Report on

Fish Feed Formulation and Manufacturing

By

Y. Mani Maruthi Raju

17AG65R08

Agricultural and Food Engineering Department

Indian Institute of Technology- Kharagpur

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 Table of Contents
S. No Contents Page No.

1 Introduction 3-4

2 Materials and Methods 5-20

3 Conclusions 21

4 References 22

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 Chapter-I

Introduction
Feed formulation is essentially applied nutrition. A number of terms and expressions are
introduced that will be put to practical use as information is presented on the nature and qualities
of various feedstuffs and the information presented on the nutrient requirements of fish. Precise
understanding of these terms is essential to their correct application. One must recognize that
some of these terms have a built-in error that cannot be escaped. This does not eliminate their
usefulness in feed formulation. However, one must appreciate the fact that some are useful
approximations of the values and not true values.

The terms that one needs to understand to formulate practical fish diets are: crude protein
level; energy level, either expressed as metabolizable energy (ME) or as digestible energy (DE);
specific amino acid levels; crude fiber level; and ash level. Since most complete practical fish
diets are supplemented with a vitamin premix at levels in excess of the dietary requirement, this
category of nutrients will be ignored temporarily. The potential problems occur when one fails to
recognize that all of the above mentioned terms, except ME and DE, represent the quantity or
level of a nutrient in the feed as determined by chemical tests on a specific sample of a feedstuff.
These chemical tests generally correlate well enough with biological methods of feed evaluation
(growth studies, tissue, levels) to be very useful to feed formulators, but they are still chemical
tests that are subject to experimental error during nutrient level determination. For example, the
proximate composition of fish meals changes during the spawning season. Generally, the lipid
levels increase before spawning and decrease after spawning. This will alter the percent of
protein, ash, and carbohydrates in fish meal as the seasons change. Similarly, many plant
feedstuffs vary in proximate composition with their stage of maturity at harvest, location grown,
and other environmental conditions, such as the weather. Tabled values represent an average
value that is usually close enough to the actual value to allow accurate feed formulation.
However, one must be aware that assumptions are being made in order to recognize the potential
sources of error that may exist.

Metabolizable, energy and digestible energy values are obtained biologically and, thus,
should accurately represent the true energy value of feedstuffs to fish. However, ME values may
be obtained in different ways (feces collection methods) and thus may be subject to experimental
error. It has recently been reported that the digestibility of feed by rainbow trout was lower at
7°C than at 11°C or 15°C. At 11°C and 15°C body size (18.6 g, 207.1 g or 585.7 g) did not affect
feed digestibility. The digestibility of carbohydrate and energy was slightly reduced by meal size
in rainbow trout fed at 1.6 percent body weight. Protein and lipid digestibility was not reduced
by meal size. Obvious differences exist between fish species in nutrient digestibility, especially
in the carbohydrate fraction of feed. Herbivorous and, to a lesser extent, omnivorous fish have
longer digestive tracts than do carnivorous fish and are able to obtain more digestible energy
from carbohydrates. An awareness of these facts will prevent misuse of ME and DE values.

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 Each feedstuff in any diet formulation should be present for a specific reason; i.e., it is a
good energy source, it is rich in a limiting amino acid, etc. In addition, each feedstuff in a
particular diet formulation should be the least costly ingredient available for its particular
function in the diet. This leads to another assumption in feed formulation; that is, any nutrient in
a particular feedstuff, such as an amino acid, is just as valuable as the same nutrient in any other
feedstuff. This allows feed formulators to interchange one feedstuff with another as cost and
availability change. Thus, it is assumed that there is no "ideal formulation", but rather an almost
infinite number of possible feed formulations that met the nutritional needs of the fish equally
well. While this assumption may not be entirely valid and some nutritional judgment must be
employed in any feed formulation, it does seem to be valid in most cases. As with the previously
mentioned assumption, an awareness of the potential pitfalls involved is necessary for the fish
feed formulation so that allowances can be made in diet formulation and problems can be
anticipated and avoided. The apparent digestibility of protein, energy and individual amino acids
are of prime consideration as the basis for feed formulation. While formulating the feed one must
take into account some considerations such as price, availability of ingredients used anti-
nutritional factors and palatability of mixtures.

