  largely  been  a  
blessing  for  several  hundred  years,  but  it  has  not  brought  us  unalloyed  happiness,  and  
we  must  now  choose  between  the  pursuit  of  unrestricted  and  undirected  growth  through  
science  and  technology  and  the  clear  accompanying  dangers  
 
Activity:  Film  Viewing  
         Watch   the   movie   “Artificial   Intelligence”   also   known   as   “A.I.”   by   Steven  
Spielberg.  Answer  the  following  questions.  
 
1.   At  the  beginning  of  the  movie,  Professor  Hobby  states  that  “to  create  an  artificial  
being  has  been  the  dream  of  man  since  the  birth  of  science.”  There’s  probably  an  
element  of  truth  to  this.  Why  do  we  have  this  fascination?  
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2.   One   of   the   scientists   at   Cybertronics   asks,   “If   a   robot   could   genuinely   love   a  
person,  what  responsibility  does  that  person  hold  toward  that  mecha  in  return?”  
Professor   Hobby   responds,   “In   the   beginning,   didn’t   God   create   Adam   to   love  
him?”  What  is  implied  by  Professor  Hobby’s  answer?  
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3.   Consider  some  of  the  imagery  the  Flesh  Fair:  motorcycles,  cowboy  hats,  heavy  
metal   music,   flannel   shirts.   What   statement   does   this   make   about   the   kind   of  
humans  that  opposed  robots?  
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4.   The   owner   of   the   Flesh   Fair   states   that   child   mechas   like   David,   were   built   to  
disarm   humans   by   playing   on   human   emotions.   Nevertheless,   the   human  
spectators   feel   sympathy   with   David,   particularly   because   he   pleads   for   his   life.  
What  abilities  would  a  robot  have  to  exhibit  before  we  would  consider  it  an  equal  
with  humans?  
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5.   Gigolo  Joe  tells  David  that  his  mother  does  not  love  him,  but  only  loves  what  he  
does   for   her.   Is   it   plausible   to   think   that   a   normal   human   could   love   a   robot   as  
though  it  were  a  real  human?  
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 PART  III.  
SPECIFIC  ISSUES  IN  SCIENCE,  TECHNOLOGY  AND  SOCIETY  
 
Introduction  
 
  This  section  provides  overview  on  how  writing  evolved  through  time  and  internet  
came  into  being.  Discussion  on  how  information  became  accessible  and  inexpensive  thru  
the   discovery   of   printing   press   by   Johannes   Gutenburg   is   also   presented   on   this   part.  
Emphasis  is  given  on  the  influence  of  social  media  to  people’s  lives.  
 
  Further,  this  section  of  the  module  discusses  different  issues  that  concern  society’s  
health  and  well-­being.  Basic  concepts  and  ideas  on  biodiversity,  climate  change,  use  of  
gene  therapy  and  nanotechnology  are  also  presented  here.  
       
Learning  Outcomes  
   
At  the  end  of  this  section,  the  students  are  expected  to:  
 
1.  illustrate  how  information  age  and  social  media  have  made  an  impact  to  our  lives.  
2.  explain  the  interrelatedness  of  society,  environment,  and  health.  
3.  discuss  the  costs  and  benefits  (both  potential  and  realized)  of  nanotechnology  to    
       society.  
4.  describe  gene  therapy,  its  various  forms  and  potential  benefits  and  detriments  to    
       global  health.  
5.  identify  the  causes  of  climate  change  and  discuss  how  to  apply  concepts  of  STS  in    
       this  specific  environmental  issue.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chapter  7  
The  Information  Age  
 
  The  Information  Age  began  around  the  1970s  and  still  going  on  today.  It  is  also  
known  as  the  Computer  Age,  Digital  Age,  or  New  Media  Age.  This  era  brought  about  a  
time  period  in  which  people  could  access  information  and  knowledge  easily.  
 
Pre-­Gutenberg  Period  
   
  During  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe,  most  people  lived  in  small,  isolated  villages.  If  
people  travelled  at  all,  they  typically  ventured  only  a  few  miles  from  where  they  were  born.  
For  most  people,  the  only  source  of  both  religious  and  worldly  information  was  the  village  
Catholic  priest  in  the  pulpit.  News  passed  from  one  person  to  another,  often  in  the  form  
of  rumor.  
 
  Written   documents   were   rare   and   often   doubted   by   the   common   people   as  
forgeries.  What  counted  in  important  matters  was  oral  testimony  based  on  oaths  taken  in  
the  name  of  God  to  tell  the  truth.  
 
  Almost  no  one  could  read  or  write  the  language  they  spoke.  Those  few  who  were  
literate  usually  went  on  to  master  Latin,  the  universal  language  of  scholarship,  the  law,  
and   the   Roman   Catholic   Church.   Books,   all   hand-­copied,   were   rare,   expensive,   and  
almost  always  in  Latin.  They  were  so  valuable  that  universities  chained  them  to  reading  
tables.   Most   people   passed   their   lifetime   without   ever   gazing   at   a   book,   a   calendar,   a  
map,  or  written  work  of  any  sort.  
 
  Memory   and   memorization   ruled   daily   life   and   learning.   Poets,   actors   and   story  
tellers   relied   on   rhyming   lines   to   remember   vast   amounts   of   material.   Craftsmen  
memorized  the  secrets  of  their  trades  to  pass  on  orally  to  apprentices.  Mechanics  kept  
their   accounts   in   their   heads.   Even   scholars   literate   in   Latin   used   memory   devices   to  
remember  what  they  had  learned.  One  device  involved  visualizing  a  building  with  various  
rooms   and   architectural   features,   each   representing   different   store   of   knowledge.   A  
university  scholar  imagined  walking  through  this  virtual  building  along  a  certain  pathway  
to  recall  the  contents  of  entire  books  for  his  lectures.  
   
  Scribes,  often  monks  living  in  monasteries,  each  labored  for  up  to  a  year  to  copy  
a  single  book,  usually  in  Latin.  The  scribes  copied  books  on  processed  calfskin  called  
velum  and  later  on  paper.  Specialists  or  the  scribes  themselves  “illuminated’  (painted0  
large  capital  letters  and  the  margins  of  many  books  with  colorful  designs  were  very  costly.    
 
  Before  the  discovery  of  printing  press,  books  in  Europe  were  typically  handwritten  
manuscripts  while  paper  money,  playing  cards,  posters,  and  the  like  were  block-­printed  
from  hand-­carved  wooden  blocks,  inked  and  transferred  to  paper.  This  earlier  method  of  
reproduction  was  expensive  and  time  consuming.    
 
   

89
Gutenberg  Revolution  
 
  Johannes  Gutenberg  turned  the  printing  world  upside  down  and  brought  on  a  new  
era   of   print   with   his   revolutionary   innovation   of   movable   type   in   1445.   Movable   type  
printing  used  metal  stamps  of  single  letters  that  could  be  arranged  into  words,  sentences  
and  pages  of  text.  Using  a  large  manually  operated,  the  stamps  would  be  arranged  to  
read  a  page  of  text  so  that  when  covered  with  ink,  it  would  print  out  a  page  of  text.  Before  
Gutenberg,  all  texts  had  been  printed  with  woodblocks  or  fixed  text  stamps,  both  of  which  
were  complex  and  time-­consuming  processes.  Movable  type  kept  the  metal  stamp  letters  
separate,  which  allowed  printers  to  reuse  the  letters  quickly  on  succeeding  pages.  As  a  
result,  more  pages  could  be  efficiently  printed  in  a  shorter  amount  of  time  with  much  less  
effort.  From  here,  the  opportunity  to  share  ideas  and  knowledge  brought  on  a  new  era  of  
change  and  enlightenment  never  seen  before.  
 
  Gutenberg’s  amazing  invention  made  books  the  internet  of  the  time.  The  printing  
press   made   it   possible   to   produce   books   much   more   quickly   and   cheaper   than   ever  
before.  By  1463,  printed  Bibles  cost  one-­tenth  of  hand-­copied  Bibles.  The  demand  for  
books  exploded.  By  1500,  Europe  had  more  than  1,000  printers  and  7,000  books  in  print.  
 
  Like   the   internet,   books   spread   new   ideas   quickly   and   sped   up   the   process   of  
change.   For   example,   as   a   young   sailor   in   Genoa,   Christopher   Columbus   read   Marco  
Polo’s   famous   Travels,   in   which   he   described   his   journeys   to   China.   Columbus   was  
thrilled  by  Polo’s  descriptions.  Books  also  planted  the  seeds  of  democracy  and  human  
rights   in   the   next   generation   of   thinkers.   Newspapers   and   pamphlets   generated  
information  and  ideas  even  faster.    
 
  The  impact  of  the  printing  press  is,  almost,  impossible  to  really  quantify.  On  the  
surface   it   allowed   for   the   much   more   rapid   spread   of   accurate   information   but,   more  
elusively,  it  had  an  enormous  impact  on  the  nations  and  population  in  Europe  at  large.  
Literacy  began  to  rise  as  well  as  the  types  of  information  people  could  be  exposed  to.  
 
  When  Europe  was  recovering  from  the  devastating  impact  of  the  Black  Death,  the  
impact  of  printing  press  decimated  the  population  and  had  led  to  the  decline  in  the  rise  of  
the  church,  the  rise  of  the  money  economy,  and  subsequent  birth  of  the  Renaissance.    
 
  As   it   became   easier   to   produce   books   and   pamphlets,   information   started   to  
spread.   Previously,   only   religious   leaders   and   royalty   had   access   to   books,   and   few  
people  were  literate.  The  printing  Renaissance  opened  the  realm  of  learning  and  reading  
to  the  local  populations  as  schools  were  built  and  books  about  education  were  written  
and  print  published.  The  printing  press  had  dramatic  effects  on  European  civilization  and  
its   more   immediate   effect   was   to   spread   information   quickly   and   accurately   and   this  
gradually  helped  to  create  a  much  wider  literate  reading  public.

The   arrival   of   mechanical   movable   type   printing   introduced   the   era   of   mass  
communication,   which   permanently   altered   the   structure   of   society.   The   relatively  
unrestricted   circulation   of   information   and   revolutionary   ideas   transcended   borders,  

90
captured   the   masses   in   the   Reformation,   and   threatened   the   power   of   political   and  
religious  authorities;;  the  sharp  increase  in  literacy  broke  the  monopoly  of  the  literate  elite  
on  education  and  learning  and  bolstered  the  emerging  middle  class.  Across  Europe,  the  
increasing   cultural   self-­awareness   of   its   people   led   to   the   rise   of   proto-­nationalism,  
accelerated  by  the  flowering  of  the  European  vernacular  languages  to  the  detriment  of  
Latin’s  status  as  lingua  franca.    
 
  The   printing   press   was   also   a   factor   in   the   establishment   of   a   community   of  
scientists  who  could  easily  communicate  their  discoveries  through  widely  disseminated  
scholarly   journals,   helping   to   bring   on   the   scientific   revolution.   Because   of   the   printing  
press,  authorship  became  more  meaningful  and  profitable.  It  was  suddenly  important  who  
had  said  or  written  what,  and  what  the  precise  formulation  and  time  of  information.  Before,  
the  author  was  less  important,  since  a  copy  of  Aristotle  made  in  Paris  would  not  be  exactly  
identical  to  one  made  in  Bologna.  For  many  works  prior  to  the  printing  press,  the  name  of  
the  author  has  been  entirely  lost.

