Capacity and ability of the reservoir rock to store
and conduct petroleum fluids through the matrix
Reservoir rock
Reservoir fluids:
-Crude
-Naptha
-Drinkable water
Oil created by source rock wont be useful unless it
winds up being stored in an easily accessible
container, a rock that has room to suck it up
Reservoir rock is a pace that oil migrates to and is
held underground
Characteristics:
-must have porosity in which petroleum can exist
-must be permeable (pores should be connected)
Fracturing para sa mga rocks na may porosity but
low permeability. Pinafracture para magkaroon ng
connection ang mga pore space
Perforation process- create holes para may
passage ang pressurized na fluids thru perforation
guns
Leeching- pagkatunaw ng mga cements in
between of grains. Factor na nakakapag enhance
ng permeability
Cementation- kabaliktaran ng cementation.
Disadvantage na factor for permeability.
Magkakaroon ng cementation material in between
grains.
=======================================
======
Source of data:
1. coring
-used to recover formation samples from petroleum
reservoir
-reservoir rock samples are used for reservoir
description and definition, reservoir characterization
and to enhance both geological petrophysical
nature of the reservoir.
Physical sample of reservoir rock core is essential
to evaluate the two most significant characterisitics:
Data on formation’s lithology and production
potential are obtained through coring program.
Core barrel- hollow pipe na ang purpose ay
maidentify ang specific depth and makakuha ng
core sample.
-Like straw na tinusok sa styro, kapag hinugot may
natitira sa straw which serves as the sample.
Core samples- output ng coring
Advantage: Mapoprotect ng core barrel ang core
samples kaya less contaminated.
=======================================
=======2. Drill cuttings- rock fragments na
natipak sa subsurface during drilling process using
drilling fluids. Para maging source ng data kung
anong meron sa ilalim.
Disadvantage: mareretrieve ang drill cuttings thru
drilling fluids. In short contaminated na ang drill
cuttings dahil sa fluids na napasama
Rate of penetration- depth vs. time para malaman
kung anong depth na ang nadidrill para malaman
ang drill cuttings kasi iba iba ang layer sa ilaim ng
lupa so madidistinguish yung drill cutiings depende
sa depth na nadidrill
Drilling fluids- ilalagay sa drill string para
maprevent ang blow out at macontrol ang pressure.
Madala ang drill cuttings sa surface.
Drill pipe
-considered ang thickness, pressure to withstand.
Bit nozzles
-butas na lalabasan ng drilling fluids, na kapag
lumabas ay doon papasok sa annulus
Annulus- space na magdadala pataas sa drilling
fluid
=======================================
=======
 Permeability increases with grain size
and degree of sorting
 How it was pack and sorted dictates its
porosity and permeability.
Capillary pressure data are used in reservoir
engineering primarily for determining initial fluid
contacts and transition zones. It is also important in
describing fluid flow from fractured reservoir
because capillary pressure controls the fluids
between the fracture and rock matrix
Four major components of sandstone
1. framework- (sand size detrital grains0
2. matrix-(silt and clay size detrital materials -capillary pressure
3. cement- (material precipitated post depositional, -cementation exponent (m) saturation exponent (n)
during burial. Cement fills pores and replace
framework grains
4. pores-( voids among above components) Reservoir rocks and characteristics
Rock cycle- scheme that represent how rocks are
formed
Hindi dahil sandstone ay masasabing iisa lang ang
components na meron don. Maraming minerals pa -weathering
ang maiidentify thru microscopic process. It is the
-heat and pressure
dominant mineral that dictates the possessed
property. -melting