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 Chapter- II
Materials and Methods
Principles of Fish Feed Formulation
This is the method whereby the fish farmer combines different selected feed ingredients
in varying proportions to comply with predetermined nutrient requirements of the culture fish,
when feedstuffs for desired percentage (%) crude protein content have been chosen. They can be
prepared or compounded through a process of milling, mixing and pelleting. Milling can be
carried out with hammer milling machine. Mixing of ingredients including premixes, it can be
performed by hand before adding warm/hot water with stirring to form dough. If cereals in the
formula are not adequate to bind the particles of the feed mixture, cassava starch may be added
as a binder.
A mechanical mixer is used for large scale local fishmeal production. Feeding a single
type of food is neither complete nor balanced and does not supply all the nutrients fish might
need in its diet. Hence, two or more ingredients are normally mixed into homemade, laboratory
and commercial feed formulations. A diet may be formulated to supplement natural foods
already available in the production system or as a complete formulation when no other foods are
provided. A complete diet must be nutritionally balanced, palatable, water stable, and have the
proper size and texture. If natural foods are not incorporated in fish diets, the feed must be
supplemented with natural or synthetic pigments.
Feeds are formulated to be dry, with a final moisture content of 6-10%, semi-moist with
35-40% water or wet with 50-70% water content. Most feeds used in intensive production
system or home aquaria are commercially produced as dry feeds. Dry feeds may consist of
simple loose mixtures of dry ingredients, such as ‘mash or meal’ to more complex compressed
pellets or granules. Pellets are often broken into smaller sizes known as crumbles. The pellets or
granules can be made by cooking with steam or by extrusion. Depending on the feeding
requirements of the fish, pellets can be made to sink or float. Flakes are another form of dry food
and a popular diet for aquarium fishes. Flakes consist of a complex mixture of ingredients,
including pigments. These are made into slurry, which is cooked and rolled over drums heated
by steam. Semi moist, moist and wet feeds are made from single or mixed ingredients, such as
trash fish or cooked legumes, and can be shaped to cakes or balls.
Although the methods of feed formulation vary from one region to another, however it
generally involves the combination and blending together of feed ingredients (based on a
formula) into nutritionally balanced and economically sound diet that can be used in required
amount to provide the level of production desired in fish cultivation. The processing methods
which include sourcing, mixing, pelleting, drying and storing are very crucial as they determinate
bioavailability of nutrients, feed acceptability, palatability and durability which often have
profound effect on performance of the fish. Therefore, there is the need to formulate a diet at the
least possible cost so as to maximize profit. This can be done by careful selection of ingredients
that are cheap but rich in nutrients for fish growth and optimum performance as protein
requirement for varying species of fish differ. Thus, the protein needs of the culturable fish
species must be known for effective feed formulation to be achieved.
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Advantages of Moisture feed:

 Most important advantage of the feed is to be cheaper than the other feed types.
 It does not require any mechanization.

Disadvantages of Moisture feed:

 It is hard to find in all seasons.

 The nutritional content of the feed varies according to season.
 It is difficult to keep it fresh and ready to us.

Advantages of Dry feed:

 Nutritional content of the feed is guaranteed (you can exactly know the nutritional level
of the feed).
 There is no change according to the season of the year.
 You can buy it whenever you want from fish feed plants.
 It is easy to store the feed.

Disadvantages of Dry feed:

 Requires mechanization and automation.

 It is more expensive than moisture feeds.