 
Printed  Materials  as  Agents  of  Change  
 
Gutenberg’s  movable  type  printing  press  was  a  disruptive  innovation  in  more  ways  than  
one.  In  addition  to  making  printed  materials  more  accessible,  it  allowed  for  the  spread  of  
knowledge   both   within   elite   communities,   like   the   Catholic   Church   and   the   scientific  
community,   and   also   to   the   rest   of   the   general   population.   It   brought   about   new  
innovations  and  ideas  that  lead  to  changes  in  power  and  standards  in  both  religious  and  
scientific  areas  of  European  culture.  These  included  a  shift  in  religious  power  from  the  
church  authority  to  the  general  population,  standardization  of  scientific  reporting,  and  an  
influx  of  new  scientific  discoveries.  Although  it  may  seem  like  the  printing  press  affected  
the  European  science  and  religious  community  differently,  the  changes  between  the  two  
are  actually  intricately  intertwined.  Both  scientific  and  religious  works  were  subject  to  a  
language  change  from  Latin  to  vernacular  languages.  All  of  these  changes  were  possible  
because  of  the  printing  press.  Even  more,  it  allowed  for  greater  accessibility  and  spread  
of  all  kinds  of  knowledge  throughout  a  wider  population  never  before  seen,  bringing  about  
several  new  social  dynamics  that  will  lead  to  several  social  revolutions.    

Post-­Gutenberg  Period  
 
  The  impact  of  the  Gutenberg  printing  press  was  immeasurable.  It  caused  nothing  
less  than  a  dramatic  social  and  cultural  revolution.  The  sudden  widespread  dissemination  
of  printed  works  –  books,  tracts,  posters  and  papers  –  gave  direct  rise  to  the  European  
Renaissance.  
 
  While  Gutenberg’s  famous  Bible  was  printed  in  Latin,  his  invention  of  the  movable  
type  press  meant  that  Protestant  tracts  and  the  arguments  between  Martin  Luther  and  
the  Catholic  Church  which  led  to  the  Reformation  could  be  widely  disseminated.  
 

91
   The  Reformation  that  began  in  Germany  in  the  early  16th  century,  led  to  the  Bible  
being  printed  in  the  languages  common  to  people.  Gutenberg’s  invention  led  inevitably  to  
the  Protestant  revolution,  the  Age  of  Enlightenment,  the  development  of  Modern  Science  
and  Universal  Education.  In  other  words,  everything  that  has  led  to  human  progress  and  
the  advancement  of  the  modern  world.    
 
  At  present,  people  are  beginning  to  look  for  secure  and  accurate  and  believable  
news  portals  but,  the  traditional  trusted  publishing  outlets  have  less  public  beliefs  as  many  
people   believe   governments   are   manipulating   them.   The   local   press   are   in   sharp  
circulation   decline,   and   the   online   advertising   businesses   have   moved   to   Google   and  
Facebook   and   others.   The   result   has   caused   newspaper   closures   and   large-­scale  
downsizings   and   redundancies.   Many   people   now   prefer   to   believe   people   from   their  
social  environment,  instead  of  turning  to  “the  media”.  The  collateral  damage  caused  by  
the  digitization  is  increasing  amounts  of  information  and  currently  this  is  not  going  to  stop.    
 
  The  emergence  of  the  internet  and  the  World  Wide  Web  in  the  1990s  was  initially  
hailed  by  many  as  ushering  in  new  democratic  age,  driven  by  much  greater  access  to  
information.  In  reality,  while  the  internet  had  a  dramatic  impact,  the  revolutionary  shifts  
predicted  did  not  occur.  This  is  because,  in  its  earliest  days,  the  World  Wide  Web  still  
conformed  to  the  Gutenberg  principle.  Building  a  website,  accessing  server  space  and  
publishing   information   required   both   money   and   technical   expertise   and   was   therefore  
still  the  preserve  of  institutions  rather  than  individuals.  The  reality  of  much  greater  access  
to  information  was  not  matched  by  a  greater  ability  to  publish  it.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

92
  
 
Paradoxes  of  Technology  
 
New   technologies   allow   us   to   be   connected   to   and   reachable   by  
everyone.   However,   as   a   result,   our   privacy   is   threatened   and  
Empowerment  vs  Enslavement   technology   starts   controlling   us.   Whether   we   want   or   not,   we   feel  
socially   obliged   to   take   phone   calls,   answer   emails,   and   send  
responses  to  messages  on  Facebook.  
 
 
New  gadgets  such  as  cell  phones  allow  us  to  do  many  things  on  our  
own.  However,  this  situation  creates  dependency,  as  we  can’t  go  even  
Independent  vs  Dependence  
one  day  without  our  phones  and  we  feel  helpless  when  the  Internet  is  
down.  
 
 
Technology   resolves   some   problems   but   also   introduces   new   ones,  
Fulfills  needs  vs  Creates  needs   e.g.   we   need   devices   with   longer   battery   life,   we   need   antivirus  
software  to  be  safe,  we  need  to  learn  new  skills,  etc.  
 
 
We  can  get  any  information  we  want  and  reach  anyone  we  want  with  
Competence  vs  Incompetence   the   help   of   new   technologies.   However,   we   lose   our   ability   to  
remember  phone  numbers  and  our  ability  to  articulate  thoughts.  
 
 
When   we   are   engaged   in   an   activity   that   involves   the   use   of   new  
technology,  we  need  to  disengage  from  whatever  we  are  doing.  We  
Engaging  vs  Disengaging  
directly  interact  with  our  family  and  loved  ones  less  frequently  because  
we  tend  to  engage  more  in  new  portable  technology  tools.  
 
 
New   technologies   blur   the   line   between   what   is   public   and   what   is  
Public  vs  Private   private.  People  may  talk  on  the  phone  or  message  someone  among  a  
circle  of  acquaintances,  which  may  be  disturbing.  
 
 
We   tend   to   think   new   communication   technologies   make   our   lives  
better.   However,   the   more   we   communicate,   the   more   trivial   our  
Illusion  vs  Disillusion  
conversations  become.  In  other  words,  more  communication  does  not  
always  equal  better  communication.  
 
Source:  Sirkka  L.  Jarvenpaa  and  Karl  R.  Lang  as  cited  by  Acar,  2014  
 
  Speed  of  access  also  limited  the  ability  of  the  internet  to  be  a  channel  for  all  forms  
of  media,  restricting  its  use  to  text  based  and  transactional  forms.  As  a  result,  much  of  
the  initial  investment  in  the  web  went  into  servicing  and  creating  institutional  opportunities,  
with  e-­commerce  emerging  as  the  major  new  web-­based  phenomena.  
 
  This   changed   with   two   developments.   First,   the   spread   of   broadband   internet  
access  made  it  possible  to  easily  both  upload  and  download  all  forms  of  media:  video,  
images   and   audio   as   well   as   just   text   and   transactions.   Second,   tools   emerged   which  
made  it  simple  for  people  to  publish  or  spread  information.  Blogging  was  the  first  example,  
followed  by  social  networking  and  distribution  and  sharing  sites  like  YouTube  and  Flickr.  
 

93
   There   has   been   a   third   trend   which   is   gathering   significance,   based   around  
attaching  relevance  and  content  to  all  of  the  otherwise  random  pieces  of  information  now  
being  published.  This  concerns  practices  such  as  tagging,  rating  and  commenting,  as  well  
as  services  such  as  social  bookmarking  and  news-­sharing  sites  which  allow  individuals  
to  store  and  share  information.  This  trend  is  responsible  for  creating  forms  of  collective  
intelligence  and  what  has  been  called  ‘crowd  wisdom’  and  is  probably  the  most  important  
area  to  watch  going  forwards  because  of  its  ability  to  allow  individuals  to  create  the  trust  
and  connections  necessary  to  transact  and  communicate  amongst  themselves  without  
any  institutionalized  intervention.  
 
 
 
Activity  I.  Activity  Report:  A  day  without  Technology  
 
  1.  Identify  and  interview  3  persons  with  the  following  description.    
 
    a.      an  elderly  who  is  not  using  cellphone  and  other  gadgets  
    b.      a  teenager  who  is  into  different  social  media  platforms  
    c.      a  professional  who  is  busy  with  his/her  career  
 
  2.  Prepare  guide  questions  and  ask  them  how  they  live  a  day  
 
    a.  with/without  technology.  
    b.  when  there  is  no  internet  connection.  
    c.  when  there  is  power  interruption.  
 
  3.  Synthesize  their  responses  and  make  your  own  reflection.  Prepare  a  written    
                             report.  
 
 
 
 
         
Activity  II.  Fake  Spotted!  
 
  Read   news   articles   and   reports   from   the   internet.   Identify   specific   issue   that  
surfaced  on  different  social  media  platforms  which  later  found  out  as  fake  news.  Discuss  
with  the  class  the  importance  of  verifying  reliable  and  accurate  information.    
 
Discussion  Guide  
 
1.  How  does  “fake  news”  come  to  exist  and  spread  so  rapidly?  Why  do  you  think  this    
       happens?  
       ___________________________________________________________________  
       ___________________________________________________________________  
       ___________________________________________________________________  

94
  
2.  How  is  “fake  news”  harmful?  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
 
3.  What  are  the  long  and  short  term  effects  and  consequences  of  being  a  consumer  of    
       “fake  news”?  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
 
4.  How  social  media  affect  your  personal  life?  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
       ____________________________________________________________________  
 
5.    How  social  media  affect  the  society  as  a  whole?  
         ___________________________________________________________________  
         ___________________________________________________________________  
         ___________________________________________________________________  
         ___________________________________________________________________  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

95
  
Chapter  8  
Biodiversity  and  Healthy  Society  
   
What  is  Biodiversity?  
 
  Biological   diversity   or   biodiversity   is   the   variety   of   life,   and   refers   collectively   to  
variation   at   all   levels   of   biological   organization.   The   term   biodiversity   refers   to   the   full  
abundance  or  variety  of  life  –  plant,  animal  and  microbial.  This  variety  of  life  occurs  at  all  
levels  of  ecological  organization,  but  biodiversity  generally  refers  to  genetic,  species  and  
ecosystem  diversity.  This  is  the  diversity  of  life  upon  which  the  health  of  the  environment  
depends.  Genetic,  species  and  ecosystem  diversity  are  convenient  terms  but  because  
the  universe  is  a  continuum,  some  practical  difficulties  exist  in  precisely  defining  each  of  
them.  
 
Biodiversity  and  Healthy  Society  
 
  Biodiversity   is   the   foundation   of   human   health.   By   securing   the   life-­sustaining  
goods  and  services  which  biodiversity  provides  to  us,  the  conservation  and  sustainable  
use   of   biodiversity   can   provide   significant   benefits   for   human   health.   In   contrast,   the  
continuing  loss  of  biodiversity  on  a  global  scale  represents  a  direct  threat  to  our  health  
and  well-­being.  Without  a  global  environment  that  is  healthy  and  capable  of  supporting  a  
diversity  of  life,  no  human  population  can  exist.  

•   Biodiversity  supports  food  security,  dietary  health,  livelihood  sustainability    

 
  Genetic   diversity   in   food   systems   provides   the   foundation   of   crop  
development   and   food   security,   and   promotes   resistance   and   resilience   to  
environmental  stresses  including  pests  and  diseases  of  crops  and  livestock.  Diets  
based   on   a   diversity   of   food   species   promote   health,   and   can   help   to   protect  
against   disease   by   addressing   the   problem   of   micronutrient   and   vitamin  
deficiencies.   Loss   of   agricultural   biodiversity   can   therefore   threaten   health,  
livelihood  sustainability  and  our  future  security  of  food  and  nutrition.  
 
