Module 5 and 6 Petgeo

Introduction
 What are the reservoir rock properties?

 The importance of reservoir rock & fluid
properties
 How fluids flow through the reservoir rock
and how this flow can be altered to produce
greater recovery and profits
 Provides good understanding in reservoir
management, Simulation and EOR, etc.
Reservoir Fluid Properties?
 What are reservoir fluids?

 Crude oil
 Natural gas or
 Drinkable water?
Reservoir Rocks
 Oil created by the source rock won’t be useful unless

it winds up being stored in an easily accessible
container, a rock that has room to “suck it up”
 A reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is

held underground.
 Examples of reservoir rocks includes:
 Sandstones
 Limestone and /or Carbonate rocks
Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
A good reservoir rock must have porosity

in which petroleum can exist. Even though a Another characteristics of reservoir rock is
reservoir rock looks solid to the naked eye, that it must be permeable. That’s the
a microscopic examination reveals the pores of the rock must be connected
existence of tiny openings in the rock, called together so that hydrocarbons can move
pores. from one pore to another
Source of data: Coring
 Coring are processes used to recover formation samples from
petroleum reservoirs.
 Reservoir rock samples are used for reservoir description and

definition, reservoir characterization and to enhance both geological
petrophysical nature of the reservoir.
 Physical sample of reservoir rock core is essential to evaluate the two

most significant characteristics:
 the capacity and ability of the reservoir rock to store and conduct
petroleum fluids through the matrix.
In addition, data on formation’s lithology and production potential

are obtained through coring program.
ROCK MATRIX AND PORE SPACE
Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
SANDSTONE
Framework
Sand (and Silt) Size Detrital Grains
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,

During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
FOUR COMPONENTS OF SANDSTONE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT (QUARTZ) MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
CORING ASSEMBLY AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Fluid
vent
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
Coring
Unlike a normal drill bit, which crushes
the rock into small pieces, a core bit can
be visualized as a hollow cylinder with
cutters on the outside.
The cylinder of rock that is cut by the bit

is retained within the core barrel by an • Whole core sampler
arrangement of steel fingers or slips.
Core diameters are typically from three

to seven inches and are usually about 90
feet long.
• Side-wall core sampler

WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa “C” Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
SIDEWALL SAMPLING GUN
The sidewall sampling tool can be used to
obtain small plugs from the formation.
The tool is run on a wireline after the hole
Core bullets has been drilled. Some 20 to 30 bullets
are fired from each gun at different
depths.
The hollow bullet will penetrate the

formation and a rock sample will be
Formation rock trapped inside the steel cylinder. When
the tool is pulled upwards, wires
connected to the gun pull the bullet and
sample from the borehole wall.
Core sample
Sidewall cores are useful for identifying
hydrocarbons zones, when viewed under
UV light. Qualitative inspection of
porosity is possible; however, the cores
may have been crushed during the
collection process, so quantitative
sampling of porosity is questionable.
SIDEWALL CORING TOOL
A newer wireline tool

actually drills a plug
out of the borehole Coring bit
wall, thus avoiding
crushing of the
sample.
Up to 20 samples can
be individually cut
and are stored inside Samples
the tool.
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES
WHOLE CORE
 Provides larger samples
 Better and more consistent representation of

formation
 Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more complex

lithologies
WHOLE CORE ANALYSIS vs.
 Smaller samples
 Less representative of heterogeneous formations
 Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to high-
porosity formation
 In low-porosity formations,  from core plugs tends to
be much greater than  from whole cores
 Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs
Coring
whole core
core plug
INFORMATION FROM CORES
Standard Analysis Special Core Analysis

 Porosity  Vertical permeability to air
 Relative permeability
 Horizontal permeability
to air  Capillary pressure
 Grain density  Cementation exponent
(m) and saturation
exponent (n)
*Allows calibration of wireline log results

Reservoir Rock &
Its Characteristics
Porosity
• Learning Outcomes
Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

Porosity of Reservoir Rocks
• Definition of Porosity
• Classification of Porosity
• Factors affecting Porosity
• Applications of Porosity
• Determination of Porosity

Definition: Measure of
Porosity
pore space in porous
media.
High Low
Packing
Sorting
Grain Shape
Porosity of Reservoir Rocks
• Rock reservoir have pore that are connected and contain fluids
(oil, gas, water) that can flow through the rock.
• Reservoir rock looks solid to the naked eye, but a microscopic

examination reveals the existence of tiny openings in the rock.
• These spaces or tiny openings (typically up to 300 μm) in

petroleum reservoir rocks are the one in which petroleum
reservoir fluids are presents
1
Definition of Porosity
• Porosity(φ) : the ratio of the pore volume in a

rock to the bulk volume of that rock. Express in per
cent.
Mathematical form is:

φ = Vp/Vb

Porosity
• Porosity is a measure of the void space in rock,
hence, measures how much HC in rock
• Porosity φ = Vp/Vb = (Vb-Vm)/Vb; Vb = Vp + Vm

– theoretically, φ varies from 0% - 47.6%
– In practice, φ varies between 3% and 37%
• Porosity is a function of particle size distribution:

– Framework materials (sandstone) – high φ
– Interstitial materials (shaly-sand) – low φ

Classification of Porosity
Porosity can be classified into;

1. Original porosity
2. Induced porosity
• Original porosity (primary) is formed during the deposition of rock
materials, e.g. porosity between granular in sandstone,
porosity among crystal and oolitic in limestone
• Induced porosity (secondary) is developed by some geological
process on the deposited rock material.
E.g; Fractures, or vugs cavity usual occur in limestone
(chemical reaction b/w CaCO3 and MgCl2)

Porosity
Sand grain
Cement material
Effective / connected
porosity (25%)
Ineffective Porosity
(5%)
Total Porosity (30%)

Deadend or cul-
de-sac pore

Types of Porosity
• 3 kinds porosity includes:

– Effective porosity
– Ineffective/ Isolated porosity
– Total porosity
• Effective porosity is the measure of the void space that is filled

by recoverable oil and gas; or the amount of pore space that is
sufficiently interconnected to yield its oil & gas for recovery.
• φ = Vol. of interconnected pores + Vol. of deadend

Total or bulk vol. of reservoir rock

PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
• Total porosity, t = Total Pore Volume

Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity, e =
Interconnected Pore Space
Bulk Volume
• Effective porosity – of great importance;

contains the mobile fluid
COMPARISON OF TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE POROSITIES
• Very clean sandstones : e  t
• Poorly to moderately well -cemented

intergranular materials: t  e
• Highly cemented materials and most

carbonates: e < t
Types of Porosity
• Ineffective porosity is the ratio of the volume of isolated or

completely disconnected pores to the total or bulk volume
• φ = Vol. of completely disconnected pores

Total or bulk volume
• Total or absolute porosity is the ratio of the entire void spaces

in the reservoir rock to the bulk volume of the rock
• φ = Vol. of interconnected + Vol. of deadend or cul-de-sac

pores + Vol. of isolated pore
Total or bilk volume

Applications of Porosity
• What is the significance Porosity in engineering reservoir?