The purpose of formulating local fish meal is to grow fish fast and economically i.e. as
cheaply as possible. To achieve this, it is essential that fish is fed with compounded diets to get
optimum production for the investment within a short time and to achieve it; the formulated diet
must provide the following;

Protein: The essence of this component in the feedstuffs is to make the fish to grow well. If the
fish is injured, protein ensures repairs of wound. Examples of animal protein feed ingredients
that provide proteins are poultry feathers, fish meal and shrimps. Examples of plant proteins
include soya beans, cotton seed, ground nut, sesame seed cake and duck weed.

Energy: Energy can be supplied from maize, rice meals, wheat and other sources like fats and
oil. These feedstuffs provide energy for the fish to move round, i.e. swim and do other activities.

Roughages: These feedstuffs help the fish with digestion by forming bulky materials that move
the waste out of the digestive system of the fish. Examples include maize (corn) and wheat bran.

Vitamins: Vitamins help the fish to remain healthy. Examples include vitamins A, B, C, D, E,
and K.

Minerals: Minerals help in building up the bones, teeth and scales of the fish. Examples include
bone meal, oyster, shell, calcium and phosphate.
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Steps in Feed Formulation

1. The first step in diet formulation is balancing the crude protein and energy levels. This
can be accomplished by trial and error, by the square method for either crude protein
level or energy level and then adjusting, or by solving simultaneous equations.
2. The second step in diet formulation is to check the levels of indispensable amino acids in
the formulation to be sure the dietary levels meet the requirements of the animal to be
fed. The requirements of fish for indispensable amino acids is expressed as the dietary
level (as a percent of the diet) or as a percent of the dietary protein level.
3. If the diet formulation is low in any amino acid, a feedstuff that contains high levels of
that amino acid must be added to the diet at the expense of another ingredient. Once the
amino acid requirements are met, the dietary protein and energy levels must be rechecked
to, see if any substitution of ingredients has imbalanced the formulation.

Square Pearson Method:

The square method is an easy way to determine the proper dietary proportions of high
and low protein feedstuffs to add to a feed to meet the dietary requirement of the animal to be
fed.

For example, suppose rice bran and soybean meal was available as feedstuffs to prepare a
diet for carp that was 25 percent crude protein. A square is constructed and the two feedstuffs are
put on the two left corners along with the protein content of each. The desired protein level of the
feed is placed in the middle of the square. Next, the protein level of the feed is subtracted from
that of the feedstuffs, placing the answer in the opposite corner from the feedstuff. Ignore
positive or negative signs.

To make the 27 percent crude protein carp feed; we must mix 17/35.8 of rice bran with 18.8/35.8
soybean meal.

Rice Bran 17/35.8 = 47.5%

Soybean meal 18.8/35.8 = 52.5%

So to make 100 kg of this feed we must mix 47.5 kg of rich bran with 52.5 kg of soybean meal.

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Manufacturing Process of Artificial Fish feed
Aquaculture world-wide is an emerging agricultural sector with an average growth of
more than 10% per annum. According to the FAO (2014) statistics 154 million metric tons of
fish were produced in 2012 in the world, of which 41% was produced from aquaculture. It is
expected that aquaculture will produce 120 to 130 million metric tons by the year 2020 (FAO
2014). Fish consumption per capita is growing rapidly due to its impedance in human nutrition
and the need for more food protein sources. Recent data show that 85% of the total fish fanned or
wild caught is used for human consumption and remaining 15% is used for fish meal and fish oil
production.

The ingredient composition of the feed formula has an impact on the nature of feed and
manufacturing process for aqua feeds. Feed types require various processing conditions and
equipment to acquire different levels of temperature exposure. Gelatinization and liquid addition
in form of moisture and fats. Different feed ingredients like cereal grains, agro industrial by-
products and animal protein sources pass through various milling and processing techniques to
manufacture quality and efficient aqua feeds. The feed production process for aqua feeds
generally is comprised of different processing steps to produce good quality feeds.