•   Biodiversity  provides  important  resources  for  medical  research  
 
  Studies   of   wildlife   anatomy,   physiology   and   biochemistry   can   lead   to  
important   developments   in   human   medicine.   Examples   of   species   of   interest   to  
medical   science   include   bears   (for   insights   into   osteoporosis,   cardio-­vascular  
disorders,  renal  disease  and  diabetes),  sharks  (osmoregulation  and  immunology),  
cetaceans   (respiration   and   treatments   for   divers   suffering   from   decompression  
sickness)   and   horse-­shoe   crabs   (optometry/ophthalmology   and   molecular  
biology).  
 
 

96
  
•   Biodiversity  provides  important  resources  for  traditional  and  modern  medicine  

    Biodiversity   loss   can   impact   on   community   traditions   and   livelihoods  

  centered   on   traditional   medicinal   practices   that   utilize   wild   animals   and   plants,  
  particularly  for  indigenous  and  local  communities.  Millions  of  people  depend  upon  
  traditional  medicines  for  their  primary  health  care.  

•   Biodiversity  plays  a  role  in  the  regulation  and  control  of  infectious  diseases  
 
  Biodiversity  loss  and  ecosystem  change  can  increase  the  risk  of  emergence  
or   spread   of   infectious   diseases   in   animals,   plants   and   humans,   including  
economically   important   livestock   diseases,   zoonotic   outbreaks   and   global  
pandemics.   In   recent   years   outbreaks   of   SARS,   Ebola,   Marburg,   Hantavirus  
pulmonary  syndrome,  avian  influenza  and  malaria  have  been  attributed  to  human  
impacts   on   biodiversity,   the   wildlife   trade   or   unsustainable   land   use   change.  
Without   a   greater   understanding   of   disease   ecology,   there   is   also   a   risk   that  
programmes  to  tackle  infectious  diseases  may  impact  negatively  on  biodiversity,  
through  use  of  biocides  and  other  chemicals  and  wildlife  culls.  
 
•   Biodiversity  has  social,  cultural  and  spiritual  importance  within  communities  
 
  Ecosystem   change   can   result   in   disconnection   of   populations   from   open  
spaces  or  the  wider  countryside,  with  negative  implications  for  physical  and  mental  
well-­being     and   loss   of   “sense   of   place”.   This   has   been   linked   to   an   increased  
prevalence  of  ‘disease  of  affluence’  (diabetes,  obesity,  cardio-­pulmonary  illness)  
and   psychological   disorders   in   many   communities.   Conversely,   access   to  
‘greenspace’   (natural   and   artificial)   are   associated   with   better   health   outcomes,  
shorter   hospital   visits   and   reduced   convalescence   time   for   patients   than   purely  
urban  environments.  An  awareness  of  environmental  values  and  respect  for  other  
species  has  been  associated  with  reduced  propensity  towards  anti-­social    behavior  
in  children  and  young  adults.    

Threats  to  Biodiversity  

•   Habitat  loss  
 
Humans   rely   on   technology   to   modify   their   environment   and   make   it   habitable.  
Other  species  cannot  do  this.  Elimination  of  their  habitat—whether  it  is  a  forest,  
coral   reef,   grassland,   or   flowing   river—will   kill   the   individuals   in   the   species.  
Remove   the   entire   habitat   and   the   species   will   become   extinct,   unless   they   are  
among  the  few  species  that  do  well  in  human-­built  environments.    
 
 
 

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 •   Overharvesting  
Overhunting,   overfishing   and   over-­harvesting   contribute   greatly   to   the   loss   of  
biodiversity,   killing   off   numerous   species   over   the   past   several   hundred   years.  
Poaching  and  other  forms  of  hunting  for  profit  increase  the  risk  of  extinction;;  the  
extinction  of  an  apex  predator  —  or,  a  predator  at  the  top  of  a  food  chain  —  can  
result  in  catastrophic  consequences  for  ecosystems.  
 
 
•   Invasive  species  

  Exotic   species   are   species   that   have   been   intentionally   or   unintentionally  

  introduced   by   humans   into   an   ecosystem   in   which   they   did   not   evolve.   Most  
  exotic   species   introductions   probably   fail   because   of   the   low   number   of  
  individuals   introduced   or   poor   adaptation   to   the   ecosystem   they   enter.   Some  
  species,  however,  have  characteristics  that  can  make  them  especially  successful  
  in   a   new   ecosystem.   These   exotic   species   often   undergo   dramatic   population  
  increases   in   their   new   habitat   and   reset   the   ecological   conditions   in   the   new  
  environment,   threatening   the   species   that   exist   there.   When   this   happens,   the  
  exotic   species   also   becomes   an   invasive   species.   Invasive   species   can  
  threaten  other  species  through  competition  for  resources,  predation,  or  disease.  

•   Climate  change  

  Climate   change,   and   specifically   the   anthropogenic   warming   trend   presently  

  underway,  is  recognized  as  a  major  extinction  threat,  particularly  when  combined  
  with  other  threats  such  as  habitat  loss.  Anthropogenic  warming  of  the  planet  has  
  been  observed  and  is  due  to  past  and  continuing  emission  of  greenhouse  gases,  
  primarily   carbon   dioxide   and   methane,   into   the   atmosphere   caused   by   the  
  burning   of   fossil   fuels   and   deforestation.   Scientists   overwhelmingly   agree   the  
  present   warming   trend   is   caused   by   humans   and   some   of   the   likely   effects  
  include  dramatic  and  dangerous  climate  changes  in  the  coming  decades.  
 
  The   warming   trend   will   shift   colder   climates   toward   the   north   and   south   poles,  
  forcing   species   to   move   (if   possible)   with   their   adapted   climate   norms.   The  
  shifting   ranges   will   impose   new   competitive   regimes   on   species   as   they   find  
  themselves  in  contact  with  other  species  not  present  in  their  historic  range.  One  
  such   unexpected   species   contact   is   between   polar   bears   and   grizzly   bears.  
  Previously,   these   two   species   had   separate   ranges.   Now,   their   ranges   are  
  overlapping   and   there   are   documented   cases   of   these   two   species   mating   and  
  producing   viable   offspring.   Changing   climates   also   throw   off   the   delicate   timing  
  adaptations   that   species   have   to   seasonal   food   resources   and   breeding   times.  
  Scientists  have  already  documented  many  contemporary  mismatches  to  shifts  in  
  resource  availability  and  timing.  
 
 

98
  
 
 
Genetically  Modified  Organisms  (GMOs)  
 
  Biotechnology  is  a  set  of  techniques  that  involves  the  use  of  biological  processes  
and  living  organisms  for  industry,  agricultural  or  other  activities.  Its  purpose  is  to  modify  
the  natural  and  biological  processes  of  living  organisms  without  necessarily  altering  the  
genes  or  genetic  construct  of  the  living  organisms.  It  has  four  major  industrial  processes  
based  on  biological  systems,  namely  cell  and  tissue  culture,  fermentation,  enzyme  
technology,  and  genetic  engineering  –  also  referred  to  as  modern  technology.  
 
 
  Genetic   engineering   or   recombinant   DNA   (deoxyribonucleic   acid)   technology  
differs  from  other  forms  of  biotechnology  as  it  allows  the  isolation  and  transfer  of  genes  
coding  specific  characteristics  between  living  organisms  to  produce  a  new  living  organism  
that   expresses   the   desired   characteristics   of   both   organisms.   Genetically   modified  
organisms  or  GMOs  is  the  common  term  used  for  genetically  engineered  organisms.  
 
  For  thousands  of  years,  humans  have  been  using  traditional  modification  methods  
like   selective   breeding   and   cross-­breeding   to   breed   plants   and   animals   with   more  
desirable   traits.   Most   of   the   foods   today   were   created   through   traditional   breeding  
methods.  But  changing  plants  and  animals  through  traditional  breeding  can  take  a  long  
time,  and  it  is  difficult  to  make  very  specific  changes.  After  scientists  developed  genetic  
engineering,   they   were   able   to   make   similar   changes   in   a   more   specific   way   and   in   a  
shorter   amount   of   time.   (https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-­biotechnology/science-­
and-­history-­gmos-­and-­other-­food-­modification-­processes)
 
Intended  Uses  of  GMOs  
 
Used  as  specific  models  for  many  different  human  diseases,  including  multiple  
Biomedical   infectious  diseases,  such  as  HIV,  immune  system  defects,  blood  and  metabolic  
disorders,  muscular  dystrophy,  cancer  immunotherapies  among  others.  
 
 
Engineering  of  animals  used  for  food.  Examples  include,  chickens  producing  
only   female   offspring   for   egg   laying,   cows   producing   only   male   offspring   for  
better  meat  yield,  pigs  who  can  be  fattened  with  less  food,  cashmere  goats  for  
Farm/Food  Animals  
producing  more  meat  from  greater  muscle  mass  and  longer  hair  for  wool  yield;;    
and  efforts  to  facilitate  greater  stocking  density,  such  as  cattle  without  horns  
and  animals  with  greater    resistance  to  disease.  
 
 
Genetic  engineering  provides  a  quicker  and  more  precise  way  to  achieve  the  
 
same  goal  in  one  generation.  Genetically  modified  crops  offer  improved  
Agriculture  
yields,  enhanced  nutritional  value,  longer  shelf  life,  and  resistance  to  drought,  
 
frost,  or  insect  pests.  Examples  of  GM  crops  include  corn  varieties  containing  
 
a  gene  for  a  bacterial  pesticide  that  kills  larval  pests,  and  soybeans  with  an  
inserted  gene  that  renders  them  resistant  to  weed-­killers.    

99
  
Source:  Bailey,  2019  
 
“GMO”  (genetically  modified  organism)  has  become  the  common  term  consumers  and  
popular  media  use  to  describe  foods  that  have  been  created  through  genetic  engineering.  
Genetic  engineering  is  a  process  that  involves:    

•   Identifying   the   genetic   information   –   or   “gene”   –   that   gives   an   organism   (plant,  

animal  or  microorganism)  a  desired  trait.    
•   Copying  the  information  from  the  organism  that  has  the  trait  
•   Inserting  that  information  into  the  DNA  of  another  organism  
 

 
Some  Genetically  Modified  Organisms  developed  in  the  Philippines  

o   Longer-­lasting  papayas  

  Institute   of   Plant   Breeding   in   UPLB   developed   delayed-­ripening   papaya   that   is  

resistant   to   ring-­spot   virus   (PRSV).   The   initial   project   assisted   by   the   Australian  
government  developed  a  papaya  variety  with  a  14-­day  shelf  life,  or  double  the  usual  6  
days.  The  scientists  achieved  this  by  suppressing  the  generation  of  key  enzyme  in  the  
ethylene   biosynthesis   pathway   –ACC   synthase   –   through   genetic   manipulation.   ACC  
synthase  triggers  ethylene  production,  which  causes  ripening  of  fruits.      
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

o   Protein  enriched  copra  meal  (PECM)  as  feed  protein  for  tilapia,  milkfish  and  
shrimp  aquaculture  

  Primarily   used   as   animal   feed,   copra   meal   is   an   important   feed   resource   in   the  
Philippines.  In  2014,  the  Philippines  produced  about  750,000  metric  tons  of  copra  meal  
as  coconut  by-­product.  About  60%  of  this  was  locally  utilized  mainly  as  animal  feed.  There  
are,  however,  several  concerns  on  the  use  of  soybean  meals  as  feeding  ingredient.  This  

100
includes   its   fluctuating   market   price,   its   being   expensive   import   commodity,   its   erratic  
supply,  and  the  fact  that  it  even  competes  for  human  food.  
 