• From the reservoir engineering point of view, porosity is probably one of
the most important reservoir rock properties and its quantitative value is
used in all reservoir engineering calculations ‘cos it represents the pore
spaces that’s occupied by mobile fluids.
• For common reservoir rock types, under average operating conditions, porosity
values ranges;
Evaluating formation
Porosity % 25~20 20~15 15~10 10~5 5~0
Grade Very good moderate poor no

good value
Applications of Porosity
Porosity data are used in these basic reservoir evaluations:

1. Volumetric calculation of fluids in the reservoir
2.Calculation of fluid saturations
3.Geological characterization of the reservoir
 Calculating hydrocarbon in a reservoir

 HCPV = Area x Thickness x φ x (1 – Sw)
 where: A = surface area of the reservoir
 h = thickness of the formation
 φ = porosity
 Swi= the percent of the pore volume
 occupied by the water

Various packing of spheres: cubic & rhombohedral
Spherical size variation influences

type & volume of solid porosity
Porosity Porosity
36% 20%
cubic packing of Rhombohedral
spheres resulting in a packing of spheres
least-compact resulting in a most-
arrangement with a compact arrangement Effect of cement material
porosity of 47.64% with a porosity of
26%

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POROSITY
PRIMARY
• Particle sphericity and angularity
• Packing
• Sorting (variable grain sizes)
SECONDARY (DIAGENETIC)
• Cementing materials
• Overburden stress (compaction)
• Vugs, dissolution, and fractures
Porosity Measurements
• From definition of porosity, porosity of rock sample can be

determined by measuring any two of these quantities:
 bulk volume
 pore volume
 grain volume
• Sources of Porosity data:

 Core analysis – direct measurement
 Well logging analysis
 Well testing indirect measurement

Porosity
• Porosity from loggings:

 Sonic log
t  tm 1     t f   Dt = sonic travel time recorded by log

Dtm = sonic travel time for the matrix
mineral grains (w/o porosity), (55, 47 and 43 microsec/ft
for quartz, limestone and dolomite, respectively)
Dtf = sonic travel time for fluid in the
pore space
 = porosity, fraction
 Density log
b  m 1    f  b = bulk density recorded by log
m = density of the matrix mineral grains (w/o porosity),
(2.65, 2.71 and 2.87 gm/cc
for quartz, limestone and dolomite, respectively)
f = density of the fluid in the pore space

Determination of Porosity
• Several methods: involves only the determination of two out of 3

(Vp, Vm, & Vb)
• Bulk volume by the following methods

– Coated sample immersed in water, or
– Water-saturated sample immersed in water, or
– Dry sample immersed in Hg method (no more Hg in the labs)
• Grain volume: by Melcher- Nutting method in which the sample is

crushed and its volume measured with a pychnometer

Laboratory Measurement of Porosity
• Under laboratory the following are measured;
• Vp, pore volume directly measured indirectly
• Vb, bulk volume directly measured indirectly
• Porosity measurement
– Vb, bulk volume directly measured
• Direct measure, Vb
Common shaped sample (cylinder, or cubic) measured the dimensions and
consider bulk volume

Porosity
• Measurement of Vb,
Irregular & regular sample shapes
A
 Two means explained here;
- volumes faulted (volumetrically)
L
- methodologies gravity (gravimetrically)
 To use above method must prevent fluid

penetration into the pore sample by:
- coating with wax
- saturating the core with same fluid
- using mercury
Porosity
• Measurement of Vb ,
Mercury volume displacement by the

rock sample when completely immersed
in the liquid
Mercury volume addition after core sample

is included in mercury is bulk volume.
Hg

Porosity
• Measurement Vb ,
Wtk = dry core weight
• Gravity method A
Wthg = mercury weight
Wtb = mercury weight and core that

B forced inside mercury
Mercury weight faulted = (Wtb - (Wtk + Wthg))
Mercury
Hg volume faulted = Mercury weight faulted
mercury density
scale Scale
Core bulk Mercury volume

A =
B volume faulted

Porosity
 Porosity measurement
• Vp, pore volume determination
 Fluid saturation inside rock Wtk = dry sample weight

Wtt = saturated sample weight fluid
Wtf = fluid weight in pore

= Wtt - Wtk
H2O Vp = (Wtt - Wtk)/f

Porosity
• Determination of Vp details using Boyle’s Law
Cylinder P3 V3 T1
sample
line
sample
steel
Helium tank P1 V1 = P3 V3
P1 V1 T1
V3 = V1 + Vl + Vs -Vc - Vg

Porosity
• Determination of Vp details using Boyle’s Law

P1 V1 = P2 V2 V2 = V1 + Vl + Vs – Vc
V1 = Volume of cylinder helium
V1 + Vl + Vs - Vc = V2 = (P1 V1 )/ P2 reference in P1 & T1
Vl = Connector tube volume cylinder

P1 V1 = P3 V3 V3 = V1 + Vl + Vs - Vc - Vg
helium reference to cylinder
Vg = V1 + Vl + Vs - Vc - V3 sample
Vs = Volume of empty cylinder sample

Vg = (P1 V1 )/ P2 - (P1 V1 )/ P3
Vc = Volume of cakra steel
Vp = Vb - Vg Vg = Volume of core sample
 = Vp / Vb = (Vb - Vg)/ Vb

Uses of Porosity
• Basic use is to calculate volumetrically the quantity of
hydrocarbon (HC) in the rock
– N = 7758 X As X H X φ X Soi
– N= HC volume in the reservoir, res.bbl
– As = surface area, acres
– H= thickness of formation, ft
– φ = porosity, fraction
– Soi = initial oil saturation (1.0 – Swi), fraction
• If N is divided by Bo, we will get the volume on surface. Since

oil shrinks as it comes to the surface due to gas coming out,
(Nsurface < Nreservoir)

 Example 1.1 – Porosity Calculation
 Determination of Vb – Coating Method
• A = mass dry sample in air = 20.0 gm

• B = mass dry sample coated with paraffin = 20.9 gm Sgparaffin = 0.9
• C = mass of coated sample immersed in H2O at 40oF = 10 gm
(Sgwater= 1.0)
• Mass of paraffin = B – A = 20.9 – 20.0 = 0.9 gm
• Volume of paraffin = 0.9/0.9 = 1 cc
• Mass of water displaced = B – C = 20.9 – 10.0 = 10.9 gm
• Vol. of water displaced = mass of water/ρ of water = 10.9/1.0 =
10.9 cc
• Bulk volume = volume of water displaced – volume paraffin
• = 10.9 – 1.0 = 9.9 cc
• Bulk volume of rock = 9.9 cc
 Example 1.2 – Porosity Calculation
• From Example 1.1
• Mass of dry sample in air = 20 gm
• Bulk volume of sample = 9.9 cc
• Grain volume of sample = (mass of dry sample in air)/ (sand-grain

density)
• = 20/2.67 = 7.5 cc
• Total porosity = Øt = [(bulk vol. – grain vol.)/bulk volume] x 100
• = [(9.9 – 7.5)/9.9] x 100 = 24.2 per cent

Example 3
• A clean and dry core sample weighting 425g was 100% saturated
with a 1.07 specific gravity brine. The new weight is 453g. The core
sample is 12 cm long and 4 cm in diameter. Calculate the porosity of
the rock sample.
 SOLUTION:
The bulk volume of the core sample is:
Vb = π(r)2 (12) = 150.80 cm3
The pore volume is:
Vp = 1/џ (Vwet - Vdry) = 453 – 425 = 26.17 cm3

1.07
Cont…
• Then;
• Porosity of the core is:
φ = Vp/Vb = 26.17 = 0.173 or 17.3%

150.80

Transform of lab porosity to formation porosity
• φ =φ e−CPΔP
• ΔP ：effective overburden pressure change
• P C ：rock compressibility
• φ：lab porosity

 Definition (ABW, Ref: API 27)
◦ … permeability is a property of the porous
medium and is a measure of the capacity of the
medium to transmit fluids
◦ … permeability is the fluid conductance capacity
of a rock, or it’s the a measure of the ease with
which the rock will permit the passage of fluids.
Reservoir Rocks and Fluid properties

 Permeability theory
 Permeability is an INTENSIVE property of a porous
medium (e.g. reservoir rock)
Reservoir Rocks and Fluid

properties
Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise fluid to
flow at linear velocity of one cm per second under a pressure
gradient of one atmosphere per centimetre.

