Transformers

By
Dr. K. V. Praveen Kumar

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• Transformer is a static piece of device, which transfers electrical
energy from one circuit to another circuit with out change in
frequency, but variation in voltage levels.
• Transformer is a constant power device.

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Principle
• Mutual induction
• Basically two principles involved in the operation of transformer.
Firstly, an electric current produces a magnetic field, secondly, change
in magnetic field within a coil induces emf across the ends of coil.
• A changing current in primary creates changing magnetic field, in
turn, this magnetic field induces voltage in secondary circuit. Thus
energy transferred from one circuit to another circuit.

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Core type

• Windings are wrapped around two sides of a laminated square core.

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Constructional detail : Shell type

• Windings are wrapped around the center leg of a laminated core.

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Working of a transformer
1. When current in the primary coil
changes being alternating in nature, a
changing magnetic field is produced
2. This changing magnetic field gets
associated with the secondary through
the soft iron core
3. Hence magnetic flux linked with the
secondary coil changes.
4. Which induces e.m.f. in the
secondary.

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EMF equation
• Consider a sinusoidally varying voltage V1 applied to primary of
transformer. Due to this voltage a sinusoidally varying magnetic flux
set up in core. Φ= Φmsinωt= Φmsin2πft.
• The induced emf in a winding of N turns, e=-N(dφ/dt).
• e=-NωΦmcosωt=-NωΦmsin(ωt-pi/2)
• Peak value of induced emf is Em=NωΦm, therefore the rms value of
induced emf is given by E=Em/sqrt(2).
• E=2(pi)fNΦm/sqrt(2)=4.44fNΦm.
• EMF equation of transformer can be used to find emf induced in any
winding linking with flux.

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Ideal Transformers

• The core has infinite permeability

- Reluctance of the core is zero
- Negligible current is required to establish
magnetic flux
• Loss-less magnetic core
- No hysteresis or eddy currents
• Zero leakage flux:
-Fluxes produced by the primary and secondary
currents are confined within the core
Transformer Ratio
• The windings have no resistance:
- Induced voltages equal applied voltages

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Practical Transformer @ no-load
• @ no-load the secondary current is zero.
• If the transformer were ideal primary current would be zero, but in
practice there exist little no load current Io.
• Effect of Magnetization: No magnetic material can have infinite
permeability, so as to offer zero reluctance to magnetic circuit. Hence,
in practical transformer a finite MMF is needed to establish flux in
core, as a result an in-phase magnetizing current in primary is needed
to setup flux in core. This effect is modelled by Xo in parallel with
ideal transformer.
• Effect of core losses: Source must supply power to meet the losses.
These losses are proportional to square of core flux. Core loss is
proportional to V1 and it is represented by Ro in parallel with T/F.
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• Therefore initial current is vector sum of core loss current and magnetizing
current.
• Hysteresis loss: If AC flows through winding core material undergoes cyclic
process of magnetization and demagnetization. It is found that there is tendency
of B to lag behind H. this tendency is called hysteresis loss. P h=KhBmnfv.
• The flux induces voltage E1 and E2. Both these emfs lag flux by 900.
• As current in sec. is zero. Voltage drop is zero. Hence V 2=E2. The induced emf
counter balance the supply voltage.
• If 3rd and 4th ideal conditions are ignored then V1=-E1.

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 Transformer on Load

• On connecting load I2 flows through secondary.

• Magnitude and phase of I2 depends on type of load.
• I2 sets up flux in core which oppose main flux. This weakens main flux. As result, V 1-E1
increases & More current drawn from supply.
• This again increase E1 so as to balance applied voltage V 1. In this process primary current
increases by I1’. This current is known as primary balancing current or Load component of
primary current.
• Under such conditions secondary ATs must be balanced by Primary ATs.
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Equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary and secondary sides
respectively

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 Contd.,
• The effect of circuit parameters shouldn’t be changed while transferring the
parameters from one side to another side
• It can be proved that a resistance of R2 in sec. is equivalent to R2/k2 will be
denoted as R2’(ie. Equivalent sec. resistance w.r.t primary) which would have
caused the same loss as R2 in secondary,
I 12 R2'  I 22 R2
2
' I2 
R 
2
 R2
 I1 
R2
 2
k
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 Transferring secondary parameters to primary side

Transferring primary side parameters to secondary side

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Transformer Tests

•The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of equivalent circuit

•The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R1e as referred to primary (or secondary R2e)
- the equivalent leakage reactance X1e as referred to primary (or secondary X2e)
- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)
- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)
•The above constants can be easily determined by two tests
- Open circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
•These tests are economical and convenient
- these tests furnish the result without actually loading the transformer

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Open-circuit Test

In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and its primary winding is
connected to a full-rated line voltage.