  To  address  the  issue  on  high  cost  of  soybean  importation  and  to  ensure  the  quality  
of   animal   feeds,   the   Philippine   Council   for   Agriculture,   Aquatic   and   Natural   Resources  
Research   and   Development   of   the   Department   of   Science   and   Technology   (DOST-­
PCARRD)   supported   research   and   development   (R&D)   programs   on   feed   resources  
under  its  Industry  Strategic  Science  and  Technology  (S&T)  Program  (ISP).  
  One  of  the  program’s  accomplishments  is  the  use  of  formulated  feeds  for  swine,  
poultry   and   aquatic   animals   with   Protein   Enriched   Copra   Meal   (PECM)   that   was  
developed   by   the   National   Institute   of   Molecular   Biology   and   Biotechnology   of   the  
University   of   the   Philippines   Los   Banos   (UPLB-­BIOTECH).   Through   solid-­state  
fermentation   technology,   the   PECM   is   enriched   with   microorganisms   that   increase   the  
protein  content  of  copra  meal  to  about  36  to  44%  crude  protein  content,  comparable  to  
the   46%   of   soybean   meal.   A   group   of   researchers   from   the   Institute   of   Aquaculture,  
College   of   Fisheries   and   Ocean   Sciences   of   the   University   of   the   Philippines   Visayas  
studied  the  possibility  of  substituting  50%  soybean  meal,  as  a  major  feed  protein  source,  
with  PECM.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Protein   enriched   copra   meal   (PECM)   used   for   tilapia,   Milkfish  and  tilapia  when  fed  with  commercial  feed  and  
milkfish,   and   shrimp   aquaculture   (photo   courtesy   of   UP   PECM  (photo  courtesy  of  UP  Visayas,  Miagao,  Iloilo)  
  Visayas,  Miagao,  Iloilo)  

o   Tomato  Leaf  Curve  Virus  (ToLCV)-­  resistant  Variety  

  The  Institute  of  Plant  Breeding  (IPB)  of  the  University  of  the  Philippines  Los  Banos  
(UPLB)  has  developed  tomato  breeding  line  resistant  to  tomato  leaf  curl  virus  (ToLCV)  in  
the  hope  of  reviving  tomato’s  robust  production  in  the  country.    

 
 
 
 
 
 

101
 https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph  
 
  The  two-­year  project  was  completed  by  a  team  composed  mainly  of  local  scientist  
at   the   IPB-­UPLB   with   financial   support   from   the   Department   of   Agriculture   Biotech  
Program.   The   research   team   developed   the   candidate   ToLCV-­resistant   lines   from   the  
local  tomato  varieties  by  interbreeding  local  varieties  with  ToLCV-­resistant  tomato  lines  
acquired  from  the  Asian  Vegetable  Research  and  Development  Center  (AVRDC)  –  The  
World  Vegetable  Center.  
                                         
  ToLCV-­resistance  in  the  donor  parental  lines,  hybrids  and  the  derived  lines  from  
the  initial  hybrids  was  verified  by  exposing  the  plants  to  the  ToLCV-­Laguna  isolate  and  
by   marker-­assisted   selection   (MAS).   MAS   can   predict   even   at   early   seedling   stage  
whether  a  plant  will  grow  to  express  a  trait  of  interest  based  on  the  mere  presence  or  
absence  of  gene  markers.  Gene  markers  are  short  unique  DNA  sequences  located  near  
the  DNA  sequence  of  the  gene  responsible  for  a  desired  physical  characteristic/trait  in  
each  generation  of  plants  produced.  In  this  case,  markers  for  genes  responsible  for  the  
resistance  to  ToLCV  confirmed  successful  transfer  of  the  resistance  gene  in  the  genetic  
make-­up  of  the  developed  tomato  lines.  Lines  rated  as  highly  resistant  due  to  absence  or  
very   minimal   observed   symptoms   of   infection   and   detected   for   presence   of   ToLCV  
resistance   genes   through   gene   markers   were   considered   candidate   ToLCV   resistant  
breeding  materials.  
 
  Tomato  was  the  leading  vegetable  crop  in  the  country  in  terms  of  area  planted  until  
1990.  The  peak  of  decline  in  the  area  of  production  in  1997  was  primarily  due  to  pests  
and   diseases   as   well   as   unfavorable   climatic   conditions   especially   during   off-­season  
months.  Virus  diseases,  including  ToLCV,  are  considered  the  most  damaging  to  tomato  
production  worldwide  causing  50-­100%  yield  loss.  Use  of  chemicals  to  stop  the  vector  
insect   proved   to   be   costly   and   does   not   warrant   sustainable   protection.   Moreover,   the  
strategy  can  be  hazardous  both  to  human  health  and  environment.  The  use  of  resistant  
varieties  offers  the  most  effective  and  practical  strategy  to  overcome  the  disease.  While  
breeding  initiatives  to  virus  resistant  varieties  have  been  going  on,  the  lack  of  varieties  
with  durable  resistance  against  multiple  virus  diseases  remains  a  concern  to  farmers.  At  
present,   there   are   no   commercial   varieties   grown   in   the   Philippines   with   durable  
resistance   to   major   virus   diseases   such   as   ToLCV.   Use   of   the   promising   resistant  
breeding  materials  may  improve  production  yield  and  income  of  more  than  18,000  tomato  
growers.    
 
 
 
 
 
 

102
  
Bt  corn  
  Bt  corn  in  the  Philippines  was  engineered  to  be  specifically  resistant  to  the  Asian  
corn  borer  (ACB),  Ostrinia  furnacalis  (Guenee),  the  most  devastating  corn  pests  in  the  
industry.  It  was  introduced  as  a  “practical  and  ecologically  sustainable  solution”  for  poor  
corn  farmers,  a  major  bullet  to  combat  poverty  and  improve  livelihood.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

https://www.sunstar.com  
Adoption  rate  of  biotech  maize  in  2015  is  at  63  percent.  In  the  period  2003  to  2015,  there  
were   13   years   of   consecutive   growth   in   hectarage   of   Bt   corn,   except   for   2015   due   to  
drought.  
 
Potential  benefits  of  GM  crops    
 
1.  Better  nutritional  qualities-­-­-­rice  with  provitamin  A  and  iron;;  corn  with  high  lysine  and    
       tryptophan;;  vegetables  with  higher  ~-­carotene  and  lycopene;;  legumes  with  higher        
       sulfur  containing  amino  acids:  sweet  potato  with  higher  protein  content.    
 
2.  Engineering  pest  or  disease  resistance  in  important  crops  such  as  rice  and  corn,    
       various  vegetables.  sweet  potato  and  others  especially  those  important  for    
       developing  countries.    
 
3.  Edible  vaccines  -­-­-­aimed  at  providing  low  cost  immunization  strategy  for  developing    
       countries;;  banana  with  antigen  of  causal  organism  of  diarrhea  is  now  at  clinical  trial    
         stage.  Vaccine  corn  for  gastroenteritis  in  hogs,  hepatitis  B  in  humans,  etc.    
 
4.  Antibodies  engineered  and  produced  in  plants-­-­-­expressed  antibodies  in  potato,    
       tobacco  and  rapeseed  were  stable  and  active;;  need  to  increase  expression  level.    
 
5.  Crops  which  can  extract  and  detoxify  pollutants  from  the  environment  such  as  heavy    
       metals-­-­-­this  research  is  hampered  by  the  lack  of  basic  knowledge  on  the  molecular    
       mechanism  involved  in  the  uptake  and  storage  of  inorganics  in  plants.    
 
6.  Crops  which  produce  less  toxic  residues  such  as  corn  with  low  phytate,  15  Phytate    

103
        complexes  phosphorus  and  thus  the  latter  becomes  unavailable  and  cannot  released    
       by  nonruminants.  A  large  amount  of  phosphate  is  excreted  and  contributes  to  water    
       pollution.    
 
7.  Production  of  alternative  polymers  which  can  replace  o  substitute  plastics  and  other    
       petrochemical  products  in  plants  and  thus  are  renewable  and  biodegradable.  
 
Risk  Related  to  the  Use  of  Genetically  Modified  Organisms  (GMOs)  
 
Genetic  Contamination/Interbreeding.  Introduced  GMOs  may  interbreed  with  the  wild-­
type  or  sexually  compatible  relatives.  The  novel  trait  may  disappear  in  wild  types  unless  
it  confers  a  selective  advantage  to  the  recipient.  However,  tolerance  abilities  of  wild  types  
may  also  develop,  thus  altering  the  native  species’  ecological  relationship  and  behavior.  
 
Competition  with  Natural  Species.  Faster  growth  of  GMOs  can  enable  them  to  have  a  
competitive  advantage  over  the  native  organisms.  This  may  allow  them  become  invasive,  
to  spread  into  new  habitats,  and  cause  ecological  and  economic  damage.  
 
Increased  Selection  Pressure  on  Target  and  Non-­target  Organisms.  Pressure  may  
increase  on  target  and  non-­target  species  to  adapt  to  the  introduced  changes  as  if  to  a  
geological  change  or  a  natural  selection  pressure  causing  them  to  evolve  distinct  resistant  
populations.  
 
Ecosystem  Impacts.  The  effects  of  changes  in  a  single  species  may  extend  well  beyond  
to  the  ecosystem.  Single  impacts  are  always  joined  by  the  risk  of  ecosystem  damage  and  
destruction.  
 
Impossibility  of  Follow-­up.  Once  the  GMOs  have  been  introduced  into  the  environment  
and   some   problems   arise,   it   is   impossible   to   eliminate   them.   Many   of   these   risks   are  
identical  to  those  incurred  with  regards  to  the  introduction  of  naturally  or  conventionally  
bred  species.  But  still  this  does  not  suggest  that  GMOs  are  safe  or  beneficial,  nor  that  
they  should  be  less  scrutinized.  
Horizontal   Transfer   of   Recombinant   Genes   to   other   Microorganisms.   One   risk   of  
particular  concern  relating  to  GMOs  is  the  risk  of  horizontal  gene  transfer  (HGT).  HGT  is  
the   acquisition   of   foreign   genes   (via   transformation,   transduction,   and   conjugation)   by  
organisms   in   a   variety   of   environmental   situations.   It   occurs   especially   in   response   to  
changing  environments  and  provides  organisms,  especially  prokaryotes,  with  access  to  
genes  other  than  those  that  can  be  inherited.  HGT  of  an  introduced  gene  from  a  GMO  
may  confer  a  novel  trait  in  another  organism,  which  could  be  a  source  of  potential  harm  
to  the  health  of  people  or  the  environment.  
 
Loss  of  Management  Control  Measures.  Regulatory  approvals  for  field  trials  of  GMOs  
often  require  measures  to  limit  and  control  the  release  in  space  and  time.  With  the  spread  
of  the  introduced  gene(s)  to  another  species  by  HGT,  a  new  GMO  is  created.  This  new  
GMO  may  give  rise  to  adverse  effects  which  are  not  controlled  by  management  measures  
imposed  by  the  original  license  or  permit.  

104
  
Long-­term  Effects.  Sometimes  the  impact  of  HGT  may  be  more  severe  in  the  long  term.  
Even  under  relatively  strong  selection  pressure,  it  may  take  thousands  of  generations  for  
a  recipient  organism  to  become  the  dominant  form  in  the  population.  In  addition,  other  
factors   such   as   timing   of   appropriate   biotic   or   abiotic   environmental   conditions   and  
additional  changes  in  the  recipient  organism  could  delay  adverse  effects.  
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2011/369573/  
 
Antibiotic  Resistance  and  Horizontal  Gene  Transfer.  Most  of  the  first  generation  of  
GM  crops  have  antibiotic  resistance  gene  as  selectable  marker.  It  has  been  hypothesized  
that   such   antibiotic   resistance   genes   could   lead   to   the   innovation   of   oral   doses   of   the  
antibiotic,  or  that  these  genes  could  be  transferred  to  pathogenic  microorganism  in  the  
gut  or  the  soil  which  will  render  them  resistant  to  such  antibiotics.    
 