 Three types of permeability
 Absolute permeability - the permeability of a porous medium
with only one fluid present (single-phase flow).
 When two or more fluids are present permeability of the rock to a

flowing fluid is called effective permeability (ko, kg, kw).
 Relative permeability is the ratio of absolute and effective

permeabilities kro=ko/k, krg=kg/k, krw=kw/k.

 A French hydrologist named Darcy did the first work on
permeability. He was concerned about flow of water through
filters. He found that flow rate Q, is proportional to area of flow
A,h, and 1/L. This is expressed mathematically as flows:
h1  h2
Q  KA 1
L
 Darcy’s “K” was determined to be a combination of

◦ k, permeability of the sand pack (porous medium, e.g.
reservoir rock)
◦ K is a constant of proportionality
◦ , viscosity of the liquid
 K constant may be written as;
k
K 
μ 2
 Alternatively, eqn.1; can also be expressed in terms of the
pressure gradient dp over a section dL as;
dp
Q   KA 3
dL
Where dp = ∆hρg 4
– dp is the diff. b/w the upstream & downstream pressures

 ∆h the diff. b/w the upstream and downstream hydraulic
gradients
 ρ fluid density
 g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/sec2)

properties
A
Darcy’s h1-h2
q
Apparatus for
Determining
Permeability A
h1
h1  h2 h2
Q (Sand Pack Length) L
L
Q A
Q  volumetric flow rate
A  crosssectional area
L  length of the porous medium q
h1 & h2  hydraulic head at inlet and outlet

• Darcy did not consider the fluid viscosity.
• Restricted to a medium with 100% saturated by water
• Other researchers discovered that Q is inversely proportional to
viscosity.

Extension of Darcy’s Equation
 Assumptions Used in Darcy Equation:

1. Steady state flow, under laminar regime i.e. Qin = Qout
2. Viscous flow - rate of flow directly proportional to pressure
gradient
3. The flowing fluid is incompressible.
4. Porous media 100% saturated with fluid which flowed
5. Fluid and porous media not reacting

 Darcy’s Law can be extended to other fluids, if K is expressed as a
ratio of /μ, where μ is the viscosity of a given fluid and  the
permeability of the porous medium.
 Eqn. 3 can be written to account for viscosity μ as;
k dp
Q=- A 5
 dL
Eqn.5 can be integrated b/w the limits of length from 0 to L and

pressure from P1(upstream) to P2 (downstream), for a fluid flow
case.

 Therefore,
Q L k p2
A 0
dL   
 p1
dp
6
Q
A
L  0    k

p 2
 p
1
7
Q
KA
 p1  p2  or Q  KAP 8
L L
Hence, the original equation of Darcy was modified to account for
viscosity as follows:
Q
KA
 p1  p2  9
L
 Permeability is determined by:
 Core analysis
 Well test analysis (flow testing)
◦ RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well tests
 Production data
◦ production logging measures fluid flow into well
 Log data
◦ MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated via core analysis

• Shape and size of pore system
• Sorting
• Cementation
• Fracturing and solution
• Lithology or rock type

 Two sets of units are generally used in reservoir engineering:
Darcy units and Oil-field units
 For the purpose of the mathematical derivations, a system of

units commonly referred to as Darcy units are used. These
units are:
 Vs = cm/sec; μ = cP; ρ = gm/cc
 K = Darcy; g = cm/sec2; dp/ds = atm/cm
 For application to field data of the various mathematical

expressions, the second system of units called the practical
oil-field units are used.

 From dimensional analysis, the dimension for K is [L]2.
We could use ft2, ins2, or cm2 for measure of permeability, but
these units are all too large to be applied in porous media.
 So Darcy unit is used and recommended , but in many cases the

millidarcy (mD)
 1 Darcy = 1000 miliDarcy

 1 Darcy ~ 10-8 sm2 (10-6 mm2)
 1 miliDarcy ~ 10-11 sm2 (10-9 mm2)

Darcy’s Law - Darcy Units
 Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid
q
kA
Δp 
μL
◦ where,
 q cm3/s
 k darcies
 A cm2
 p atm
  cp
 L cm
◦ The Darcy a derived unit of permeability, defined to make this

equation coherent (in Darcy units)
Darcy’s Law - Oilfield Units
 Linear (1-D) flow of an incompressible fluid
q
CkA
Δp 
μL
◦ where,
 q bbl/D
 k millidarcies
 A ft2
 p psia
  cp
 L ft
Quantity Symbol Dimension Oilfield Units SI Units
Mass m m Ibm Kg
Moles n n Ibmol Kmol
Force F ML/t2 Ibf N
Length L L ft m
Area A L2 acres m2
Volume-liquids v L3 bbl m3
Volume-gases v L3 ft3 m3
Pressure p m/Lt2 psi kPa
Temperature T T R K
Flow rate-liquids q L3/t bbl/d m3/d
Flow rate -gases q L3/t Ft3/d m3/d
Viscosity μ m/Lt cP mpa.s
Permeability k L2 md m2

 Permeability is an important parameter that controls the
reservoir performance. Its importance is reflected by the
number of available techniques typically used to estimate it.
 These different techniques provide formation permeability
that represents different averaging volumes.
 The quality of the reservoir, as it relates to permeability can

be classified as follows
< 10 md fair
10 – 100 High
100 – 1000 Very High
>1000 Exceptional
 This scale changes with time, for example 30 years ago k<
50 was considered poor.

 What is 1 Darcy?
 A porous medium has a permeability of one Darcy, when a
single-phase fluid of one centipoises viscosity, that completely
fills the voids of the medium will flow through it, under
conditions of viscous flow (also known as laminar flow), at a
rate of one cubic centimeter cross sectional area, and under a
pressure or equivalent hydraulic gradient of one atmosphere
per centimeter.

 Important Characteristics that must be considered in the
reservoir:
 Types of fluids in the reservoir
 Flow regimes
 Reservoir geometry
 Number of fluid flowing in the reservoir

 Types of Fluids
• Incompressible fluids
• Slightly compressible fluids
• Compressible fluids
 Flow Regimes
• Steady state flow
• Unsteady state flow
• Pseudosteady state flow

 Reservoir Geometry
• Linear flow
• Radial flow
• spherical and hemispherical flow
 Number of fluid flowing
• Single phase flow

• Two phase flow
• Three phase or multiple phase flow

 Types of Fluids
• Incompressible fluids
• Slightly compressible fluids
• Compressible fluids

 Flow Regimes
• Steady state flow
• Unsteady state flow
• Pseudosteady state flow

properties
 Reservoir Geometry
• Linear flow
• Radial flow
• spherical and hemispherical flow

 Steady state flow, i.e. Qin = Qout
 Viscous or Laminar flow: the particles flow in parallel paths
 Rock is 100% saturated with one fluid
 Fluid does not react with the; this a problem with shaly-sand
(interstitial particles)
 The formation is homogeneous and isotropic: same porosity,
same permeability and same fluid properties

 Generalized form of Darcy’s Law
 The generalized Darcy’s law is given by the following equation:
k  dp 
V   
s
  ds 
 Vs = Q/A and dp/ds = dp/dx, hence
KA  dp 
Q  
  dx 
Separating the variables and
integrating gives the following eqn.:
Note that P1>P2

Q k  dP g dz 
• Fluid not compressed (no density  vs     *106 
change with pressure)
A   ds 1.0135 ds 
• Steady flow (mass in = mass out) k dP
vx  
 dx
• In horizontal flow (Linear): Q k dP
 
A  dx
dz dP dP
 0,  Q k
ds ds dx dx   dP
A 
Q L k P2
A 0
dx    dP
 P1
Q
L  0   P2  P1   P1  P2 
k k
A  
k A P1  P2 
Q 
 L
The generalized form of Darcy’s Law includes pressure and gravity
terms to account for horizontal or non-horizontal flow
qs k  dp g dz 
vs    ds  c ds 
A 
 The gravity term has dimension of pressure / length
Flow potential includes both pressure and gravity terms, simplifying
Darcy’s Law
q k  dΦ 
vs   
A μ  ds 

 = p - gZ/c; Z+; Z is elevation measured from a datum

 has dimension of pressure

 The gravitational conversion constant, c, is needed to convert
the gravity term to units of pressure gradient
[pressure/length]
 A clear way to determine the sign of the gravity term (+ or -)

is to consider the static case. If no fluid is flowing, then there
is no potential gradient (potential is constant), while pressure
changes with elevation, due to fluid density (dp=(g/c)dZ).