Coring assembly and core bit Classification

Nakadepende sa kung anong type pero ang 1. igneous
function and principle ay pareho.
Intrusive(naform deep within the earth) and
extrusive (napupunta sa surface thru volcanic
eruption)
Normal drill bit- crack into small pieces para
marecover from bottom to surface 2. sedimentary
cOre bit- nakasize dun sa butas ang size ng Clastic, chemical and biologic
makukuhang sample no need to crush. Hollow
3. metamorphic
cylinder with cutter outside
Foliated and non foliated

core diameters: 3-7 inch, about 90 ft long

Wentworth scale

sidewall sampling gun -in terms of size ang naming ng sediments

Boulder 256mm up- pinakamalaki. Mas mabilis
-can be use to obtain small plugs from the
magsettle down
formation
-20-30 bullets are fired from each gun at different
depth During transportation of sediments, erosion and
Whole core weathering process happens. ang kaya lang dalhin
sa depth of water ay silt and clay dahil sa liit ng
-Provides larger sample size. Mas madaling matransport.
-better and more consistent representation of
formation
100% clastic- shale
-better for heterogeneous rock for more complex
Cementation- ion-laden sea water may deposit
lithologies
minerals in the pore spaces between the grains,
thus effectively cementing them together
Information from cores:

 Standard analysis Compaction-dahil sa overburden pressure

-porosity -may kinalaman din ang resistance ng rocks

-horizontal permeability to air -as they buried, the weight of overlayling sediments
presses downword on the mud particles and
-grain density compacts them, result in the formation of rocks
such as claystone, mudstone or shale.

 Special core analysis Sedimentary rock formation

-vertical permeability to air -Chemical and mechanical process in weathering

-relative permeability -Transporting agent (biochemical precipitation)