GMOs  and  Biodiversity  
 
  The   impact   of   GMOs   on   biodiversity   is   widely   debated.   Pro-­GMO   researchers  
maintain   that   if   crops   are   genetically   modified   for   pest   resistance,   farmers   can   reduce  
their  reliance  on  insecticides,  so  that  local  fauna,  such  as  birds,  rodents,  and  insects,  can  
flourish   in   the   area.   Secondary   pests   that   would   have   been   eliminated   through  
widespread  insecticide  application  are  not  suppressed  by  the  scaled-­back  insecticide  use  
permitted  GMOs.  Because  these  secondary  pests  remain,  other  small  predator  –  the  birds  
and  rodents  that  feed  on  the  secondary  pests-­remain  viable.  In  addition,  the  development  
of  drought-­resistant  or  flood-­resistant  crops  allows  arid  or  flood-­prone  land  to  be  used  for  
growing  crops.  This  means  that  less  high-­biodiversity  terrain  needs  to  be  converted  for  
farming.  
 
  On  the  other  side  of  the  debate,  GMO  skeptics  have  argued  that  up  to  75%  of  plant  
genetic  diversity  has  been  lost  since  farmers  switched  to  uniform  GM  crop  varieties.  In  
this   view,   less   popular,   non-­GM   seed   varieties   are   being   neglected.   Moreover,   widely  
used  GM  crop  varieties  can  spread  to  neighboring  fields  and  eventually  mix  in  with  non-­
GM  crops.  A  farmer  who  wishes  to  continue  using  a  non-­GM  seed  variety,  or  who  desires  
to  maintain  the  organic  status  of  his  crops,  must  adopt  potentially  expensive  measures  to  
protect  his  crops  from  contamination  or  cross-­pollination  with  his  neighbor’s  GM  crops.  It  
has  also  been  argued  that  the  over-­popularity  of  certain  GM  crops  may  lead  to  greater  
susceptibility  to  pests  and  disease.  Pests  may  evolve  to  target  the  monoculture  of  popular  
and   overused   crop   varieties.   Moreover,   it   has   been   argued   that   the   evolution   of  
glyphosate-­resistant  weeds  has  required  farmers  to  make  ever  greater  use  of  glyphosate,  
the  toxicity  of  which  poses  dangers  for  human  health.  
 
  It  has  been  hypothesized  that  GM  crops  can  harm  insect  species  that  are  not  pests.  
Insects  that  feed  on  GM  crops  will  carry  GM  pollen,  which  may  prove  toxic  in  the  long  
term  and  result  in  depletion  or  even  extinction  of  insect  populations.  The  genetic  integrity  
of   any   plant   or   insect   that   lives   in   close   proximity   to   GM   crops   can   be   compromised  
because  gene  transfer  from  one  organism  to  another  can  occur,  and  such  genes  may  

105
pose  unanticipated  risks.  GM  traits  have  been  found  transferred  to  insects,  water  life  and  
soil.    
 
Activity  1:  Article  Review  
 
1.  Read  the  Adrian  Dubock’s  “The  Politics  of  Golden  Rice”  available  online  at    
       http://www.goldenrice.org/PDFs/Dubock-­Politics_of_GR-­2014.pdf.    
 
2.  Answer  the  following  questions:  
 
  a.  What  is  the  article  all  about?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  b.  What  is  Cartagena  Protocol?  Why  it  is  said  that  the  foundation  of  its  opposition    
                             to  GMO  crops  was  initially  considered  “rock”,  but  actually  “sands”?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
           ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  c.  What  are  the  points  mentioned  by  the  author  why  golden  rice  was  politicized?  
                             ______________________________________________________________  
             ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  d.  What  are  your  thoughts  about  the  article?  Do  you  agree  or  disagree  that          
                             “politics”  somehow  impede  the  development  of  GMO-­crop  technology?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
   
  e.  Do  you  agree  to  its  conclusion  that  society  incurs  pain,  environmental  damage    
                             and  deaths  due  to  the  delays  in  advancement  in  agricultural  science  caused    
                             by  national  and  international  regulations?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  

106
  
 
 
Activity  2.  Reflective  Essay  
 
  Look  at  the  picture  below.  Make  a  300-­word  essay  about  in  relation  to  the  ideas  
presented  to  you  during  the  discussion.  Provide  a  title  for  your  essay.    
 
 
 
  Environment  
 
 
 
 
  Health  
 
  Society  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

107
  
 
 
Chapter  9  
The  Nano  World  
 
What  is  Nanotechnology?  
 
Nano  is  a  prefix  used  in  the  metric  scale  to  represent  one  billionth.  A  nanometer  (nm)  is  
one  billionth  of  a  meter.  Nano  comes  from  the  Greek  word  for  dwarf,  so  in  combination  
with  technology,  it  becomes  dwarf  technology.  Technology  applies  science  and  materials  
for   human   uses,   and   nanotechnology   applies   science   and   materials   at   the   nanoscale.  
People   refer   to   nanotechnology   as   “tiny   tech”   or   “nanotech”.   It   represents   the   scaling  
down  of  technology  to  a  new  scale,  generally  agreed  to  be  in  the  range  of  1  to  100  nm.  
 
One   of   the   main   reasons   for   the   explosion   of   interest   in   nanotechnology   is   the   unique  
properties  and  behavior  of  matter  at  the  nanoscale.  When  particles  are  synthesized  at  the  
nanoscale,  their  properties  change.  For  one  thing,  nanoparticles  have  much  more  surface  
area  compared  to  their  weight  than  larger  particles.  This  single  property  means  that  much  
less  material  can  be  used  for  application,  allowing  us  to  save  natural  resources,  energy  
and  money,  provided  that  it  does  not  cost  more  to  produce.  Using  less  material  in  products  
can  offer  both  economic  and  environmental  benefits.  
 
Working  with  matter  on  such  a  small  scale  represents  a  revolution  in  technology  because,  
at  this  scale,  materials  reveal  uniquely  novel  physical,  chemical,  and  biological  (including  
toxicological)  properties  when  compared  to  their  bulk  counterpart.  It  is  akin  to  discovering  
a  world  of  new  materials  emerging  out  of  existing  materials.    
 
Applications  of  Nanotechnology  in  All  Fields  of  Science  
 
  The  early  2000’s  saw  the  beginning  of  commercial  applications  of  nanotechnology,  
although   these   were   limited   to   bulk   applications   of   nanomaterial   rather   than   the  
transformative  applications  envisioned  by  the  field.  With  thousands  of  researchers  across  
the  globe  focusing  on  the  applications  of  nanomaterials  and  the  mushrooming  of  many  
industries,  it  is  now  difficult  to  say  who  did  what  first.  The  realization  by  scientists  and  
industrialists   of   the   ability   of   the   materials   to   dramatically   change   their   properties   as  
nanoscale   has   opened   up   the   possibility   of   making   new   devices,   instruments   and  
consumer  goods,  etc,  to  function  in  a  much  better  way  than  was  possible  earlier.  Rapid  
progress  in  the  synthesis  and  understanding  of  nanomaterials  in  just  a  few  years  has  led  
to   their   entry   into   the   world   in   a   big   way.   Various   fields   in   which   nanomaterials   have  
already  entered  or  about  to  enter  can  be  overviewed.    
 
 
 
 
 

108
  
 
 
 
 
Application  of  Nanotechnology  in  all  fields  of  Science  
Single  electron  transistor  (SET),  spin  valves  and  magnetic  tunnel  junctions  (MT)s  are  
based  on  nanotechnology.  Spin  valve-­type  devices  are  already  being  used  in  personal  
computers  to  “read  discs,”  which  has  enabled  the  increase  of  data  storage  capacity  of  
hard  discs.  
Electronics    
Flat-­panel  television  or  computer  monitors  are  products  of  nanotechnology.  Even  the  
coatings  used  on  screens  of  TVs  or  monitors  can  be  made  of  nanoparticles,  which  have  
better  properties  in  terms  of  color  quality  and  resolution  than  microparticle  coatings.  
 
Some   metal   hydride   nanoparticles   like   nickel   hydrides   or   high   surface   area,   ultra-­
lightweight  materials  like  aerogels  are  found  to  be  better  options  than  the  conventional  
materials   in   improved   batteries.   Carbon   nanomaterial   (CNM)   has   been   used   in  
Energy  
improving  the  efficacy  of  lithium  secondary  batteries,  supercapacitors  and  in  hydrogen  
storage.  
 
Efficient   production   of   nanomaterials   following   the   low   temperature   synthesis   route  
would  help  to  reduce  industrial  pollution.  Use  of  nanomaterials  as  hydrogen  storage  or  
efficient   oil   filters   may   reduce   pollution   from   vehicles.   Efficient   nanomaterials   are  
lightweight  and  needed  only  in  small  quantities.  This  may  help  reduce  the  price  of  many  
products,  making  them  commonly  affordable.    
 
Environment  
Some   of   the   nanoparticle-­based   sensors   are   much   more   novel   and   sensitive  
compounds   to   those   being   used.   Nanomaterials-­based   sensors   would   be   smart  
sensors,  i.e.,  they  will  be  able  to  detect  and  rectify  problems.  Such  sensors  are  being  
developed  for  water  purification  systems,  detection  of  toxic  ions,  metal  ions,  pesticides,  
etc.,  and  their  remediation  on  a  larger  scale.  
 
Nanosensors  will  help  in  assessing  emissions  from  the  vehicle  and  help  in  controlling  
pollutants.  
 
Car  paints/coatings  using  nanoparticle  are  being  used  to  provide  smooth,  thin  attractive  
coatings  that  are  scratch  resistant,  can  repel  dirt  and  are  anti-­reflective.  Biocide  paints  
and  anti-­fogging  coatings  are  even  being  developed.  
 
“Self-­cleaning”   glass   for   windows   is   being   fabricated   by   dissolving   a   small   amount   of  
titania   (TiO2)   nanoparticles   while   manufacturing   it   and   melting   it   together   with   other  
ingredients  like  silica  (SiO2),  CaO,  Ba2O3,  etc.  Titania  is  able  to  dissociate  organic  dust  
Automobiles   in  the  presence  of  UV  light  available  in  sunlight.  Once  dissociated,  it  may  fall  down  or  
simply  evaporate.  
 
To  combat  population  caused  by  vehicles,  use  of  efficient  nanomaterial  catalysts  is  one  
solution  that  can  convert  harmful  emissions  into  less  harmful  gases.  
 
To  overcome  the  pollution  problem,  cars  using  hydrogen  as  fuel  are  being  marketed.  
Hydrogen  gas  is  normally  stored  in  a  metal  cylinder  under  high  pressure  not  only  can  
add   weight   to   the   vehicle   but   is   also   dangerous.   To   overcome   this   problem,   storing  
hydrogen  in  “nanocylinders”  of  carbon  nanotubes  is  being  tried.  
 
Application  in  combating  plant  diseases:  
Agriculture  and  Food  
•   Controlled  delivery  of  functional  molecules  
Nanoparticles  used  as  Trojan  horse  for  delivery  of  active  ingredients.  