2h  rw r
dr 
 
Pw
PdP
 Fluid not compressed Q

ln r rw  PPw
re k Pe

2h
Steady flow (stream mass was constant)

ln  Pe  Pw 
Q re k
re
rw 2h rw 
2hk Pe  Pw 
Pwf Pe Q
r  ln
re
rw
h
 Q = flow rate, m3/sec
 K = permeability, m2
 h = thickness, m
 Pe = pressure drainage radius, N/m2
 Pwf = flowing pressure, N/m2
  = fluid viscosity, N/m2
 re = drainage radius, m
 rw = the well-bore radius, m

• Permeability varies across several
horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
◦ Discrete changes in permeability
h  h1  h2  h3   hi
◦ Same pressure drop for each layer
p1 - p2  Δp  Δp1  Δp 2  Δp 3
◦ Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q  q1  q2  q3  qi
◦ Average permeability results in correct total flow rate
kwh
q Δp ; A  w  h
μL
• Substituting,
kwh k1 w h1 k2 w h2 k3 w h3
q Δp  Δp  Δp  Δp
μL μL μL μL
• Rearranging,
k
 k i  hi
h
• Average permeability reflects flow capacity of all layers
vertical layers (k1,k2,k3)
L  L1  L2  L3   Li
◦ Same flow rate passes through each layer
q  q1  q 2  q 3
◦ Total pressure drop is summation of pressure drop across
layers
p1  p2  Δp1  Δp2  Δp3  Δpi
◦ Average permeability results in correct total pressure drop

qμ L
p1 - p 2  ; A  wh
kwh
• Substituting,
qμ L q μ L1 q μ L 2 q μ L3
p1 - p 2    
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h
• Rearranging, L
k
Li
k p1
i
• If k1>k2>k3, then k
p
– Linear pressure profile in each layer p2
0
0 L
x
(3) horizontal layers (k1,k2,k3)
h  h1  h2  h3   hi
◦ Same pressure drop for each layer
pe - p w  Δp  Δp1  Δp 2  Δp 3
◦ Total flow rate is summation of flow rate for all layers
q  q1  q2  q3  qi
◦ Average permeability results in correct total flow rate
2π k h
q Δp
μ ln(re /rw )
• Substituting (rw=r1, r2 ,re=r3),
q μ ln(re /rw ) q μ ln(r 2 /rw ) q μ ln(re /r2 )
pe - p w   
2π k h 2π k1 h 2π k 2 h
• Rearranging,
ln(re /rw )
k
(ln(r i 1/ri )

All Layers ki
It is necessary to determine an average value of permeability.
Three common types of computed averages are as follows:
i) arithmetic average
ii) harmonic average
ii) geometric average
Selection of the averaging technique should be based primarily on

the geometry of the flow system.

Parallel Flow
Arithmetic Average
h1
kA 
 kh
i i
h
h2
k1
i
Q h3
k2
k3

Series Flow
 Harmonic Average
kH 
 L i
k1 k2 k3
L /k i i
L1 L2 L3

Random Flow
Geometric Average
 
1
kG  k1 k 2 k3 .......
h1 h2 h3
 hi

Porosity and Permeability
Both are important properties that are related to fluids in sediment and
sedimentary rocks.
Fluids can include: water, hydrocarbons, spilled contaminants.
Most aquifers are in sediment or sedimentary rocks.
Virtually all hydrocarbons are contained in sedimentary rocks.
Porosity: the volume of void space (available to contain fluid or air) in a

sediment or sedimentary rock.
Permeability: related to how easily a fluid will pass through any

granular material.
I. Porosity (P)
The proportion of any material that is void space, expressed as a

percentage of the total volume of material.
VP Where VP is the total volume of pore space

=
P ×100
VT and VT is the total volume of rock or
sediment.
In practice, porosity is commonly based on measurement of the total
grain volume of a granular material:
VT − VG Where VG is the total volume of

P ×100 grains within the total volume of
VT
rock or sediment.
∴VP = VT − VG
Porosity varies from 0% to 70% in natural sediments but exceeds 70%
for freshly deposited mud.
Several factors control porosity.
a) Packing Density
Packing density: the arrangement of the particles in the deposit.
The more densely packed the particles the lower the porosity.
e.g., perfect spheres of uniform size.
Porosity can vary

from 48% to 26%.
Shape has an important effect on packing.
Tabular rectangular particles can vary from 0% to just under 50%:
Natural particles such as shells can have very high porosity:

In general, the greater the angularity of the particles the more open the
framework (more open fabric) and the greater the possible porosity.
b) Grain Size
On its own, grain size has no influence on porosity!
Consider a cube of sediment of

perfect spheres with cubic
packing.
VT − VG
=P ×100
VT
d = sphere diameter; n = number of grains along a side (5 in this example).

VT − VG
=P ×100
VT
Length of a side of the cube = d × n = dn
Volume of the cube (VT):
VT = dn × dn × dn = d 3 n3
Total number of grains: n × n × n = n3

π
Volume of a single grain: V = d 3
6
Total volume of grains (VG):

π π
VG =
n × 3
d =
3
n 3
d3
6 6
VT − VG π
×100 Where: VT = d n VG = n
3 3 3
P and d3
VT 6
π
d n −n
3 3 3
d3
=
Therefore: P 6 ×100
3 3
d n
 π
d n 1 − 3 3
=
Rearranging: P  6  ×100
d 3 n3
 π
Therefore: P =1 −  ×100 =48%
 6
d (grain size) does not affect the porosity so that porosity is independent
of grains size.
No matter how large or small the spherical grains in cubic packing have
a porosity is 48%.
There are some indirect relationships between size and porosity.
i) Large grains have higher settling velocities than small grains.
When grains settle through a fluid the large grains will impact the
substrate with larger momentum, possibly jostling the grains into tighter
packing (therefore with lower porosity).
ii) A shape effect.

Unconsolidated sands tend to
decrease in porosity with
increasing grain size.
Consolidated sands tend to

increase in porosity with
increasing grain size.
Generally, unconsolidated sands undergo little burial and less
compaction than consolidated sands.
Fine sand has slightly higher porosity.
Fine sand tends to be more angular than coarse sand.
Therefore fine sand will support a more open framework (higher

porosity) than better rounded, more spherical, coarse sand.
Consolidated sand (deep burial, well compacted) has undergone
exposure to the pressure of burial (experiences the weight of overlying
sediment).
Fine sand is angular, with sharp edges, and the edges will break under
the load pressure and become more compacted (more tightly packed
with lower porosity).
Coarse sand is better rounded and less prone to breakage under load;
therefore the porosity is higher than that of fine sand.
c) Sorting
In general, the better sorted the sediment the greater the porosity.
In well sorted sands fine grains are not available to fill the pore spaces.
This figure shows the relationship between sorting and porosity for
clay-free sands.
Overall porosity decreases with increasing sorting coefficient (poorer
sorting).
For clay-free sands the reduction in porosity with increasing sorting

coefficient is greater for coarse sand than for fine sand.
The difference is unlikely if clay was also available to fill the pores.
For clay-free sands the silt and fine sand particles are available to fill
the pore space between large grains and reduce porosity.
Because clay is absent less
relatively fine material is not
available to fill the pores of fine
sand.
Therefore the pores of fine sand
will be less well-filled (and have
porosity higher).
d) Post burial changes in porosity.
Includes processes that reduce and increase porosity.