The following are the unit operations in manufacturing of fish feed -

1. Grinding

2. Screening

3. Mixing

4. Pelleting

5. Extrusion

6. Drying

7. Cooling

8. Crumbling/Silting

9. Coating

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 FLOWCHART
SILOS/WAREHOUSE

RECEIVING

LABORATORY ANALYSIS

CLEANING/SIFTING

GRINDING/PULVERISING

BINDER/STABILIZER/ ↓ STEAM BOILER

COLOUR ADDITION BATCH WEIGHING ↓

↓ TEMPERATURE &
ADDETIVES ADDITION MOISTURE ADDITION

MIXING

CONDITIONING

PELLETING EXTRUSION

↓ ↓

AIR ASSISTED COOLING TEXTURING

↓ ↓

CRUMBLING HORIZONTAL DRYER

↓ ↓

SCREENING VERTICAL COOLER

↓ ↓

VACCUM COATING & ENZYME PACKAGING

APPLICATION ↓

STORAGE & TRANSPORTATION

Fig.2.1 Flow chart of Aqua Feed Manufacturing Processes

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Grinding (Particle Size Reduction)
The grinding of the raw materials is one of the major prerequisites in aqua feeds
manufacturing. Grinding of raw materials reduces panicle size and increases surface area,
reduces moisture. Facilitates mixing, reduces density variations and increases digestibility,
palatability, and acceptability. Grinding should be organized to achieve requisite sized material
as large particles are undesirable and even dangerous for small fish and fry. Coarse or ultra-fine
grinding depends on feed type and supports pelleting or extrusion process by lowering the
extra wear and tear of the equipment and consequently increasing the production output. As
a general rule of thumb, material grinding level should be around 1/3 rd of the openings of
the die. While producing feeds below 1 mm size, 80 to 85% of the material should be less
than 1/5th, the size of the die opening. Particle size reduction depending on the equipment
used can involve immense energy utilization and will depend on several factors that will be
mentioned below for each specific equipment. Grain type, size of sieve size, hole diameter,
tip speed of the hammers, single or double pass pulverizing and degree of grinding will
also have an impact.
The equipment used for particle size reduction include,

 Hammer mill
 Roller mill
 Pulverizer

Hammer Mills

Hammer mills accomplish size reduction by impact on also moving cereal grain with a
fast moving hammer. Hammer mills work on the principle that most materials will crush,
shatter or pulverize upon impact. The target has low kinetic energy and is struck with a
heavy force of the high speed moving hammers which are attached to a shaft which rotates
at high speed inside the chamber. The hammer tip travels at 15,000 to 18,000 ft. per minute
(76.2to91.4m/s). The quantity, size, arrangement and speed of the hammers, screen size,
distance among the screen and hammer produces coarse to fine grist spectrum as well as
determines the mill capacity. The energy utilization depends upon degree of grinding.
Hammer mills are less capital intensive compared to the roller mills and pulverizers but at
the same time am less efficient users of energy in comparison to the other mentioned
machines. The effective screen sieve size of hammer falls among 1 to 3 mm scattered holes
for aqua feeds grinding requirements.

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 Fig.2.2 Hammer Mill

Roller Mills

Roller mills accomplish particle size reduction through combination of cutting and
crushing by corrugated rollers. The rollers moving at uniform speed create compression
while toilets messing at different speeds create two way action of compression, shearing
and tearing action. Roll grinding is economical and efficiently works on dry ingredients
low in fat. Roller speed also matters for throughput of the grind. The typical Teed ranges
from 1300 to 3000 ft. per minute (6.6 to 15.2 m/s). Particle size can be achieved from 500
to 900 microns for cereal grains. Roller mills on an average grind size are 50% efficient
than hammer mills in kilo watt hour power consumption.