109
  
•   As  a  diagnostic  tool  for  disease  detection  
For  detection  purpose,  both  nanoparticles  and  quantum  dots  (QDs)  have  
emerged  as  pivotal  tools  for  detection  of  biological  markers.  Nanotechnology  
can  play  important  role  in  treatment  by  diagnosing  a  disease  at  its  very  early  
stage.  
 
 
Application  of  Nanotechnology  in  all  fields  of  Science  
Semiconductors  and  magnetic  nanostructures  have  found  maximum  use  in  industries  
pertaining   to   semiconductor   fabrication,   electronics   and   nanostructure-­based   electro-­
optical  devices.  Based  on  the  nanomagnetic  properties  of  nanostructure,  photoinduced  
magnetism,   spintronics,   nanomagnetic   probes,   electronic   magneto-­transport   and  
micromagnetic  modeling  are  being  developed  by  various  industries.  Nanosensors  and  
actuators   for   various   applications   are   one   of   the   major   activities   of   nano-­based  
industries.  Another  area  being  concentrated  on  by  industries  is  molecular  electronics,  
Industries  
such  as  for  liquid  crystal  displays.  
 
Industries   are   involved   in   developing   and   producing   nanomaterials   to   obtain   nano-­
bioproducts   for   bone   substitutes   and   dentistry;;   antimicrobial   applications   in   various  
products;;   food   and   cosmetic   applications;;   applications   in   textiles,   paints,   catalysis,  
lubricants,  fuel  cells  and  batteries;;  all  of  which  are  part  of  major  industrial  production.  
 
Special  threads  and  dyes  used  in  the  textile  industry  are  products  of  nanotechnology.  
These   clothes   do   not   require   ironing   or   frequent   cleaning.   Use   of   silver   (Ag)  
nanoparticles   in   washing   machines   remove   the   germs   from   clothes   while   washing.  
Masks   made   of   fabrics   coated   with   nanoparticles   for   protection   against   microbes   are  
Textiles   already   on   the   market.   There   are   piezoelectric   fibers   that   could   allow   clothing   to  
generate   electricity   through   normal   conditions.   Fabrics   composed   of   proteins   are  
capable  of  stretching  as  much  as  1500  percent  from  their  original  size  and  can  be  used  
form-­fitting  clothing.  
 
Nanoliposomes   are   used   as   vesicular   delivery   systems.   Liposomes   are   concentric  
bilayer   vesicles.   The   first   liposomal   cosmetic   was   the   anti-­aging   cream   “Capture”  
manufactured  by  Dior.  
 
Solid  lipid  nanoparticles  (SLNs)  are  nm-­sized  particles  with  a  solid  lipid  matrix.  SLNs  are  
Cosmetics  
tested   in   perfume   formulations.   Chanel’s   Allure   perfume   was   incorporated   into   SLNs  
 
and  nanoemulsions.  
 
Dendrimers   were   used   in   a   formula   patented   by   L’Oreal   that   forms   a   thin   film   when  
deposited  on  a  substrate.  They  are  used  in  mascara  and  nail  polish.  
 
Nanoporous  aerogel  insulator  is  excellent  for  insulating  walls.  
 
Flame-­retardant   furniture   coatings   are   on   the   market   which   are   synthesized   carbon  
nanofibers.  
 
Domestic  Appliances   Fishing   rods   are   made   stronger   and   lighter   using   silica   nanoparticles   to   fill   spaces  
between  carbon  fibers.  
 
Antimicrobial  titanium  oxide  nanoparticles  are  used  in  various  applications  as  part  of  a  
film  that  uses  energy  in  light  to  kill  bacteria  on  surfaces  by  photocatalytic  activity.  
 
Nanomedicine   researchers   are   looking   at   ways   that   nanotechnology   can   improve  
  vaccines,  including  vaccine  delivery  without  the  use  of  needles.  Researchers  also  are  
Diagnostics  and   working  to  create  a  universal  vaccine  scaffold  for  the  annual  flu  vaccine  that  would  cover  
Therapeutics   more  strains  and  require  fewer  resources  to  develop  each  year.  
 

110
 Commercial  applications  have  adapted  gold  nanoparticles  as  probes  for  the  detection  
of   targeted   sequences   of   nucleic   acids,   and   gold   nanoparticles   are   being   clinically  
investigated  as  potential  treatments  for  cancer  and  other  diseases.  
 
Nanotechnology   is   being   studied   for   both   the   diagnosis   and   treatment   of  
atherosclerosis.  In  one  technique,  researchers  created  a  nanoparticle  that  mimics  the  
body’s   “good”   cholesterol,   known   as   HDL   (high-­density   lipoprotein),   which   helps   to  
shrink  plaque.  
 
Source:  Sharon,  2019  
 
Environmental  Aspects  of  Nanotechnology  
 
  Many   applications   of   nanotechnology   benefits   the   environment,   for   example,  
treating   drinking   water,   eliminating   toxic   chemicals,   increasing   water   and   energy  
efficiency,   and   harnessing   cleaner   energy   technologies.   How   can   the   applications   of  
nanoscience  affect  the  environment?  It  is  not  clear  today  what  the  potential  impacts  are  
from  nanoscale  materials  in  the  air,  water  and  soil.  For  example,  it  is  not  known  to  what  
extent   nanomaterials   might   enter   the   food   supply   and   become   part   of   human   diet,   or  
whether  and  how  they  can  affect  forests,  coral  reefs,  or  air  quality    
 
  Will   there   be   a   nano-­environmental   legacy?   Are   nanomaterials   already   entering  
the  environment  in  ways  that  will  allow  them  to  persist  and  enter  or  upset  the  food  chain?  
Will  nanomaterials  follow  the  path  of  other  legacy  pollutants,  such  as  lead?  How  will  this  
be  determined  if  data  are  not  being  collected?  One  could  argue  that  the  amounts  will  be  
small,  and  in  the  near  future,  it  is  true  that  there  are  few  applications  of  nanotechnology  
likely   to   allow   free   nanoparticles   to   enter   the   environment   in   significant   amounts.  
However,  as  more  and  more  applications  adopt  nanotechnology,  the  production,  uses,  
and  releases  of  nanoparticles  will  dramatically  increase.  
 
  By  way  of  example,  in  a  hospital  environment,  it  is  very  important  to  keep  surfaces  
sanitary  and  free  from  contamination,  and  many  cleaning  equipment  or  washing  floors  
and   surfaces   to   help   prevent   the   spread   of   germs.   Using   a   product   containing   a  
nanomaterial   as   a   disinfectant   might   mean   it   would   be   sprayed,   wiped,   poured   into  
buckets  and  on  floors,  and  washed  down  drains.  An  obvious  question  arises:  Where  could  
the   nanomaterial   end   up?   Anytime,   chemicals   are   washed   away   with   water   or   flushed  
down  the  drain,  they  are  released  into  the  environment.  From  drain  pipes,  the  materials  
enter   the   groundwater   and   eventually   can   move   to   the   nearest   river   and   streams,   of  
course,  these  may  affect  drinking  water  sources  and  oceans.    
 
  Triclosan,  commonly  found  in  antimicrobial  soaps  and  cleaning  products,  is  among  
many   consumer-­used   chemicals   found   in   the   river   and   drinking   water   sources.   Some  
population  of  bacteria  routinely  exposed  to  substances  designed  to  eradicate  them  (e.g.  
pesticides  and  medical  antibiotics)  are  now  found  in  the  environment  and  have  become  
resistant   to   antibiotics   used   in   agriculture   and   to   treat   human   diseases.   Antimicrobial  
resistance  is  a  big  problem  because  bacteria  are  no  longer  susceptible  to  the  treatments  
developed  to  kill  them,  and  outbreaks  can  occur  that  cannot  be  managed.    
 

111
Nanotechnology  in  the  Philippines  
 
  In   2011,   the   government   announced   a   10-­year   strategic   plan/road   map   for   the  
development   of   the   R&D   strategy   of   nanotechnology   covering   at   least   six   industrial  
sectors  –  the  semiconductor,  information  technology,  energy,  agriculture,  medicine,  and  
environmental  protection.  Nanotechnology  has  been  identified  as  one  of  the  priority  areas  
of  research  identified  by  the  Department  of  Science  and  Technology-­Philippine  Council  
for  Advanced  Science  and  Technology  Research  and  Development  (DOST-­PCASTRD).  
PCASTRD’s  mandate  is  to  develop,  integrate,  and  coordinate  national  research.  Flagship  
projects  include  chemical  sensors  and  biosensors  based  on  nanostructured  solar  energy  
devices.   PCASTRD   also   provides   funds   for   scholarships   and   research   fellowships.  
PCASTRD   has   also   proposed   to   include   nanotechnology   as   part   of   all   science   and  
engineering  degrees.  
 
  In  the  area  of  agriculture,  funded  nano  projects  include  rapid  and  early  pest  and  
pathogen  detection;;  precision  agriculture  –  monitoring  of  agricultural  growth  parameters;;  
and   post-­harvest   quality   monitoring,   nano-­sized   feedstock,   nano-­sized  
fertilizers/nutrients,  and  pesticides.  Research  into  nanocomposite  films  and  membranes  
aims  to  extend  the  shelf-­life  of  fresh  and  processed  produce,  aid  the  clarification  of  juices,  
and   improve   whey   protein   production.   Projects   concerning   nanotechnology   for   water  
purification  and  environmental  remediation  are  also  being  funded.  Seedgrowth,  a  plant  
supplement  consisting  of  nano-­sized  fruit  extracts  and  microorganisms,  was  developed  
in  the  Philippines  and  apparently  reduces  the  need  for  chemical  fertilizers  and  increases  
crop   yield.   Scientists   from   DOST   have   also   developed   a   low-­cost   water   purification  
system  in  the  form  of  a  ceramic  filter  coated  with  silver  nanoparticles.  There  appears  to  
be  no  nano  specific  regulation  in  the  Philippines.    
 
Risks  
 
  Historical  evidence  supported  by  scientific  findings  show  that  all  new  technologies  
come   with   risks   to   human   health   and   the   environment,   and   nanotechnology   is   no  
exception.  The  increasing  number  of  engineered  nanomaterials  and  nanoproducts  gives  
rise  to  increasing  breadth  and  extent  of  the  potential  risks  posed  to  human  health  and  the  
environment.   For   example,   engineered   nanomaterials   are   of   similar   size   range   as  
exhaustion  particles  from  engines  combustion,  and  certain  carbon  nanotubes  are  in  many  
ways  similar  to  asbestos  fibers,  substances  that  are  known  to  cause  adverse  effects  to  
human  health,  namely,  cancer  and  asbestosis.    
 
  Genetics/Medicine/Healthcare  
 
  Artifacts   based   on   nanotechnology   incorporate   genetic   material   or   have   genetic  
  modification  or  repair  as  an  objective.    
 
  If  the  artifact  incorporates  some  kind  of  computing  and  sensing  element,  say  for  
  the   controlled   delivery   of   a   drug,   additional   risks   arise   for   the   patient   if   these  
  elements  should  malfunction.  

112
  
  Invasion  of  privacy  and  of  the  human  body  through  the  planting  and  implanting  of    
          computing-­cum-­communication  devices  without  the  knowledge  of  those  affected  
  has  been  done.  
 
  The  security  and  safety  of  a  person  is  a  problematic  issue,  since  it  will  be  difficult    
  initially  to  detect  the  presence  of  nanosize  artifacts  that  are  capable  of  breaching  
  security  and  harming  the  individual.  In  warfare,  controlled  distribution  of  biological  
  and  nerve  agents  may  become  feasible.    
 
  Materials/Composites  
 
  The   general   problem   with   composite   materials   is   that   they   are   more   difficult   to  
  recycle  and  consume  more  energy  during  recycling  than  pure  materials.  
 