-deposition
-pressure and temperature na nag eexist para
maluto
Non clastic sedimentary
Particle I- broke fragments of calcite mostly from
algae
- Largest fragment are about 1 mm in length
Particle II- broken shell fragments of calcite from
bivalve molluscs
- These shell fragments accumulated on a
beach and are cemented together
- Almost 100% shell fragments and is
therefore called coquina
- Largest fragment is about 2 mm in length
Four fundamental components of sedimentary
rocks
-porosity
-cement
-grains
-matrix
Reservoir rock- one in which pore space exists for
the accumulation of hydrocarbon, and the pore
spaces are interconnected (permeability) so the
hydrocarbon can move both into and out of the
pore spaces.
Diagenesis of the reservoir ruck such as cement
formation can reduce the pore space volume and
reduce the permeability so less hydrocarbon can
flow through the rock.
=======================================
=======
Log analysis for flow unit determination
-during a specific stages of drilling, a set of logging
tools is lowered into the hole to measure various
rock and fluid properties.
-this information, calibrated by rock cuttings and
drill fluid analysis helps identify the type of rocks
and fluids encountered
-interpretation of depositional environment of the
rocks helps in predicting the distribution and quality
of a reservoir or seal, and the porosity and
permeability of the reservoir rock.
-measurement of fluids provide information on the
presence and absence of hydrocarbons.
Porosity- amount of pore space of material
- Volumetric portion of bulk rock that is not
occupied by grains, crystals or natural
cementing materials
- can be a relic of deposition (primary
porosity- space between grains that were
not compacted together) or can develop
through alteration of the rock (secondary
porosity- when feldspar grains or fossils
are preferentially dissolved from
sandstones)
- Measure of how much of a rock is an open
space
- Normally expressed as a percentage of the
total rock which is taken up by pore space
- Materials made of round particles have a lot
of pore space
- Materials like clay that are flat and angular
have less pore space.
- The amount of pore space is greater if
particles are of the same size rather than if
mixed sizes are present
- Total porosity- total void space in the rock
whether or not it contribute to fluid flow
Porosity varies from 0% to 70% in natural
sediments but exceeds 70% for freshly deposited
mud.
Factors that control porosity:
a) Packing Density- the arrangement of the
particles in the deposit.
b) Grain Size
On its own, grain size has no influence on porosity!
c) Sorting
In general, the better sorted the sediment the
greater the porosity.
d) Post burial changes in porosity.
=======================================
=======
i) Compaction
Particles are forced into closer packing by the
weight of overlying deposits, reducing porosity.
ii) Cementation
Precipitation of new minerals from pore waters
causes cementation of the grains and acts to fill the
pore spaces, reducing porosity.
iii) Clay formation
Clays may form by the chemical alteration of pre-
existing minerals after burial.
Feldspars are particularly common clay-forming
minerals.
Clay minerals are very fine-grained and may
accumulate in the pore spaces, reducing porosity.
iv) Solution
If pore waters are undersaturated with respect to
the minerals making up a sediment then some
volume of mineral material is lost to solution.
Calcite, that makes up limestone, is relatively
soluble and void spaces that are produced by
solution range from the size of individual grains to
caverns.
Solution of grains reduces VG, increasing porosity.
Solution is the most effective means of creating
secondary porosity.
v) Pressure solution
The solubility of mineral grains increases under an
applied stress (such as burial load) and the process
of solution under stress is termed Pressure
Solution.
The solution takes place at the grain contacts
where the applied stress is greatest.
Pressure solution results in a reduction in
porosity in two different ways:
1. It shortens the pore spaces as the grains are
dissolved.
2. Insoluble material within the grains accumulates
in the pore spaces as the grains are dissolve.
v) Fracturing
-Fracturing of existing rocks creates a small
increase in porosity.
-Fracturing is particularly important in producing
porosity in rocks with low primary porosity.
=======================================
=======
Permeability- ability of material to transmit water
- Measure of the ease with which a fluid can
move through a porous rock
- Well sorted (same size and shape)
materials are very permeable (gravel and
sand)
A French hydrologist named Darcy did the first
work on permeability. He was concerned about flow
of water through filters. He found that flow rate Q,
is proportional to area of flow A,h, and 1/L.
Permeability is an important parameter that controls
the reservoir performance. Its importance is
reflected by the number of available techniques
typically used to estimate it.
Permeability theory
Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a
porous medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
Three types of permeability
Absolute permeability - the permeability of a
porous medium with only one fluid present (single-
phase flow).
- Constant for a particular medium and
independent of the fluid type
Depends on the geometry of the pore
channel system
When two or more fluids are present,
permeability of the rock to a flowing fluid is called
effective permeability (ko, kg, kw).
- Each fluid will mutually reduce the pore
channels open to flow for the other fluid and
the effective permeability may be a much
lower than absolute permeability
Relative permeability is the ratio of absolute
and effective permeabilities kro=ko/k, krg=kg/k,
krw=kw/k.
- If a single fluid in a rock, its relative
permeability is 1.
- Dimensionless ratio devised to adapt
darcy’s law to multiphase condition
- function of its saturation
-
A porous medium has a permeability of one Darcy,
when a single-phase fluid of one centipoises
viscosity, that completely fills the voids of the
medium will flow through it, under conditions of
viscous flow (also known as laminar flow), at a
rate of one cubic centimetre cross sectional area,
and under a pressure or equivalent hydraulic
gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre
Important Characteristics that must be
considered in the reservoir:
Types of fluids in the reservoir
• Incompressible fluids
• Slightly compressible fluids
• Compressible fluids
Flow regimes
• Steady state flow
• Unsteady state flow
• Pseudosteady state flow
Reservoir geometry
• Linear flow
• Radial flow
• spherical and hemispherical flow
Number of fluid flowing in the reservoir
• Single phase flow
• Two phase flow
• Three phase or multiple phase flow Reservoir
Rocks
Two major factors:
1. The diameter of the pathways through which the
fluid moves.
2. The tortuosity of the pathways (how complex
they are).
Tortuosity is a measure of how much a pathway
deviates from a straight line.
=======================================
=======
Assumption used in DARCY EQUATION
Steady state flow, i.e. Qin = Qout
Viscous or Laminar flow: the particles flow in
parallel paths
Rock is 100% saturated with one fluid
Fluid does not react with the; this a problem with
shaly-sand (interstitial particles)
The formation is homogeneous and isotropic:
same porosity, same permeability and same fluid
properties
1 darcy is the permeability that allows a fluid
with 1 centipoise viscosity to flow at a rate of 1
cm/s under a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm.
Permeability is often very small and expressed
in millidarcies (1/1000) d
Impermeable- water does not pass through this
material
-clay packs are very flat, so even though there
is a pore space, the pores are not connected
=======================================
===
Sandstone heterogeneity
-controlled by the following factors:
1. geometry of sandstone bodies
2. faulting and fracturing of the reservoir
intervals (influences oil trapping and retention,
influencing fluid flow at field and well scales)
3. mudstone and other low permeability baffles