Fig.2.3 Roller Mill

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Pulverizers

Pulverizers are used for ultrafine grinding of aquatic feed raw materials required for
special processing. Pulverizers work by impacting particles with their beater plates at very high
speed by moving them to corrugated liners and reduce size of the material in microns. The
process of hitting continues again and again altering density reduction ultimately leaving the
machine through the air stream to a product collector.
Pulverizers are used for tilapia, larval and shrimp feed production, which generally
utilize 0.5 mm to 1 mm maximum in particle size. When grinding screen size of 1 mm or below
is used in hammer mills, the capacity due to the screen's hole size significantly drops and may
result in reduced quality, production efficiency and increases the maintenance cost of the unit.

Fig.2.4 Pulverizer
Advantages of ultrafine grinding are
• Meets special feed and processing requirements
• Improves water stability of the feet
• Identical density keeps nutritional balance intact
• Efficient through put grind of mixed feeds can be attained
• Reduce wear on extruder dies
• Energy efficient in comparison to other grinding systems
• Produces less heat during particle size reduction

Screening

The type and quantity of ingredients selected are based upon two factors; fish species
and its size or age. Feeding habits are also to be considered. Some species learn quickly to eat
floating feed whereas others are more used to search for food at the bottom of the pond may

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take longer to train or like shrimp may need sinking diets. Size and age of fish will determine
the type of nutrition to be added as well as the size of the feed pellet.
In order to produce quality feed economically and to ensure desired feed conversion rate
as well as disease free rearing of fish, the ground raw materials must be segregated as per their
particle size by passing through a sieving system either composed of multiple sieves shaken
through gyratory vibratory motion or of an inclined rotary sieve bed. Correct panicle site is also
necessary to ensure correct proportions of all ingredients as per the feed formula in each feed
unit.

Mixing

Mixing is either carried out to blend or scatter the individual components in the mix so
that each unit part of the mix should contain all the ingredients either in required proportions or
close to it. Thus mixing is considered as more important in quality control point of view. It has
been experimentally established that small uniform sized ingredients will result in a mixture
that is close to the distribution as per the formula.
Mixing can be done manually in batches either with shovels on dust protected floors or
in suitable containers. It can also be done as batch or continuous processes in mechanical
mixers. Generally fish feed is prepared in batches after mixing in mechanical mixers. For this
purpose the large volume ingredients are added first to the mixers followed by any medium
volume ingredients like salt, calcium or premixes, then the small quantity ingredients are added
and in the end the liquids are added. These mixers are made in different configurations, shapes,
and sizes depending upon the buyer's requirement. Another important mixing process
applicable to fish feed preparation is called premixing. It involves mixing of micro nutrients
such as vitamins and minerals. This process can also be utilized to include fish medications in
the feed on required basis. Premixing is also carried out in batch type mixers for recommended
preset time to ensure proper blending. A well-mixed batch of ingredients in powder form is
often referred to as a "mash". In some extensive pond fanning systems the mash may be
broadcasted by hand.

Pelleting

Pelleting is an agglomeration process that consists of changing mash feed into solids of
given shape or texture by means of a mechanical press in combination with moisture, heat and
pressure. The moisture and heat are inducted through saturated steam (steam at almost 100%
quality) and/or mechanical pressure. In the steam addition process during the conditioning of

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the mash, the steam will increases the temperature and moisture of the mash. The pelleting
process started a century ago based on a ring die principle applying specific mechanical energy
and still continues as a major processing technique in feed processing and product densification
for various species of livestock and sinking aqua feeds.

Fig.2.5 Pelleting Machine

The pelleting process can be accomplished in three stages:

1. Conditioning
2. Compressing
3. Cooling
After the conditioning process, the hot and moistened mash is compressed outward
through cylindrical die by the rollers to produce the pellets. This process of forming the pellets,
changes the mash density of 0.4 g/cc to a pellet bulk density of 0.5 to 0.6 g/cc.
After cooling, in storage cases it is required to have a smaller pellet size. Therefore, in a
post-pelletizing process called crumbling the pellet may be broken into smaller pieces. This
crumbling process assures that the proper mix of ingredients is maintained and that the crumble
is -bite" sized for small mouths in younger fish. At the same time after crumbling a sifting step
is always required as the breaking process inevitably produces small particulates that would
otherwise become fines in the feed. The material sifted is often fed back into the original
pelleting process.