Porosity that develops at the time of deposition is termed primary
porosity.
Porosity that develops after deposition is termed secondary porosity.
Overall, with increasing

burial depth the porosity of
sediment decreases.
50% reduction in porosity

with burial to 6 km depth due
to a variety of processes.
i) Compaction
Particles are forced into closer packing by the weight of overlying

deposits, reducing porosity.
May include breakage of grains.
Most effective if clay minerals are present (e.g., shale).
Freshly deposited mud may have 70% porosity but burial under a
kilometre of sediment reduces porosity to 5 or 10%.
http://www.engr.usask.ca/~mjr347/prog/geoe118/geoe118.022.html
ii) Cementation
Precipitation of new minerals from pore waters causes cementation of

the grains and acts to fill the pore spaces, reducing porosity.
Most common cements are calcite and quartz.
Here’s a movie of
cementation at Paul
Heller’s web site.
iii) Clay formation
Clays may form by the chemical alteration of pre-existing minerals after

burial.
Feldspars are particularly common clay-forming minerals.
Clay minerals are very fine-grained and may accumulate in the pore
spaces, reducing porosity.
Eocene Whitemud
Formation, Saskatchewan
iv) Solution
If pore waters are undersaturated with respect to the minerals making up

a sediment then some volume of mineral material is lost to solution.
Calcite, that makes up limestone, is relatively soluble and void spaces
that are produced by solution range from the size of individual grains to
caverns.
Quartz is relatively soluble when pore waters have a low Ph.
Solution of grains reduces VG, increasing porosity.
Solution is the most effective means of creating secondary porosity.
v) Pressure solution
The solubility of mineral grains increases under an applied stress (such
as burial load) and the process of solution under stress is termed
Pressure Solution.
The solution takes place at the grain contacts where the applied stress is
greatest.
Pressure solution results in a reduction in porosity in two different ways:
1. It shortens the pore spaces as the grains are dissolved.
2. Insoluble material within the grains accumulates in the pore spaces as

the grains are dissolve.
v) Fracturing
Fracturing of existing rocks creates a small increase in porosity.
Fracturing is particularly important in producing porosity in rocks with

low primary porosity.
POROSITY DETERMINATION
FROM LOGS
Most slides in this section are modified primarily from NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999.
However, many of the NExT slides appears to have been obtained from other primary
sources that are not cited. Some slides have a notes section.
OPENHOLE LOG EVALUATION
Well Log
SP Resistivity
POROSITY DETERMINATION BY LOGGING
Increasing Increasing Increasing

radioactivity resistivity porosity
Shale
Oil sand
Shale
Gamma Resisitivity Porosity

ray
POROSITY LOG TYPES
3 Main Log Types
• Bulk density
• Sonic (acoustic)
• Compensated neutron
These logs do not measures porosity directly. To

accurately calculate porosity, the analyst must
know:
•Formation lithology
• Fluid in pores of sampled reservoir volume
DENSITY LOGS
• Uses radioactive source to generate
gamma rays
• Gamma ray collides with electrons in
formation, losing energy
• Detector measures intensity of back-
scattered gamma rays, which is related
to electron density of the formation
• Electron density is a measure of bulk
density
DENSITY LOGS
• Bulk density, ρb, is dependent upon:

– Lithology
– Porosity
– Density and saturation of fluids in pores
• Saturation is fraction of pore volume
occupied by a particular fluid (intensive)
DENSITY LOG
GR RHOB
0 API 200 2 G/C3 3
CALIX DRHO
6 IN 16 -0.25 G/C3 0.25
CALIY
6 IN 16
4100
Gamma ray Density
Density
correction
4200
Caliper
Mud cake
(ρmc + hmc)
Formation (ρb)
Long spacing
detector
Short spacing
detector
Source
BULK DENSITY
ρb = ρma (1 − φ) + ρ f φ
Matrix Fluids in
flushed zone
•Measures electron density of a formation
•Strong function of formation bulk density
•Matrix bulk density varies with lithology
–Sandstone 2.65 g/cc
–Limestone 2.71 g/cc
–Dolomite 2.87 g/cc
POROSITY FROM DENSITY LOG
Porosity equation ρma − ρb
φ=
ρma − ρ f
Fluid density equation
ρ f = ρmf Sxo + ρh (1 − Sxo )
We usually assume the fluid density (ρf) is between 1.0 and 1.1. If gas is present, the
actual ρf will be < 1.0 and the calculated porosity will be too high.
ρmf is the mud filtrate density, g/cc
ρh is the hydrocarbon density, g/cc
Sxo is the saturation of the flush/zone, decimal
DENSITY LOGS
Working equation (hydrocarbon zone)
ρb = φ S xo ρmf + φ (1 − S xo ) ρhc
+ Vsh ρ sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) ρma
ρb = Recorded parameter (bulk volume)

φ Sxo ρmf = Mud filtrate component
φ (1 - Sxo) ρhc = Hydrocarbon component
Vsh ρsh = Shale component
1 - φ - Vsh = Matrix component
DENSITY LOGS
• If minimal shale, Vsh ≈ 0
• If ρhc ≈ ρmf ≈ ρf, then
• ρb = φ ρf - (1 - φ) ρma
ρma − ρb
φ = φd =
ρma − ρ f
φd = Porosity from density log, fraction
ρma = Density of formation matrix, g/cm3
ρb = Bulk density from log measurement, g/cm3
ρf = Density of fluid in rock pores, g/cm3
ρhc = Density of hydrocarbons in rock pores, g/cm3
ρmf = Density of mud filtrate, g/cm3
ρsh = Density of shale, g/cm3
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction
BULK DENSITY LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
RHOC
10700
1.95 2.95
10800
Bulk Density
10900
Log
NEUTRON LOG
• Logging tool emits high energy

neutrons into formation
• Neutrons collide with nuclei of
formation’s atoms
• Neutrons lose energy (velocity) with
each collision
NEUTRON LOG
• The most energy is lost when colliding

with a hydrogen atom nucleus
• Neutrons are slowed sufficiently to be
captured by nuclei
• Capturing nuclei become excited and
emit gamma rays
NEUTRON LOG
• Depending on type of logging tool either gamma
rays or non-captured neutrons are recorded
• Log records porosity based on neutrons
captured by formation
• If hydrogen is in pore space, porosity is related
to the ratio of neutrons emitted to those counted
as captured
• Neutron log reports porosity, calibrated
assuming calcite matrix and fresh water in pores,
if these assumptions are invalid we must correct
the neutron porosity value
NEUTRON LOG
Theoretical equation
φN = φ S xo φNmf + φ (1 −S xo ) φNhc
+ Vsh φ sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) φNma
φN = Recorded parameter φNma = Porosity of matrix fraction