that direct flow of fluids through the rocks
4. vertical and lateral distribution of facies, and
interbedding characteristics of the sandstones,
mudstones, and other rock types
5. sedimentary structures
6. laminae
7. influence of diagenetic history on
porosity/permeability preservation, destruction
and enhancement
>Most oil and gas is produced in sandstone
>most oil and gas reservoirs produce from
rocks that have 10-100 millidarcys
Trap- geologic structure where oil and gas are
found which prevents it from escaping
Enhanced oil recovery
-once the natural flow of oil and gas ceases, the
reservoir will have yielded only 10-25 percent of the
total volume of the oil it contains. The rest is
trapped in unconnected rock pockets or is thick
enough to cling to the rock and refuses to migrate
toward the well bore.
Original porosity (primary) is formed during the
deposition of rock materials,
e.g. porosity between granular in sandstone,
porosity among crystal and oolitic in limestone
Induced porosity (secondary) is developed by
some geological process on the deposited rock
material.
E.g; Fractures, or vugs cavity usual occur in
limestone
Types of Porosity
-effective
-ineffective/isolated
-total
Effective porosity is the measure of the void
space that is filled by recoverable oil and gas; or
the amount of pore space that is sufficiently
interconnected to yield its oil & gas for recovery.
COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE
POROSITIES
• Poorly to moderately well –cemented intergranular
• Highly cemented materials and most carbonates:
Ineffective porosity is the ratio of the volume of
isolated or completely disconnected pores to the
total or bulk volume
total or absolute porosity is the ratio of the entire
void spaces in the reservoir rock to the bulk volume
of the rock
Fracture porosity- form of secondary porosity
generated by tectonic fracturing of the rock
Micro-porosity- part of the pore space that has a
characteristic dimension of less than 1 micron
Vugular porosity- pore space consisting of
cavities or vugs
- Can occur on rock prone to dissolution such
as limestone, in which case is secondary
porosity
Secondary porosity- porosity created through
alteration of rock, commonly by process such as
dolomitization, dissolution or fracturing
Primary porosity- space between grains that were
not compacted together completely
=======================================
=======
What is the significance of Porosity in
engineering reservoir?
• From the reservoir engineering point of view,
porosity is probably one of the most important
reservoir rock properties and its quantitative value
is used in all reservoir engineering calculations ‘cos
it represents the pore spaces that’s occupied by
mobile fluids.
evaluations:
1. Volumetric calculation of fluids in the reservoir
2. Calculation of fluid saturations
3. Geological characterization of the reservoir
cubic packing of spheres resulting in a least-
compact arrangement with a porosity of 47.64%
Rhombohedral packing of spheres resulting in a
most compact arrangement with a porosity of
26%
Spherical size variation influences type &
volume of solid porosity
FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
Primary
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)
Secondary
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
From definition of porosity, porosity of rock sample
can be determined by measuring any two of these
quantities:
• Sources of Porosity data:
– direct measurement
Consolidated porous media- sediments that have
been compacted and cemented to the degree that
they become coherent, relatively solid rock
- A typical consequence is increase in
density, and acoustic velocity and decrease
in porosity
Sorting- tendency of sedimentary rocks to have
grains that are similar in size
- Poorly sorted sediment display a wide range
of grain sizes and hence has decreased in
porosity
- Well sorted indicates grain size distribution
that is fairy uniform
Rock- refer to the bulk volume of material,
including the grains or crystal as well as the
contained void space
POROSITY LOG TYPES
3 Main Log Types
• Bulk density
• Sonic (acoustic)
• Compensated neutron
These logs do not measures porosity directly. To
accurately calculate porosity, the analyst must
know:
•Formation lithology
• Fluid in pores of sampled reservoir volume
=======================================
=======
DENSITY LOGS
• Uses radioactive source to generate gamma rays
• Gamma ray collides with electrons in formation,
losing energy
• Detector measures intensity of backscattered
gamma rays, which is related to electron density of
the formation
• Electron density is a measure of bulk density
>Bulk density, ρb, is dependent upon:
– Lithology
– Porosity
– Density and saturation of fluids in pores
• Saturation is fraction of pore volume occupied by
a particular fluid (intensive)
=======================================
=======
NEUTRON LOG
• Logging tool emits high energy neutrons into
formation
• Neutrons collide with nuclei of formation’s atoms
• Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with each collision
The most energy is lost when colliding with a
hydrogen atom nucleus
• Neutrons are slowed sufficiently to be captured by
nuclei
• Capturing nuclei become excited and emit gamma
rays
Depending on type of logging tool either gamma
rays or non-captured neutrons are recorded
• Log records porosity based on neutrons captured
by formation
• If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is related to
the ratio of neutrons emitted to those counted as
captured
• Neutron log reports porosity, calibrated assuming
calcite matrix and fresh water in pores, if these
assumptions are invalid we must correct the
neutron porosity value
=======================================
=======
ACOUSTIC (SONIC) LOG
• Tool usually consists of one sound transmitter
(above) and two receivers (below)
• Sound is generated, travels through formation
• Elapsed time between sound wave at receiver 1
vs receiver 2 is dependent upon density of medium
through which the sound travelled
FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC LOG RESPONSE
• Unconsolidated formations
• Naturally fractured formations
• Hydrocarbons (especially gas)
• Rugose salt sections
=======================================
=======
RESPONSES OF POROSITY LOGS
The three porosity logs:
– Respond differently to different matrix
compositions
– Respond differently to presence of gas or light
oils
Combinations of logs can:
– Imply composition of matrix
– Indicate the type of hydrocarbon in pores
GAS EFFECT
• Density - φ is too high
• Neutron - φ is too low
• Sonic - φ is not significantly affected by gas
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM WELL LOGS
Openhole logging tools are the most common
method of determining porosity:
• Less expensive than coring and may be less risk
of sticking the tool in the hole
• Coring may not be practical in unconsolidated
formations or in formations with high secondary
porosity such as vugs or natural fractures. If
porosity measurements are very important, both
coring and logging programs may be conducted so
the log-based porosity calculations can be used to
calibrated to the core-based porosity
measurements.
Impermeable rock (cap rock)- traps hydrocarbons
in the reservoir. It maybe porous but the pore
channels must be closed to stop fluids from
escaping.
Reservoir rock- permeable subsurface rock that
contains petroleum.
- Must be both porous and permeable
Source rock- sedimentary rock in which petroleum
forms
3 basic types of pores
1. catenary- pores that communicate with other
pores by more than one throat passage
- hydrocarbon can be flushed out by water
2. cul-de-sac- dead end pores only have one
throat passage connecting to another pore.
- unaffected by water
3. closed pore- have no communication with other 1. to evaluate ohip
pores.
2. to highlight main uncertainties
3. to propose appraisal acquisition programme for
Catenary and cul-de-sac pores constitute effective reducing uncertainties
porosity
Shale has a lot of porosity than sandstone but
Data base
extremely low permeability
-regional data
-2d and 3d sismic