  Wide-­scale   introduction   of   composite   materials   can   increase   environmental  
  problems.  
 
  In  the  manufacturing  area,  many  processes  will  need  to  be  redesigned  to    
  embody   new   principles,   particularly   relating   to   containment   of   active   or   waste  
  products.  
   
Nanotechnology  and  Education  
 
  Education  and  training  in  nanotechnology  require  special  laboratory  facilities  that  
can  be  quite  expensive.  The  cost  of  creating  and  maintaining  nanotechnology  facilities  is  
a  major  challenge  for  educational  institutions.  But  by  using  innovative  approaches  such  
as  inter-­university  collaboration,  academia-­industry  partnerships,  and  Web-­based  remote  
access   to   nanofabrication   facilities,   educational   institutions   can   overcome   innovative  
nanotechnology  researches.  
 
  To   address   these   demands   of   the   global   marketplace,   a   skilled   workforce   is  
required  that  can  move  from  industry  to  industry  without  retraining.  The  new  workforce  
will  consist  of  researchers,  technicians,  and  educators.  To  develop  this  workforce,  new  
interdisciplinary  educational  programs  need  to  be  developed  and  revised.    
 
Economic  and  political  implications  of  potential  technology  
 
  These  issues  include  the  economic  value  of  a  new  materials  and  new  industries  
created   through   nanotechnology,   as   well   as   economic   dislocations   caused   by   shifts   in  
investment  and  the  decline  of  industries  and  companies  tied  to  displaced  technologies.  
Other  implications  might  include  increased  lifespans  made  possible  through  nano-­based  
medicines  or  diagnostic  techniques,  leading  to  greater  numbers  of  active  senior  citizens  
seeking  employment  and  active  participation  in  the  political  process.  
 
Nanotechnology  and  Employment  

113
  
  The   question   of   impacts   on   employment   has   not   yet   entered   into   the   research  
agenda   on   the   social   implications   of   nanotechnology.   Even   though   there   are   currently  
relatively  few  products,  industries,  and  workers  involved  in  nanotechnology  compared  to  
other  industries,  it  appears  clear  that  this  technology  is  high  tech  and  highly  sophisticated,  
which   deepens   the   trend   to   reducing   workforces   and   automating   the   processes   of  
production   and   services   –   a   trend   which   began   with   the   microelectric   revolution   and  
resulted  in  a  dramatic  reduction  of  employment  in  many  sectors  of  the  economy.  
 
  Nanotechnology  products  that  are  already  on  the  market  allow  us  to  identify  three  
common   characteristics:   the   products   have   multiple   functions   that   previously   required  
more   than   one   product   (multifunctional),   the   products   remain   useful   longer,   and   the  
products   use   fewer   raw   materials.   Some   products   combine   two   or   three   of   these  
characteristics.  Taken  together,  this  means  that  manufacturing  these  products  will  lead  
to  decreased  demand  for  workers.  In  addition,  these  innovations  reduce  the  demand  for  
traditional  products  that  compete  them.    
 
Social,  Ethical,  Legal  and  Cultural  Implications  
 
  The  list  of  social,  ethical,  legal  and  cultural  implications  includes  such  issues  as  
privacy,   avoiding   a   ‘nano-­divide’,   unintended   consequences,   university/industry  
relationships   and   potential   conflicts   of   interest,   research   ethics,   and   so   on.   It   is   widely  
acknowledged   that,   precisely   because   the   applications   of   nanotechnology   are   not   yet  
clear,  neither  are  the  ethical  issues  clear.  And  yet,  many  argue,  the  nano  community  must  
begin  to  address  these  issues  now,  before  they  overwhelm  nanotechnology  and  derail  
potential  benefits.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

114
  
 
Activity  1.  Answer  the  following  questions.  
 
1.  Compare  the  benefits  and  disadvantages  of  nanotechnology.  
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________  
 
2.  Do  research  on  different  nanotechnology  products.  Identify  5  examples  and  choose    
       one  that  surprised  and  fascinated  you  the  most.    
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________  
 
3.  State  in  your  own  words  why  nanotechnology  research  and  development  of    
       application  are  important.  
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________  
 
4.  Using  the  internet  or  other  sources,  research  alternative  definitions  of  nanotechnology  
and  environment.  How  could  these  differences  in  definitions  change  the  conversation  or  
perception  about  the  interaction  of  nanotechnology  and  the  environment?  
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________  
 
5.  What  can  be  done  to  reduce  uncertainty  in  developing  new  nanotechnology  product?  
What  are  some  of  the  ethical  implications  that  should  be  considered?  
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________  
 
 

115
  
 
Activity  2.  Mind  Map  
 
Summarize  your  learnings  of  new  ideas  about  nanotechnology  and  information  presented  
in  this  topic  by  completing  the  following  flowchart.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

116
  
 
Chapter  10.  Gene  Therapy  
 
  The   genes   in   the   body’s   cells   play   an   important   role   in   your   health   –   indeed,   a  
defective  gene  or  genes  can  make  someone  sick.  Recognizing  this,  scientists  have  been  
working  for  decades  on  ways  to  modify  genes  or  replace  faulty  genes  with  healthy  one  to  
treat,  cure  or  prevent  a  disease  or  medical  condition.  
 
  Cells  are  the  basic  building  blocks  of  all  living  things.  The  human  body  is  composed  
of   trillions   of   them.   Within   our   cells   there   are   thousands   of   genes   that   provide   the  
information   for   the   production   of   specific   proteins   and   enzymes   that   make   muscles,  
bones,  and  blood,  which  in  turn  support  most  of  our  body’s  functions,  such  as  digestion,  
making  energy  and  growing.  
 
  Sometimes  the  whole  or  part  of  a  gene  is  defective  or  missing  from  birth,  or  a  gene  
can  change  or  mutate  during  adult  life.  Any  of  these  variations  can  disrupt  how  proteins  
are  made,  which  can  contribute  to  health  problems  or  diseases.  
 
  In  gene  therapy,  scientist  can  do  one  of  several  things  depending  on  the  problem  
that  is  present.  They  can  replace  a  gene  that  causes  a  medical  problem  with  one  that  
doesn’t,  add  genes  to  help  the  body  to  fight  or  treat  disease,  or  turn  off  genes  that  are  
causing  problems.  In  order  to  insert  new  genes  directly  into  cells,  scientists  use  a  vehicle  
called  a  “vector”  which  is  genetically  engineered  to  deliver  the  gene.  Viruses,  for  example,  
have  a  natural  ability  to  deliver  genetic  material  into  cells,  and  therefore,  can  be  used  as  
vectors.  Before  a  virus  can  be  used  to  carry  therapeutic  genes  into  human  cells,  however,  
is  modified  to  remove  its  ability  to  cause  an  infectious  disease.  Gene  therapy  can  be  used  
to  modify  cells  inside  or  outside  the  body.  When  it’s  done  inside  the  body,  a  doctor  will  
inject   the   vector   carrying   the   gene   directly   into   the   part   of   the   body   that   has   defective  
cells.  
 
  In  gene  therapy  that  is  used  to  modify  cells  outside  the  body,  blood,  bone  marrow,  
or   another   tissue   can   be   taken   from   the   patient,   and   specific   types   of   cells   can   be  
separated  out  in  the  lab.  The  vector  containing  the  desired  gene  is  introduced  into  these  
cells.  The  cells  are  left  to  multiply  in  the  laboratory  and  then  injected  back  into  the  patient  
where  they  continue  to  multiply  and  eventually  produce  the  desired  effect.  
 
Approaches  to  Gene  Therapy  
 
1.  Gene  Modification  
  Researchers  have  used  the  following  methods  to  modify  defective  genes:  

•   Replacement  treatment:  Replacing  a  natural  gene  with  a  non-­natural  gene  through  

homologous  recombination.  

117
 •   Modifier   gene   therapy:   Restoring   natural   function   to   a   defective   gene   through  
selective  reverse  mutation.  
•   Adjustment  of  the  expression  of  a  specific  gene.  

2.  Gene  transfer  method  

       There  are  3  physical,  chemical,  and  biological  methods  of  gene  transfer.  
 
3.  Gene  transfer  to  specific  cell  line  
       This  line  is  divided  into  2  general  categories  of  somatic  gene  therapy,  and  sex  cell    
       gene  therapy.  
 
4.  The  adoption  of  the  most  appropriate  genetic  engineering  (gene  injection)  
         Other  forms  of  genetic  engineering  include  gene  targeting  and  the  elimination  of    
         specific  genes  through  nuclease  engineering.  
 
Stem  Cell  Therapy  
 
A  stem  cell  therapy  is  any  treatment  that  uses  stem  cells  as  the  primary  way  of  curing  or  
reducing  the  severity  of  a  disease  or  disorder.  There  are  two  main  ways  stem  cells  can  
be  used:  
 
1.  as  a  transplant,  where  the  desired  stem  cells  are  harvested  either  from  the  patient  or  
a   donor   and   refined   or   modified   in   some   way   before   being   injected   or   grafted   into   the  
patient,  or  
 
2.  as  a  target  for  a  drug  or  other  biologic  where  the  drug  or  biologic  is  intended  to  activate  
a  desired  response  from  the  stem  cells  that  already  exist  in  the  patient’s  tissues  or  organs.  
 
Ethical  Dilemma  
 
The  possibility  of  destructive  embryo  research,  particularly  embryonic  stem  cell  research,  
presents   us   with   a   moral   problem   because   it   appears   to   bring   into   tension   two  
fundamental  moral  principles  that  people  esteem  very  highly:  one  principle  enjoins  the  
prevention  or  alleviation  of  suffering,  and  other  enjoins  us  to  respect  the  value  of  human  
life.  The  harvesting  and  culturing  of  embryonic  stem  cells  has  considerable  potential  to  
bring   about   remarkable   potential   benefits   in   the   way   of   alleviating   debilitating   medical  
conditions.  It  satisfies  the  first  principle  to  a  very  great  degree.  
 
  On   the   other   hand,   there   is   a   case   to   be   made   that   the   harvesting   of   human  
embryonic  stem  cells  violates  the  second  principle  in  that  it  results  in  the  destruction  of  
human   life   with   value   (i.e.   human   embryos).   Accordingly,   both   principles   apparently  
cannot   simultaneously   be   respected   in   the   case   of   embryonic   stem   cell   research.   The  
question  then  is  which  principle  ought  to  be  given  precedence  in  this  conflict  situation.  If  
weight   is   given   more   to   the   first   and   permit   destructive   embryonic   stem   cell   research  
because  of  its  remarkable  benefits?  Or  should  be  given  more  to  the  second  and  prohibit  

118
destructive  embryonic  research  because  it  violates  respect  for  the  value  of  the  embryo  as  
the   very   beginnings   of   a   possible   human   life?   This,   at   bottom,   is   the   ethical   problem  
generated  by  destructive  embryo  research.    
 
Activity.  Video  Presentation  
 
A.  Transplant  Cells  not  Organs  
 
1.  Watch  TED  Talk  featuring  Susan  Lim  entitled  “Transplant  Cells  not  Organs”.  It  is    
       available  online  at  https://www.ted.com.  
 
2.  Answer  the  following  questions:  
 
  a.  What  is  the  main  topic  of  the  Dr.  Lim’s  speech?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  b.  What  do  you  think  prompted  scientists  like  Susan  Lim  to  inject  changes  that    
                             lead  to  development  of  medical  practice?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
           ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  c.  In  your  opinion,  how  far  should  science  go  to  save  lives?  
                             ______________________________________________________________  
             ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
B.  The  Next  Species  of  Human  
 
1.  Watch  TED  Talk  featuring  Juan  Enriquez  entitled  “The  Next  Species  of  Human”.  It  is    
       available  online  at  https://www.ted.com.  
 