φ Sxo φNmf = Mud filtrate portion φNhc = Porosity of formation saturated with
φ (1 - Sxo) φNhc = Hydrocarbon portion hydrocarbon fluid, fraction
Vsh φNsh = Shale portion φNmf = Porosity saturated with mud filtrate, fraction
(1 - φ - Vsh) φNhc = Matrix portion where φ = True Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
porosity of rock Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded
φN = Porosity from neutron log measurement, fraction by mud filtrate, fraction
POROSITY FROM NEUTRON LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
CNLLC
10700
0.45 -0.15
10800
Neutron
10900
Log
ACOUSTIC (SONIC) LOG
• Tool usually consists of

one sound transmitter
(above) and two receivers
(below)
Upper
• Sound is generated,
transmitter
travels through formation
R1 • Elapsed time between
R2 sound wave at receiver 1
R3 vs receiver 2 is dependent
R4 upon density of medium
through which the sound
traveled
Lower
transmitter
Compressional Rayleigh
waves waves Mud waves
E3
E1
T0 E2
50
µsec
COMMON LITHOLOGY MATRIX
TRAVEL TIMES USED
Lithology Typical Matrix Travel

Time, ∆tma, µsec/ft
Sandstone 55.5
Limestone 47.5
Dolomite 43.5
Anydridte 50.0
Salt 66.7
Working equation
∆t L = φ S xo ∆t mf + φ (1 − S xo ) ∆t hc
+ Vsh ∆t sh + (1 − φ − Vsh ) ∆t ma
∆tL = Recorded parameter, travel time read from log

φ Sxo ∆tmf = Mud filtrate portion
φ (1 - Sxo) ∆thc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh ∆tsh = Shale portion
(1 - φ - Vsh) ∆tma = Matrix portion
• If Vsh = 0 and if hydrocarbon is liquid
(i.e. ∆tmf ≈ ∆tf), then
• ∆tL = φ ∆tf + (1 - φ) ∆tma
or
∆t L − ∆t ma
φs = φ =
∆t f − ∆t ma
φs = Porosity calculated from sonic log reading, fraction
∆tL = Travel time reading from log, microseconds/ft
∆tma = Travel time in matrix, microseconds/ft
∆tf = Travel time in fluid, microseconds/ ft
GR DT
0 API 200 140 USFT 40
CALIX SPHI
6 IN 16 30 % 10
4100
Sonic travel time

Gamma
Ray
Sonic
porosity
4200
Caliper
SONIC LOG
The response can be written as follows:
t log = t ma (1 − φ) + t f φ
t log − t ma
φ=
t f − t ma
tlog = log reading, µsec/ft

tma = the matrix travel time, µsec/ft
tf = the fluid travel time, µsec/ft
φ = porosity
SONIC LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
DT
10700
150 us/f 50
10800
Sonic
Log
10900
EXAMPLE
Calculating Rock Porosity

Using an Acoustic Log
Calculate the porosity for the following intervals. The measured travel times from the
log are summarized in the following table.
At depth of 10,820’, accoustic log reads travel time of 65 µs/ft.
Calculate porosity. Does this value agree with density and neutron
logs?
Assume a matrix travel time, ∆tm = 51.6 µsec/ft. In addition, assume the formation is
saturated with water having a ∆tf = 189.0 µsec/ft.
EXAMPLE SOLUTION SONIC LOG
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 45 ss -15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700
10800
SPHI
10900
FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC
LOG RESPONSE
• Unconsolidated formations
• Naturally fractured formations
• Hydrocarbons (especially gas)
• Rugose salt sections
RESPONSES OF POROSITY LOGS
The three porosity logs:

– Respond differently to different matrix
compositions
– Respond differently to presence of gas or
light oils
Combinations of logs can:
– Imply composition of matrix
– Indicate the type of hydrocarbon in pores
GAS EFFECT
• Density - φ is too high
• Neutron - φ is too low
• Sonic - φ is not significantly
affected by gas
ESTIMATING POROSITY FROM
WELL LOGS
Openhole logging tools are the most common method
of determining porosity:
• Less expensive than coring and may be less
risk of sticking the tool in the hole
• Coring may not be practical in unconsolidated
formations or in formations with high secondary
porosity such as vugs or natural fractures.
If porosity measurements are very important, both
coring and logging programs may be conducted so
the log-based porosity calculations can be used to
calibrated to the core-based porosity measurements.
Influence Of Clay-Mineral Distribution
On Effective Porosity
Dispersed Clay φe Clay
Minerals
• Pore-filling
• Pore-lining
• Pore-bridging Detrital Quartz
Grains
φφe
e
Clay Lamination
Structural Clay φφee

(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
GEOLOGICAL AND PETROPHYSICAL
DATA USED TO DEFINE FLOW UNITS
Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow
Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
φ vs k Capillary
Pressure
1
Schematic Reservoir Layering Profile
in a Carbonate Reservoir
Flow unit
Baffles/barriers
SA -97A SA -356 SA -71 SA -344 SA -348 SA -37

SA -251 SA -371 SA -346
3150 3150 3100 3100 3250

3200 3150
3100
3200
3150
3200 3200 3150 3300
3250 3200
3150
3250
3250 3250 3200 3250
3300 3250
3200
3300 3300 3250

3350 3300
3250
3350 3350
From Bastian and others

Why is porosity important?
Especially because it allows us to make estimations of the amount of

fluid that can be contained in a rock (water, oil, spilled contaminants,
etc.).
Example from oil and gas exploration:


etc.).


etc.).


etc.).


etc.).
How much oil is contained in the discovered unit?
In this case, assume that the pore

spaces of the sediment in the oil-
bearing unit are full of oil.
Therefore, the total volume of oil is

the total volume of pore space (VP)
in the oil-bearing unit.
VP
=
P ×100 Total volume of oil = VP, therefore solve for VP.
VT
P × VT VT= 800m × 200m ×1m= 160, 000m3

VP =
100 P = 10%
Therefore:
10 ×160, 000
VP =
100
= 16, 000m 3
of oil
II. Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity; k)
Stated qualitatively: permeability is a measure of how easily a fluid will

flow through any granular material.
More precisely, permeability (k) is

an empirically-derived parameter
in D’Arcy’s Law, a Law that
predicts the discharge of fluid
through a granular material.
Those are all properties that are independent of the granular material.
There are also controls on permeability that are exerted by the granular
material and are accounted for in the term (k) for permeability:
k is proportional to all sediment properties that influence the flow of fluid

through any granular material (note that the dimensions of k are cm2).
Two major factors:
1. The diameter of the pathways through which the fluid moves.
2. The tortuosity of the pathways (how complex they are).

1. The diameter of the pathways.
Along the walls of the pathway the velocity is zero (a no slip boundary)
and increases away from the boundaries, reaching a maximum towards
the middle to the pathway.
Narrow pathway: the region where the velocity is low is a relatively

large proportion of the total cross-sectional area and average velocity is
low.
Large pathway: the region where

the velocity is low is proportionally
small and the average velocity is
greater.
It’s easier to push fluid through a large

Pathway than a small one.
2. The tortuosity of the pathways.
Tortuosity is a measure of how

much a pathway deviates from a
straight line.
2. The tortuosity of the pathways.
Tortuosity is a measure of how

much a pathway deviates from a
straight line.
The path that fluid takes through a

granular material is governed by
how individual pore spaces are
connected.
The greater the tortuosity the

lower the permeability because
viscous resistance is cumulative
along the length of the pathway.
Pathway diameter and tortuosity are controlled by the properties of the
sediment and determine the sediment’s permeability.
The units of permeability are Darcies (d):
1 darcy is the permeability that allows a fluid with 1 centipoise

viscosity to flow at a rate of 1 cm/s under a pressure gradient of 1
atm/cm.
1
Permeability is often very small and expressed in millidarcies ( d )
1000
a) Sediment controls on permeability
i) Packing density
Tightly packed sediment has smaller

pathways than loosely packed
sediment (all other factors being
equal).
Smaller pathways reduce porosity and the size of the pathways so the
more tightly packed the sediment the lower the permeability.
ii) Porosity
In general, permeability increases with primary porosity.
The larger and more abundant the pore spaces the greater the
permeability.
Pore spaces must be well connected

to enhance permeability.
Shale, chalk and vuggy rocks (rocks with large solution holes) may have
very high porosity but the pores are not well linked.
The discontinuous pathways result in low permeability.
Fractures can greatly enhance permeability but do not increase porosity

significantly.
A 0.25 mm fracture will pass fluid

at the rate that would be passed
by13.5 metres of rock with 100 md
permeability.
iii) Grain Size
Unlike porosity, permeability increases with grain size.
The larger the grain size the larger the pore area.
For spherical grains in cubic packing:
Pore area = 0.74d2