Extruders

Extrusion can be defined as a technological process of forcing feed raw more of material
in one of the processing conditions (such as mixing. heating, cutting, etc.) by making some

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chemical and physical changes through the die to make material forming or eruption
gasification. Extrusion allows buoyancy control to make floating, sinking, or slow sinking
feeds. The bulk density of the extruded aqua feeds can be reduced by 0.25 - 0.3 g/cc. compared
with mash prior to extrusion. The extrusion process may or may not involve a simultaneous
cooking process and this process functions in many ways including texture alteration, grinding,
hydration, partial dehydration, shearing, protein denaturing and gelatinization, shaping.
The extrusion mechanism depends on certain independent variables and dependent
variables. Independent variables are further divided into two parts as conditioning and
extrusion. The conditioning variables include critical parameters like temperature, moisture
content, and retention time. In this phase the product responds with certain chemical and
physical changes. While in extrusion phase the most important variables are moisture content,
oil addition, thermal energy, mechanical energy application and retention time. The dependent
variables include feed rate, lighter or heavier densities, and extent of cooking which can
determine between the sinking and floating feeds because less cooking will lead to less
expansion, high density and sinking feeds. High expansion on the other hand will result in low
density floating feeds.

Conditioning

Conditioning refers to the preparation of the mash with the aid of steam added heat and
moisture before it is compressed by the extruder mechanical force and pressure. Conditioning
has a great bearing on compression process, palatability, durability and thus on quality of the
extruded feeds. Proper conditioning of the mash before extrusion largely depends on the grist
spectrum of the particles. The conditioning process creates certain modifications for enhancing
nutrient availability to the fish. It improves gelatinization of the starches, makes room for high
fat and liquid addition improves pellet quality, and intestinal digestibility.
Different types of conditioners are used for varying temperature and moisture content levels of
the mash prior to exclusion.
• Small barrel conditioner mixer with paddles
• Two stage barrel conditioner with paddles.
• Long conditioner LLX type
• Differential diameter cylinder with varying speed in each chamber.

Floating Feeds

To understand the floating characteristics of the pellets, its density should be below 1
g/cc in comparison to water density in order to float. If the pellet has a density of 1.05 g/cc in
fresh water, and 1.12 g/cc at 3 % sea water, it will sink. Therefore, in order to make the pellets
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float certain processing parameters should be reached. Following is an example of operating
parameters that can be used to produce floating feed in an extruder. The conditioning time may
range from 120 to 140 seconds and the mash should have a temperature between 95 to 1100 ˚C
with moisture content between 22 to 26%. The temperature of the mash at the discharge end of
the extruder should be 1300 ˚C, moisture content between 21 to 24%, and a pressure at the
discharge between 34 to 37 atm. The bulk density should be less than 480 and 440 g/l in fresh
water and sea water, respectively.

Sinking Feeds
For sinking feeds the operating parameters of the extruder are different when compare to
producing floating feed. For example, the conditioning time may range from 90 to 120 seconds
and the mash should have a temperature between 85 to 950 ˚C and moisture content between 25
to 32%. The temperature of the mash at the discharge end of the extruder should be at 1200 ˚C
the moisture content of the mash between 24 to 27% and the pressure at discharge between 20 to
29 atm. The bulk density of mash to be extruded into pellets should be less than 600 and 640 g/1
in freshwater and sea water, respectively.

Fig.2.6 Floating feeds Fig.2.7 Sinking feed

Generally two types of extruders are used. They are

• Single screw extruder

• Double screw extruder

Also, the extrusion process may be dry or wet cooking depending on the addition of
water in the conditioning process.