2.  Answer  the  following  questions:  
 
  a.  What  are  the  three  trends  that  have  taken  place  for  the  last  25  years?  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
 

119
  
  b.  Identify  three  instances  mentioned  by  Enriquez  in  his  speech  related  to    
                             evolution.  
         ______________________________________________________________  
           ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  c.  Do  you  believe  that  we  will  evolve  into  Homo  evolutis?  
                             ______________________________________________________________  
             ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
 
  d.  What  ideas  did  u  get  from  the  speech?  Discuss.  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
         ______________________________________________________________  
   
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

120
  
Chapter  11  
Climate  Change,  Energy  Crisis  and  Environmental  Awareness  
   
What  is  climate  change  and  what  are  the  causes?    
 
  Climate  change  is  a  broad  range  of  global  phenomena  created  predominantly  by  
burning   fossil   fuels,   which   add   heat-­trapping   gases   to   Earth’s   atmosphere.   These  
phenomena  include  the  increased  temperature  trends  described  by  global  warming,  but  
also   encompass   changes   such   as   sea   level   rise;;   ice   mass   loss;;   shifts   in   flower/plant  
blooming;;  and  extreme  weather  events.  
 
Causes  
 
  On   Earth,   human   activities   are   changing   the   natural   greenhouse.   Over   the   last  
century   the   burning   of   fossil   fuels   like   coal   and   oil   has   increased   the   concentration   of  
atmospheric  carbon  dioxide  (CO2).  This  happens  because  the  coal  or  oil  burning  process  
combines  carbon  with  oxygen  in  the  air  to  make  CO2.  To  a  lesser  extent,  the  clearing  of  
land  for  agriculture,  industry,  and  other  human  activities  has  increased  concentrations  of  
greenhouse  gases.  
 
o   Greenhouse  gas  emissions  
Evidence   that   CO2   emissions   are   the   cause   of   global   warming   is   very   robust.  
Scientists   have   known   since   the   early   1800s   that   greenhouse   gases   in   the  
atmosphere  trap  heat.  Global  CO2  emissions  from  human  activity  have  increased  
by   over   400%   since   1960.   As   a   result,   the   concentration   of   CO2   in   the   air   has  
reached  more  than  400  parts  per  million  by  volume  (ppm),  compared  to  about  280  
ppm  in  1750  (around  the  start  of  the  Industrial  Revolution).  
 
o   Earth’s  natural  climate  cycle  
Over  the  last  800,000  years,  there  have  been  natural  cycles  in  the  Earth’s  climate,  
between  ice  ages  and  warmer  interglacial  periods.  After  the  last  ice  age  20,000  
years  ago,  average  global  temperature  rose  by  about  3°C  to  8°C,  over  a  period  of  
about  10,  000  years.  
 
o   Solar  influences  
The  sun  is  the  primary  source  of  Earth’s  heat,  so  relatively  small  changes  in  solar  
output   can   affect   our   climate.   Satellite   observations   since   the   late   1970s   have  
shown   a   slight   decrease   in   the   sun’s   total   energy   output.   However,   instead   of  
cooling,  the  Earth  has  warmed  over  this  period.  
 
Also,  warming  from  the  sun  would  heat  all  of  the  atmosphere,  including  the  lowest  
few   kilometers   (the   troposphere)   and   the   layer   above   (the   stratosphere).  
Observations  show  that  the  stratosphere  is  in  fact  cooling  while  the  troposphere  
warms.  This  is  consistent  with  greenhouse  gas  heating  and  not  solar  heating.  

121
  
 
Impacts  
 
  Climate  change  could  affect  our  society  through  impacts  on  a  number  of  different  
social,   cultural,   and   natural   resources.   Some   groups   of   people   will   likely   face   greater  
challenges  than  others.  Climate  change  my  especially  impact  people  who  live  in  areas  
that  are  vulnerable  to  coastal  storms,  drought,  and  sea  level  rise  or  people  who  live  in  
poverty,  older  adults,  and  immigrant  communities.  Similarly,  some  types  of  professions  
and  industries  may  face  considerable  challenges  from  climate  change.  Professions  that  
are  closely  linked  to  weather,  such  as  outdoor  tourism,  commerce,  and  agriculture,  will  
likely  be  especially  affected.  
 
Impacts  on  Vulnerability  and  Equity  
 
1.  Geographic  Location  
•   Population  in  coastal  areas  are  more  sensitive  to  storms,  drought,  air  pollution  and  
heat  waves.  
•   Population   in   mountainous   areas   will   likely   face   water   shortages   and   increased  
wildfires  in  the  future.  
•   Arctic  residents  will  likely  experience  problems  caused  by  thawing  permafrost  

2.  Ability  to  cope  

•   People  who  live  in  poverty  may  have  a  difficult  time  coping  with  changes.  These  
people  have  limited  financial  resources  to  cope  with  heat,  relocate  or  evacuate,  or  
respond  to  increases  in  the  cost  of  food.  
•   Older  adults  may  be  among  the  least  able  to  cope  with  impacts  of  climate  change.  
•   Elderly  people  are  particularly  prone  to  heat  stress.  
•   Young  children  are  another  sensitive  age  group,  since  their  immune  system  and  
other  bodily  systems  are  still  developing  and  they  rely  on  others  to  care  for  them  
in  disaster  situations.  

3.  Indigenous  people  
•   Climate  change  will  make  it  harder  for  tribes  to  access  safe  and  nutritious  food,  
including  traditional  foods  important  to  many  tribes’  cultural  practices.  Many  tribes  
already   lack   access   to   safe   drinking   water   and   wastewater   treatment   in   their  
communities.  Climate  change  is  expected  to  increase  health  risks  associated  with  
water   quality   problems   like   contamination   and   may   reduce   availability   of   water,  
particularly  during  droughts.  By  affecting  the  environment  and  natural  resources  
of   tribal   communities,   climate   change   also   threatens   the   cultural   identities   of  
indigenous  people.  As  plants  and  animals  used  in  traditional  practices  or  sacred  

122
 ceremonies  become  less  available,  tribal  culture  and  ways  of  life  can  be  greatly  
affected.  
 

4.  Urban  People  
•   City  residents  and  urban  infrastructure  have  distinct  sensitivities  to  climate  change  
impacts.  For  example,  heat  waves  may  be  amplified  in  cities  because  cities  absorb  
more  heat  during  the  day  than  suburban  and  rural  areas.  Cities  are  more  densely  
populated   than   suburban   or   rural   areas.   As   a   result,   increases   in   heat   waves,  
drought,  or  violent  storms  in  cities  would  affect  a  larger  number  of  people  than  in  
suburban  or  rural  areas.  Higher  temperatures  and  more  extreme  events  will  likely  
affect  the  cost  of  energy,  air  and  water  quality,  and  human  comfort  and  health  in  
cities.  City  dwellers  may  also  be  particularly  susceptible  to  vulnerabilities  in  aging  
infrastructure.   This   includes   drainage   and   sewer   systems,   flood   and   storm  
protection   assets,   transportation   systems,   and   power   supply   during   periods   of  
peak  demand,  which  typically  occur  during  summer  heat  waves.  

5.  Impacts  on  Economic  Activities  and  Services  

•   Communities  that  developed  around  the  production  of  different  agricultural  crops,  
such  as  corn,  wheat  or  cotton,  depend  on  the  climate  to  support  their  way  of  life.  
Climate  change  will  likely  cause  the  ideal  climate  for  these  crops  to  shift.  Certain  
agricultural  products  may  decline  dramatically.  These  crops  would  then  have  to  
be  imported.  
 
•   Climate  change  will  also  likely  affect  tourism  and  recreational  activities.  A  warming  
climate  and  changes  in  precipitation  patterns  will  likely  decrease  the  number  of  
days  when  recreational  snow  activities  such  as  skiing  and  snowmobiling  can  take  
place.  Increasing  number  of  wildfires  could  affect  hiking  and  recreation  in  parks.  
Beaches  could  suffer  erosion  due  to  sea  level  rise  and  storm  surge.  Changes  in  
migration   patterns   of   fish   and   animals   would   affect   fishing   and   hunting.  
Communities  that  support  themselves  through  these  recreational  activities  would  
feel   economic   impacts   as   tourism   patterns   begin   to  
change.(https://climatechange.chicago.gov/climate-­impacts/climate-­impacts-­
society)  

  In  1992,  the  United  Nations  Framework  Convention  on  Climate  Change  (UNFCC)  
was  adopted  as  the  basis  for  a  global  response  to  the  problem.  The  Philippines  signed  
the   UNFCCC   on   12   June   1992   and   ratified   the   international   treaty   on   2   August   1994.  
Presently,  the  Convention  enjoys  near  universal  membership  with  194  Country  Parties.    
 
  Recognizing  that  the  climate  system  is  a  shared  resource  which  is  greatly  affected  
by   anthropogenic   emissions   of   greenhouse   gases,   the   UNFCC   has   set   out   an   overall  

123
framework  for  intergovernmental  efforts  to  consider  what  can  be  done  to  reduce  global  
warming   and   to   cope   with   whatever   temperature   increases   are   inevitable.   Its   ultimate  
objective  is  to  stabilize  greenhouse  concentrations  in  the  atmosphere  at  a  level  that  will  
prevent  dangerous  human  interference  with  the  climate  system.  
 
  Countries   are   actively   discussing   and   negotiating   ways   to   deal   with   the   climate  
change  problem  within  the  UNFCCC  using  two  central  approaches.  The  first  task  is  to  
address  the  root  cause  by  reducing  greenhouse  gas  emissions  from  human  activity.  The  
means  to  achieve  this  are  very  contentious,  as  it  will  require  radical  changes  in  the  way  
many  societies  are  organized,  especially  in  respect  to  fossil  fuel  use,  industry  operations,  
land   use,   and   development.   Within   the   climate   change   arena,   the   reduction   of  
greenhouse  gas  is  called  mitigation.  
 
  The  second  task  in  responding  to  climate  change  is  to  manage  its  impacts.  Future  
impacts   on   the   environment   and   society   are   now   inevitable,   owing   to   the   amount   of  
greenhouse  gases  already  in  the  atmosphere  from  past  decades  of  industrial  and  other  
human  activities,  and  to  the  added  amounts  from  continued  emissions  over  the  next  few  
decades  until  such  time  as  mitigation  policies  and  actions  become  effective.  Taking  steps  
to  cope  with  the  changed  climate  conditions  both  in  terms  of  reducing  adverse  impacts  
and  taking  advantage  of  potential  benefits  is  called  adaptation.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

124
  
 
 
 
 
Activity  1:  Photo  Essay  

Select any photo depicting the struggles of Filipino people due to the impacts of climate change.
Write a reflective essay about it. Follow the format provided below. Provide a title for your photo
essay.

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

125
  
 
 
 
 
Activity  2.  Action  Plan  
Prepare  an  action  plan  to  address  specific  environmental  problem  in  your  community.    
Use  the  format  below.  
 
Background:  
(Provide  here  brief  information  regarding  your  community  and  an    
existing  problem  which  may  be  related  to  climate  change).  
 
Objectives Activities Time Frame Persons Involved Success
Indicators

Note:    
1.  Identify  the  coverage  of  the  plan  (e.g.  1,  2  or  3  years)  
2.  Suggested  activities  should  consider  your  course/area  of  specialization  and  the  degree  you  are    
       pursuing.    
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

126
  
 
 
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