3 most encountered sedimentary rock in oil -mud logging

field -cores
1. shale -wireline
2. sandstone -mdt
3. carbonates -tests
-psv
Limestone: high porosity low permeability
Most sandstone reservoir: porosity proportional to Fundamental data to know about the deposit
permeability environment:
Fractured reservoir: low porosity high permeability -type of sedimentation
Shale: high porosity extremely low permeability -regressive or transgressive sequences
-main heterogeneities
Reservoir characterization -structure
-sources of data to evaluate field Fundamental data to know about the rock
1. Forecast to reservoir management -lithology
-porosity
2. Geology model and reservoir modelling and -clay contents
monitoring (para mavisualize ang behaviorr ng fluid
within that field kaya makakakpagplan ka in terms -water saturation
of reservoir management) -permeability
Summary of Different steps of the exploration
and exploitation of hydrocarbon:
Fundamental data to know about the fluids
-to define and locate most likely trap
-nature of the different fluids in the reservoir
-to characterize the reservoir: petrophysics, fluids,
dynamical characterization -thermodynamical fluid analysis

-to build a geological model -formation water analysis

-to evaluate the original hydrocarbon in place -water compatibility

-to build a provisional dynamical model (simulation

of different scenario)
-to build the field development plan
-to develop, produce and monitor the field
Main ways to get information
1. seismic- define the structure of the subsurface
to perform maps (isochrone and isobath map)