Core loss Woc V0 I 0 cos 0

W
cos 0  oc
V0 I 0 V0
R0 
• Usually conducted on H.V side I c or I w I 0 cos 0 Iw
V0
• To find I m or I  I 0 sin 0  I 02 -I w2 X0 
I
(i) No load loss or core loss I
I 0 V0 Y0 ;  Yo  0 I
(ii) No load current Io which is V0 G0  w
V0
helpful in finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo Woc
Woc V02 G 0 ;  Exciting conductance G 0  I
V02 B0 
(or Xo ) V0
& Exciting susceptanc e B0  Y02  G02

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Short-circuit Test
In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short circuited, and the primary terminals are connected
to a fairly low-voltage source
The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is equal to its rated value.
The input voltage, current and power is measured.

• Usually conducted on L.V side

• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the voltage
regulation
Full load cu loss Wsc I sc2 R01
Wsc
R 01 
I sc2
V
Z 01  sc
I sc
 X 01  Z 012  R012 18
Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage remains constant. This is
because a real transformer has series impedance within it. Full load Voltage Regulation is a quantity that
compares the output voltage at no load with the output voltage at full load, defined by this equation:
V S ,nl VS , fl Vs
Regulation up  100% At noload k 
VS , fl Vp
VP / k   VS , fl
V S ,nl VS , fl Regulation up  x 100%
Regulation down  100% VS , fl
VS ,nl
VP / k   VS , fl
Regulation down  x 100%
VS ,nl
Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.
no - load voltage  full - load voltage Vs N s
Voltage regulation  
no - load voltage Vp N p

 N2  Substitute we have
Secondary voltage on no-load V2 V1    N2 
 N1  V1    V2
 N1 
Voltage regulation 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load  N2 
V1   19
 N1 
Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, the vertical components of Req and Xeq will partially cancel each other. Due to that, the
angle of VP/a will be very small, hence we can assume that VP/k is horizontal. Therefore the approximation
will be as follows:
In terms of secondary values
V2  V2 I 2 R02 cos  2 I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation  0 
0 V2 0 V2

where '' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary va lues
V1  V2' I 1 R01 cos 1 I 1 X 01 sin 1
% regulation  
V1 V1
where '' for lagging and '-' for leading

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Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and transformers):
Pout Pout
  100%  100%
Pin Pout  Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer: Copper I2R losses, Hysteresis losses, Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:
VS I S cos 
 x100%
PCu  Pcore  VS I S cos 
Core or Iron loss:

Copper loss:

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The load at which the two losses are equal = 22
Numerical: A 50-kVA 2400:240 V 60 Hz distribution transformer has a leakage impedance
of 0.72 + j0.92 Ω in the high-voltage winding and 0.0070 + j0.0090 Ω in the low-voltage
winding. At rated voltage and frequency, the impedance Z of the shunt branch (equal to the
impedance of Rc and jXm in parallel) accounting for the exciting current is 6.32 + j43.7Ω
when viewed from the low-voltage side. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (a) the
high-voltage side and (b) the low-voltage side, and label the impedances numerically.

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Autotransformers
• An autotransformer uses only one coil for the primary and secondary.
• It uses taps on the coil to produce the different ratios and voltages.
• a two-winding transformer is shown with N1 and N2 turns on the primary and
secondary windings respectively. Substantially the same transformation effect on
voltages, currents, and impedances can be obtained.
• One important difference between the two-winding transformer and the
autotransformer is that the windings of the two-winding transformer are
electrically isolated whereas those of the autotransformer are connected directly
together.
Advantages of Auto transformer
• Less costly
• Better regulation
• Low losses as compared to ordinary two winding transformer of the
same rating.

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 Three Phase Transformers
• Three single-phase transformers can be connected to form a three-phase transformer.
• The windings at the left are the primaries, those at the right are the secondaries, and any
primary winding in one transformer corresponds to the secondary winding drawn parallel
to it.

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• The voltages and currents resulting from balanced impressed primary
line-to-line voltages V and line currents I when the ratio of primary-to-
secondary turns N1/N2 = a and ideal transformers are assumed.
• The rated voltages and currents at the primary and secondary of the
three-phase transformer bank depends upon the connection used but
that the rated kVA of the three-phase bank is three times that of the
individual single-phase transformers, regardless of the connection.
• The Y-Δ connection is commonly used in stepping down from a high
voltage to a medium or low voltage.
• Δ-Y connection is commonly used for stepping up to a high voltage.
• Δ-Δ connection has the advantage that one transformer can be removed
for repair or maintenance
• The Y-Y connection is seldom used because of difficulties with
exciting-current phenomena
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