Single screw extruders have three types:

• Dry cooking extruders

• Wet cooking extruders
• Cold forming extruders

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 Fig.2.8 Assembly of a single screw extruder

Generally dry cooking extruders are operated without steam and are used in processing of
low moisture highly expanded starch products. These arealso used for processing whole soybean
to full fat soybean meal or flour and are not commonly used in the production of aqua feeds.

Wet cooking extruders are equipped with pre-conditioners and are largely used in the
aqua feed and pet food industry. These extruders can handle 20 to 30% moisture mashes with the
high capacity of production from 1 to 20 T/h with variety of raw materials. Wet cooking
extrusion improves digestibility and eliminates most pathogens.

Cold forming extruders have a very limited use in producing moist aquatic feeds. These
function like a meat grinder with the ability of blending certain raw materials.

Twin screw cooker extruders are used in wet extrusion and are operated for specialized
aquatic feeds manufacturing, initial investment and maintenance are higher compared to single
screw extruders. Twin screw extruders can handle water and fats injection during the course of
cooking extrusion and can use very small dies of 0.7 to 1.5 mm in diameter. Overall, these
extruders offer great flexibility and produce extruded products with even size and uniformity.

Fig.2.9 Assembly of Twin Screw extruder

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Dryers
The drying process in aqua feed production is more relevant in case of feeds
manufactured through extrusion since their moisture contents are relatively higher. Drying with
heated dry air is used for removal of excess moisture thereby increasing the shelf life of the feed.
Horizontal dryers equipped with single or double stage perforated conveyor belt or trays
allowing how of hot air through the thin layer of properly spread feed are employed for this
purpose.

Coolers
Coolers extract heat and surplus moisture created during extrusion or pelleting making
feed harder and suitable for handling and storage. The pellets leaving the cooler should be 5 to
80 ˚C above the ambient temperature and moisture uptake by finished feed should be around 0.5
to 1% as compared to the mash compounded for conditioning. Generally, depending on their
design, coolers can take 10 minutes for cooling after extrusion process.

The following types of coolers are used in aqua feeds manufacturing:

• Vertical cooler
• Horizontal belt cooler
• Counter flow cooler

Vertical Cooler

In a vertical cooler the free flowing pellets by gravity makes a bed in the cooler at the full
level to attain its maximum efficiency and discharge is governed by the feeding rate. Cooling is
achieved by drawing ambient air cross wise through the column of pellets and exhausts through a
cyclone leaving the fines for recycling.

Fig.2.10 vertical cooler

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Horizontal belt cooler

Horizontal coolers are more flexible for cooling/drying extruded feeds which usually
contain more moisture by controlling retention time of feeds. Bed depth and air flow can be
controlled and better efficiency of the cooling can be achieved by completely covering the cooler
bed with an even depth of the pellets to allow the air to pass through for uniform dispersal and
uptake of moisture from the feeds.

Fig.2.11 Horizontal cooler

Counter Flow Coolers

In a counter flow cooler the pellets and cooling air flow in opposite directions. The
coolest pellets contact the cool air and the hottest one contact with the warmest air. These coolers
are becoming more popular in the feed industry. The counter flow cooler provides constant
retention and an even flow over the entire discharge area. These coolers are energy efficient and
cover less space for installation due to vertical orientation.

Fig.2.12 Counter cooler

Crumbling and Sifting

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 In order to reduce their size, pellets can be passed through a crumbler after cooling. This
is done for obtaining a smaller feed unit more suitable according to age and type of small fish.
The crumbling process provides flexibility of producing special feeds with selected granulations
eases product flow in difficult feeding systems, higher production efficiency in comparison to
small pellet manufacturing using more electrical energy, and allows more economic
formulations.