-to match the dynamical model to get the best - identify seismic sequences
forecast
-nature of fluids possible
-evolution of the fluid contact if possible
Exploration- appraisal well
Propagation law- physical law applied to study the
wave
3 different types of waves:
1. compressive (primary)- faster one, the direction
of displacement of the particles (vibration) is
parallel to the propagation axis.
- takes into account the matrix + fluids
2. shear wave (secondary)- displacement is
perpendicular to the propagation axis.
- takes into account only in matrix
3. surface wave or stoneley- slower, their
displacement follow the surfaces where the
characteristics are changing.
If the ray encounter an interface where there is a
change in characteristics of the media, there is a
reflection + refraction
Surface tension- provided by the attractive force of
the fluid molecules which attract surface molecules
toward the center
A liquid wets the solid when adhesion of the liquid
to the solid is greater than cohesion of liquid
particles for each other
Phase Relationships.
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
These multicomponent pressure-temperature
diagrams are essentially used to:
• Classify reservoirs
• Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon
systems
• Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid

2. mud logging- data acquisition during drilling Critical point—The critical point for a
multicomponent mixture is referred to as the state
-drilling rate of pressure and temperature at which all intensive
-weight on bit properties of the gas and liquid phases are equal
(point C). At the critical point, the corresponding
-total gas pressure and temperature are called the critical
pressure pc and critical temperature Tc of the
-gas analyse
mixture.
-shows
• Bubble-point curve—The bubble-point curve
-calcimetry (line BC) is defined as the line separating the liquid-
phase region from the two-phase region.
-lithological log
• Dew-point curve—The dew-point curve (line AC)
- comments is defined as the line separating the vapor-phase
3. petrophysic- physical properties of the porous region from the two-phase region.
network • Oil reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature T is
>static petrophysical characteristics less than the critical temperature Tc of the reservoir
fluid, the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir.
-porosity
• Gas reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature is
- clay contents greater than the critical temperature of the
hydrocarbon fluid, the reservoir is considered a gas
-saturation
reservoir.
-specific gravity
-resistivity index
Interfacial Phenomena
-velocity
When phases exist together, the boundary between
>dynamic petrophysical characteristics two of them is termed an interface.

-absolute permeability The properties of the molecules forming the

interface are often sufficiently from those in the bulk
-relative permeability of each phase that they are referred to as forming
- capillary pressure an interfacial phase.

-wettability (directly in relation with surface Surface

tension) The term surface is customarily used when
-pore compressibility referring to either a gas-solid or a gas-liquid
interface.
-measurement under stress
 “Every surface is an interface.”
Surface tension -a force pulling the molecules of
the interface together resulting in a contracted
surface.
- Force per unit area applied parallel to the surface.
Unit in dynes/cm or N/m
Interfacial tension
interface between two immiscible liquid phases and
like surface tension, has the units of dyne/cm.
Surface Free energy – increase in energy of the
liquid and the surface of the liquid increase.
-work must be done to increase liquid surface.
γ – surface tension or surface free energy per
unit surface.
Work of adhesion(Wa), which is the energy
required to break the attraction between the unlike
molecules.(water to oil)
Work of cohesion(Wc), required to separate
the molecules of the spreading liquid so that it can
flow over the sublayer. (oil to oil and water to water)
Spreading of oil to water occurs if the work of
adhesion is greater than the work of cohesion.
Spreading coefficient(S) – difference between Wa
and Wc.
Positive S – if oil spreads over a water surface.
Wettability can be defined as the ability of a fluid
phase to preferentially wet a solid surface in the
presence of a second immiscible phase. In the
reservoir context, it refers to the state of the rock
and fluid system; i.e., whether the reservoir is water
or oil wet.
Wettability is generally classified into three
categories: (1) The reservoir is said to be water
wet; that is, water preferentially wets the reservoir
(2) Neutral wettability case would exist at a contact
(3) oil wet occurs at a contact angle greater than
Neutral or intermediate wettability – no
preference is shown by the rock to either fluid;
i.e., equally wet.
Fractional wettability – heterogeneous wetting;
i.e., portions of the rock are strongly oil wet,
whereas other portions are strongly water wet.
Occurs due to variation in minerals with different
surface chemical properties. Silicate water interface
is acidic, therefore basic constituents in oils will
readily be absorbed resulting in an oil-wet surface.
In contrast, the carbonate water interface is basic
and will attract and absorb acid compounds. Since
crude oils generally contain acidic polar
compounds, there is a tendency for silicate rocks to
be neutral to water-wet and carbonates to be
neutral to oil-wet.
• Mixed wettability – refers to small pores
occupied by water and are water-wet, while larger
pores are oil-wet and continuous. Subsequently, oil
displacement occurs at very low oil saturations
resulting in unusually low residual oil saturation.
The contact angle is a measure of the wettability
of the rock-fluid system, and is related to the
interfacial energies by Young’s equation,
-
Hydrocarbon Traps and Seals
Source Rock - A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-
prone organic matter
• Reservoir Rock - A rock in which oil and gas
accumulates:
- Porosity - space between rock grains in which oil
accumulates
- Permeability - passage-ways between pores
through which oil and gas moves
• Seal Rock - A rock through which oil and gas
cannot move effectively (such as mudstone and
claystone)
• Migration Route - Avenues in rock through which
oil and gas moves from source rock to trap
• Trap - The structural and stratigraphic
configuration that focuses oil and gas into an
accumulation
i. Diagenesis is chemical, physical, or biological
change undergone by a sediment after its initial
deposition and during and after its lithification,
exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and
metamorphism. These changes happen at
relatively low temperatures and pressures and
result in changes to the rock's original mineralogy
and texture. There is no sharp boundary between
diagenesis and metamorphism, but the latter
occurs at higher temperature and pressure than the
former.
ii. Catagenesis
Catagenesis is the cracking process which results
in the conversion of organic kerogens into
hydrocarbons
iii. Metagenesis is the last stage of maturation and
conversion of organic matter to hydrocarbons.
Metagenesis occurs at temperatures of 150° to
200°C. At the end of metagenesis, methane, or dry
gas, is evolved along with nonhydrocarbon gases
such as CO2, N2, and H2S, as oil molecules are
cracked into smaller gas molecules.
A trap is the place where oil and gas are barred
from further movement….(Levorsen, 1967)
Seals or Cap Rocks
For a trap to have integrity, it must be overlain by
an effective seal.
Any rock that is impermeable can act as seal or cap
rock but commonly mudstone
Carbonate as reservoir
Carbonate ramps- like many siliciclastic marine
shelves, with a simple gradation
Rimmed shelves- barrier builds up to isolate a
lagoon behind it
Carbonate buildups- isolated biological caused
features
Sabkha- extensive tidal flat, with evaporates and
intense early diagenesis
Other factors which influence carbonate fields
Dolomitisation- volume change produces
intercrystalline porosity
Fracture- many carbonate reservoirs have high
porosity but low permeability
============================
Hydrocarbon Traps
i. Structural traps
Structural traps are caused by structural features.
They are usually formed as a result of tectonics.
ii. Stratigraphic traps
Stratigraphic traps are usually caused by changes
in rock quality.
iii. Combination traps
Combination traps that combine more than one
type of trap are common in petroleum reservoirs.
Other types of traps (such as hydrodynamic traps)
are usually less common.
Stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps occur where
reservoir facies pinch into impervious rock such as
shale, or where they have been truncated by
erosion and capped by impervious layers above an
unconformity.
In hydrodynamic traps, the hydrocarbon is