Coating

The pellets manufactured through pellet machine or extruder is exposed to high

temperatures of conditioning and compression leading to loss of potency of vitamins and
enzymes. Feeds normally contain 5 to 10% fat and to achieve higher levels, in some cases a
coating are necessary with oils using low heat. In the same way, certain heat sensitive vitamins
and enzymes (thermo-labile products) that would not normally withstand the conditioning and
extrusion temperatures can also be added later during the coating process.

Chapter- III
Conclusions
With the increasing demand for food fish, the decline in capture fisheries production, and
the exhaustion of mangrove areas available for fishpond expansion, aquaculture in the
Philippines is heading towards intensification and the utilization of coastal waters for cage and
pen fish farming. This shift from low density to high density culture is consequently leading to
an unprecedented rise in the demand for feeds more than that of fertilizers.

At present the supply of the majority of locally available feedstuffs is already limited and
the seasonal availability and occurrence of natural calamities compound this problem. This
situation is likely to worsen with the rapid growth of the poultry and livestock farming sectors.
Unless production of local feedstuffs is increased and its utilization made more efficient, the
growth of fish culture, as well as that of land-based animal farming, are bound to be more and
more dependent upon the use of imported raw materials. Aquaculture specifically requires high
protein feed ingredients, such as fish meal and soybean oil meal, which have very little domestic
production. The aquaculture industry must work towards ways and means of efficiently
managing and utilizing local feedstuff resources, such as by improving processing methods,
increasing digestibility and nutritional value, extending shelf life and freshness, and by
developing formulations specific for each species, culture system, and culture environment.
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Efficiency in feed utilization can also be better attained by ensuring hydro stability and by
employing appropriate feeding methods and strategies. The streamlining of marketing channels
and the development of non-conventional feedstuffs that are economically and commercially
viable to mass produce will be particularly valuable for the feed industry.

The rapid expansions in fish farming due to the high demand and attractive profit margins
will imminently result in an oversupply of products. As farm gate prices eventually fall,
production costs and competitiveness of aquaculture could be improved through the greater use
of fertilizers. However, the prospect of a significantly increasing yield in the country’s 200,000
ha of predominantly shallow brackish water milkfish ponds through improved fertilization
practices will be difficult to realize unless the ponds are deepened or life support systems are
used. Competing use with agriculture is already limiting the supply of chicken manure in major
aquaculture centers although the abundant supply of livestock manure offers a potentially
valuable resource if technology and economic feasibility for its use can be established.

Chapter- IV
References
 American Chemical Society, 1969. Fifteenth meeting, September 1968. Symposium on
natural food toxicants. J.Agric. Food Chem. 17:413-538
 Atack, T.H., K. Jauncey and A.J. Matty, 1979. The utilization of some single cell proteins
by fingerling mirror carp (Cyprinus carpis). Aquaculture, 18:337-48
 Bondari, K. and D.C. Sheppart, 1981. Soldier flies larvae as feed in commercial fish
production. Aquaculture., 24:103-9
 Brandt, T.M., 1979. The use of heat treated full-fat soybeans in channel catfish and
golden shiner feeds. Paper presented at the Texas Fish Farming Conference, Texas A &
M University, College Station, Texas, January 17-19, 1979, 15 p.(mimeo)
 A handbook on Feed technology- Dr. MirzaZafar A Khan
 Egware RA, Orewa SI. A Comparative Profit Analysis of Catfish (Clariasgariepinus)
Production in Ughelli, Delta State, Nigeria. Custos J of Sci and Techn. 2014; 10(1):7479.
 JB, Chapman FA. Preparing Your Own Fish Feeds, Document Circular 97, Ovie SO, Eze
SS. Utilization of Dry Yeast in the Replacement of Fish Meal in Clariasgariepinus Diet.
Biol. and Environ. Sci. J for the Tropics (BEST). 2013; 10(2):15-20.
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  Royes Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Science, Florida Cooperative Extension
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 Spinelli J. Aquaculture Development and Coordination Programme, Fish Feed
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