trapped by the action of water movements. Tilted
contacts are common in this case. The water
usually comes from a source such as rain falls or
rivers.
“Petroleum "is the general term used for all the
natural hydrocarbons found in rocks.
Petroleum "refers only to the liquid oil. Gaseous
varieties are called “natural gas "and highly viscous
to solid varieties are called “bitumen”.
The fine grained muddy sediments in which
petroleum originates are called “source rocks".
The source rocks of petroleum are generally
shales,silts and limestones. petroleum migrates
from the source rock into adjacent porous and
permeable rocks and accumulates there to form a
pool. Such permeable rocks are called “reservoir
rocks".
The common reservoir rocks are sandstones,
conglomerates, porous limestones, fractured
shales, and jointed igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Most of the known hydrocarbons are trapped
in source rocks less than 200 million years.
There are two types of migration when discussing
the movement of petroleum, primary and
secondary.
Primary migration refers to the movement of
hydrocarbons from within the source rock and into
reservoir rock.
Secondary migration refers to the subsequent
movement of hydrocarbons within reservoir rock;
the oil and gas vacated the source rock and has
entered the reservoir rock
Petroleum trap, is subsurface reservoir of
petroleum. The oil is always accompanied by water
and often by natural gas; all are confined in porous
rock, usually such sedimentary rocks as
sandstones, arkoses and fissured limestones. The
natural gas being lightest, occupies the top of the
trap and is underlain by the oil and then the water.
A layer of impervious rock, called the roof rock,
prevents the upward or lateral escape of the
petroleum.
The conditions necessary for the formation of
an oil trap are as follows,
1. The porous reservoir rocks must have a
favorable structure such as an anticline fold or
dome, to hold oil.
2. There must be an impervious cap rock or roof
rock to check the upward migration of oil.
3. The structural deformation of rocks must not be Such traps are also known as ‘digenetic’ and
very severe. Intensely fractured rocks may render ‘depositional’traps.Thus primary stratigraphic traps
traps ineffective by causing leakage. formed during deposition or digenesis of the
sediments.
b)Secondary stratigraphic traps
Structural traps are created when the seal or
barrier is concave upward [looking from below].The These are the result of some stratigraphic variation
geometry is formed by tectonic processes after that developed after the deposition and digenesis of
deposition of the reservoir beds involved. This the reservoir rock. They are almost always
concave nature may be due to local deformation as associated with unconfirmities,they may be called
a result of folding, faulting or both of the reservoir unconformity traps.
rock. Some of the important structural traps are as
follows.
The combined(or mixed)traps are
a) Anticlines and domes
combinations of structure and lithology. In such
An anticline is an example of rocks which are traps, a stratigraphic element may be the cause for
previously flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil the permeability of a reservoir rock. A structural
that finds its way into a reservoir rock that has been element caused by deformation may combine with
bent into an arch will flow to the crest of the arch, the stratigraphic element to give rise to a trap.
and get stuck. Folds result in the physical Additionally, the down-dip flow of formation water
bending[deformation]of the rock units without may increase the trapping effects. A great variety of
breaking. The rock units undergo bending very traps, which are combinations of structural
slowly over a long periods of geologic time. These &stratigraphic traps, is associated with intrusion of
types of traps are often found adjacent to mountain deepseated rocks into overlying sediments.
ranges.
b)Fault trap
A common trap that would be an example of a
Fault traps are formed by the movement of rock combination trap is a salt dome.
along fault line. In some cases, the reservoir rock
The timing of trap formation is related to
has moved opposite a layer of impermeable rock.
petroleum migration and the formation of the trap.
The impermeable rock thus prevents the oil from
This is an important aspect to be considered in the
escaping. In other cases, the fault itself can be a
accumulation of petroleum.
very effective trap, when a fault affects inclined
strata, a reservoir rock may be blocked off by an If the trap formation is before migration, then they
impervious shale there by creating an oil trap. will be the productive.
Commonly, faults form traps in combination with
other structural features such as folding. on the other hand, where trap formation post-
dates its petroleum migration, they could be barren.
c)Salt domes In post migration, structural changes by faults, they
permit petroleum to undergo further migration.
This kind of trap originates when salt is deposited
by shallow seas. Later, a sinking seafloor deposits
organic rich shale over the salt, which is in turn
covered with layers of sandstone and shale. Deeply
buried salt tends to rise unevenly in swells or salt
domes, and any oil generated within the sediments
is trapped where the sandstones are pushed up
over or adjacent to the saltdome. Where, saltdomes
intruded into the sedimentary rocks, good oil traps
are formed. Here the oil accumulates near the
upturned edges of the reservoir rock which are
sealed by the salt.

The main trap- making element in a stratigraphic

trap is some variation in the lithology or
stratigraphy,or both of the reservoir rock. The
variation may be facies change, variable porosity
and permeability or an up-structure termination of
the reservoir rock.
a)Primary stratigraphic traps