A ten-fold increase in grain size yields a hundred-fold increase in
permeability.
iv) Sorting
The better sorted a sediment is the

greater its permeability.
In very well sorted sands the pore

spaces are open.
In poorly sorted sands fine grains

occupy the pore spaces between
coarser grains.
v) Post-burial processes
Like porosity, permeability is changed following burial of a sediment.
In this example permeability

is reduced by two orders of
magnitude with 3 km of
burial.
Cementation
Clay formation
Compaction
Pressure solution
All act to reduce permeability

b) Directional permeability
Permeability is not necessarily isotropic (equal in all directions)
Fractures are commonly aligned in the same direction, greatly

enhancing permeability in the direction that is parallel to the
fractures.
Variation in grain size and geological structure can create directional
permeability.
E.g., Graded bedding: grain

size becomes finer upwards in
a bed.
Fluid that is introduced at the surface will follow a path that is towards the
direction of dip of the beds.
Fabric (preferred orientation of the grains in a sediment) can cause
directional permeability.
E.g., A sandstone unit of prolate particles.
The direction along the long axes of grains will have larger pathways
and therefore greater permeability than the direction that is parallel to
the long axes.
Main Topics
 Phase Relationships.
 Interface Phenomena.
Surface Tension.
Interfacial Tension.
Surface Free energy.
Phase Relationships.
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
Figure 1 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of a

multicomponent system with a specific overall composition.
Although a different hydrocarbon system would have a
different phase diagram, the general configuration is similar.
These multicomponent pressure-temperature diagrams are
essentially
used to:
• Classify reservoirs
• Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems
• Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir fluid
• Critical point—The critical point for a

multicomponent mixture is referred to as
the state of pressure and temperature at
which all intensive properties of the gas
and liquid phases are equal (point C). At
the critical point, the corresponding
pressure and temperature are called the
critical pressure pc and critical temperature
Tc of the mixture.
• Bubble-point curve—The bubble-point

curve (line BC) is defined as the line
separating the liquid-phase region from the
two-phase region.
• Dew-point curve—The dew-point curve
(line AC) is defined as the line separating the
vapor-phase region from the two-phase
region.
• Oil reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature

T is less than the critical temperature Tc of
the reservoir fluid, the reservoir is classified
as an oil reservoir.
• Gas reservoirs—If the reservoir
temperature is greater than the critical
temperature of the hydrocarbon fluid, the
reservoir is considered a gas reservoir.
Interfacial Phenomena
 When phases exist together, the
boundary between two of them is
termed an interface.
 The properties of the molecules

forming the interface are often
sufficiently from those in the bulk of
each phase that they are referred to
as forming an interfacial phase.
Several types of interface can exist, depending

on whether the two adjacent phases are in the
solid, liquid or gaseous state.
For convenience, we shall divide these various

combinations into two groups, namely liquid
interfaces and solid interfaces.
Classification of Interfaces
Phase Interfacial Types & Examples of Interface

Tension
Gas - gas
- No interface possible
Gas - liquid уLV Liquid surface, body of water exposed

to atmosphere
Gas - solid ySV Solid surface, table top
Liquid - liquid yLL Liquid-liquid interface, emulsion
Liquid - solid yLS Liquid-solid interface, suspension
Solid - solid ySS Solid-solid interface, powder particles

in contact.
Liquid Interfaces
Surface and Interfacial Tension
Surface
 The term surface is customarily used when
referring to either a gas-solid or a gas-liquid
interface.
 “Every surface is an interface.”

Liquid Interfaces
 Surface tension-
a force pulling
the molecules of
the interface
together resulting
in a contracted
surface.
- Force per unit
area applied
parallel to the
surface.Unit in
dynes/cm or N/m
Liquid Interfaces
Interfacial
tension
 Is the force per
unit length
existing at the
interface
between two
immiscible liquid
phases and like
surface tension,
has the units of
dyne/cm..
Liquid Interfaces
 Surface Free
energy – increase
in energy of the
liquid and the
surface of the
liquid increase.
-work must be done
to increase liquid
surface.
γ – surface tension or
surface free energy
per unit surface.
Liquid Interface
Surface Free energy
W=γ∆A
where W is work done or surface free energy increase
express in ergs(dyne.cm); γ is surface tension in
dynes/cm and ∆ A is increase in area in cm sq.
What in the work required to increase area of a liquid

droplet by 10 cm sq if the surface tension is 49
dynes/cm?
W = 49 dynes/cm x 10 cm sq = 490 ergs
Liquid Interfaces
 When oleic acid is
placed on the
surface of a water ,
a film will be
formed if the force
of adhesion b/n
oleic accid
molecules and
water molecules is
greater than the
cohesive forces b/n
the oleic acid
molecules
themselves.
Liquid Interfaces
 Work of adhesion(Wa), which is the energy
required to break the attraction between the unlike
molecules.(water to oil)
 Work of cohesion(Wc), required to separate the
molecules of the spreading liquid so that it can flow
over the sublayer.(oil to oil and water to water)
Spreading of oil to water occurs if the work of adhesion
is greater than the work of cohesion.
Spreading coefficient(S) – difference between Wa
and Wc.
Positive S – if oil spreads over a water surface.
Liquid Interfaces
Surface and Interfacial Tension
 When a drop of oil is added on the surface of

water, three things may happen:
1. The drop may spread as a thin film on the

surface of water.(positve S)
2. It may form a liquid lens if the oil cannot
spread on the surface of water.(negative S)
3. The drop may spread as a monolayer film
with areas that are identified as lenses.
Liquid Interfaces
Initial Spreading Coefficients, S, at 20◦ C
Substance S (dynes/cm)
Ethyl alcohol 50.4
Propionic acid 45.8
Ethyl ether 45.5
Acetic acid 45.2
Acetone 42.4
Undecyclenic acid 32 (250)
Oleic acid
24.6
Chloroform
13
Benzene
8.9
Hexane
3.4
Octane
0.22
Ethylene dibromide
Liquid petrolatum -3.19
-13.4
Wettability
• Water and oil (or gas) in reservoirs coexist in an

immiscible state (i.e., the water phase does not
mix miscibly with the hydrocarbon phase). There
is a natural and strong interfacial tension between
the two fluids that keeps them separate, regardless
of how small the individual droplets may be. A
common example of this immiscible nature is a
household salad dressing made of oil and vinegar.
• In all reservoirs connate water is immiscible with
the oil or gas, but chemicals can be injected into
the reservoir to reduce interfacial tension and make
the water phase miscible with the oil. There are
advantages in doing this, and it is a form of
enhanced oil recovery.
• The oil and gas phases in reservoirs also generally
behave immiscibly. However, at certain pressures,
temperatures, and compositions, they may become
miscible.
• Wettability can be defined as the ability of a fluid
phase to preferentially wet a solid surface in the
presence of a second immiscible phase. In the
reservoir context, it refers to the state of the rock
and fluid system; i.e., whether the reservoir is
water or oil wet. Three possible states of
wettability in oil reservoirs exist as shown in
Figure 2. The arrows represent the tangent to the
angle between the water droplet and the rock
surface. The water droplet is surrounded by the oil
phase.
• Wettability is generally classified into three
categories: (1) The reservoir is said to be
water wet; that is, water preferentially wets
the reservoir rock, when the contact angle 
between the rock and water is less than 90,
(2) neutral wettability case would exist at a
contact angle of 90, and (3) oil wet occurs
at a contact angle greater than 90.
Figure 2 Three possible states of wettability in oil reservoirs.
• Other lesser known types of wettability are:

• Neutral or intermediate wettability – no
preference is shown by the rock to either fluid;
i.e., equally wet.
• Fractional wettability – heterogeneous wetting; i.e.,
portions of the rock are strongly oil wet, whereas other
portions are strongly water wet. Occurs due to
variation in minerals with different surface chemical
properties. Silicate water interface is acidic, therefore
basic constituents in oils will readily be absorbed
resulting in an oil-wet surface. In contrast, the
carbonate water interface is basic and will attract and
absorb acid compounds. Since crude oils generally
contain acidic polar compounds, there is a tendency for
silicate rocks to be neutral to water-wet and carbonates
to be neutral to oil-wet.
• Mixed wettability – refers to small pores occupied by
water and are water-wet, while larger pores are oil-wet
and continuous. Subsequently, oil displacement occurs
at very low oil saturations resulting in unusually low
residual oil saturation.
• Figures 3and 4 represent microscopic views of
water-wet and oil-wet systems, respectively.
Figure 3 Microscopic fluid saturation distribution in a water-wet rock [Pirson, 1963]

Figure 4 Microscopic fluid saturation distribution in a oil-wet rock [Pirson, 1963]
• The contact angle is a measure of the wettability of the
rock-fluid system, and is related to the interfacial
energies by Young’s equation,
• os - ws = ow cos (1)
• where:
• os = interfacial energy between oil and solid, dyne/cm;
• ws = interfacial energy between water and solid,
dyne/cm;
• ow = interfacial energy, or interfacial tension, between
oil and water, dyne/cm;
• contact angle at oil-water-solid interface measured
through the water phase,
• deg.
• Figure 5 identifies the variables in Equation (1)
Figure 5 Relationship of oil-water-solid interfacial tensions and contact angle

Carbonate Reservoirs
and
Fractured Reservoirs 1 inch
Carbonate Sidewall core
Carbonate Reservoirs Outline

• Carbonate Porosity
• Porosity strongly controlled by post- – Primary vs. secondary porosity
depositional processes • Reefs
• High initial porosity • Karst (dissolution)
• Dolomitization
• Rapid cementation
• Fracture systems
• Dissolution creates secondary porosity
• Healed Fractures vs open fractures
• Fracture controlled production (example)
• Usually due to acidic water
Carbonate Porosity Types

Intergranular Porosity
1
Vuggy & Moldic Porosity
Cretaceous Reefs
Golden Lane Facies
Water Drive, 33-40 API oil, 200

Million Barrels cum. production since
1915
Dissolution by Meteoric Water Karst and Unconformities
Allen and Allen, 2002
2
Persian Gulf Arab D Reservoir -Ghawar
Swart et al. 2005
Petroleum
Partially
System dolomitized Mudstone
limestone
Dolomitization
Ghawar-largest field in
the world
Peak production; 5 million
Dolomite
barrels per day (1981)
Cumm. Prod. 65 billion bls
Average Porosity: 19%
Average perm: 617 mD
Moldic
Karst (dissolution) Dense Porosity
Dolomite
Daily Oil Production 2008

Rank Country Production
(bbl/day)
Dolomitization
1 Russia 9.9 Million • Dolomite forms during diagenesis or
2 Saudi Arabia 8.1 Million hydrothermal alteration
3 USA 8.0 Million • CaCO3→ (CaMg)(CO3)2
4 Iran 4.1 Million
• 13% volume reduction
5 China 3.9 Million
• New porosity appears
6 Canada 3.2 Million
7 Mexico 2.6 Million
• Setting: dry coastal areas
8 Iraq 2.4 Million
9 Norway 2.3 Million
Calcite
(pink) Dolomitization Ordovician Dolomite Cavity,
Atrim Fm., Michigan OH
Dolomite
2 mm
Permian, W. Texas
2 mm
3
Trenton-Black River System-
Appalachian Basin Fractured
Reservoirs
Gloades Corner Reservoir, NY Photo: J. Olson, UT Austin
Evidence for fluid flow along Fractures Systematic Orthogonal Fractures

in Sandstone
Photo: J. Olson, UT Austin
Fracture Spacing/Bedding Fractures in Reservoir Simulations
1. Matrix Permeability
2. Fracture Permeability
Distributed
Fracture Network
Photo: J. Olson, UT Austin
4
Example of Fractured
Carbonate Reservoir
Southeast West
AGE Virginia
Sealed Bluefield
Formation
Reynolds
Fractures Lillydale
Alderson
Union
primary fault
play target
G reenbrier L im estone
MISSISSIPPIAN
Pickaway
MIDDLE
UPPER
Taggard
Denmar
Hillsdale
LOWER
Photo: J. Olson, UT Austin Maccrady Fm
McCrady Formation (Smosna, 1996)
(Gas Atlas)
ooids
Isopach of Union
Oolite, Rhodell
Field Area
study
area
(from Gas Atlas)

scale in cm 3527’
3527’ 3527’
intragranular porosity
(blue) sparry calcite oolite rim
(poor porosity) (8% porosity)
1 mm
5
T UL
T UNION OOLITE
UL Estimated FA
FA H
H JA NET PAY ISOPACH
JA Ultimate CA
I CA M
I
M Recovery (EUR) Porosity > 4%
Map
T C.I. = 4’
UL C.I. = 200 MMcf
FA
OB T #5834
KN UL
T
T
FA UL
LO FA
PI TA B
IS NO
AR T
K
#5638
LO
PI
T
UL
FA
A
I ST
AR
2000’
Scale: 2000’ Scale:
2000’ 2000’
Cross-
Cross-section A – A’
DEPI #5834
(047-
(047-055-
055-00238)
NW SE UNION OOLITE
5
6
45
44
39
46
35
71
89
36
34
93
7
56
56
56
56
30
12
12
12
52
44
30
(Hanging wall)
A A’
PILOT KNOB
LITTLE
0
LIME ARISTA
UNION
-500 OPEN FRACTURES
PICKAWAY
-1000 DENMAR
30 MMcf natural
PRICE
-1500
PILOT KNOB
T THRUST FAULT
UL
FA 206’ OFFSET
O B
KN
Scale:
500’
T T
LO UL
PI
500’
A TA
FA
IS 50’
AR UNION OOLITE
(Foot wall)
2000’
A’
2000’
DEPI #5834
DEPI #5834
047-055-00238
(047-
(047-055-
055-00238)
FMI LOG
open
fracture
SIDEWALL
CORES
drilling
induced
PILOT KNOB THRUST FAULT 206’ OFFSET
fractures
50’
6
OPEN FRACTURES – DEPI #5834 (FAULT ZONE) Maximum Horizontal Stress
Highly deformed interval

Strike: NNE – SSW
Dips: 30-50°
3446.5’
open fracture
open fracture
300μm micritized ooids
scale in cm 3446.5’
3446.5’ calcite filled

vugs & fractures
open fracture
authigenic, euhedral
quartz crystals
scale in cm 3477’
7
FAULT WELL PRODUCTION
UNION OOLITE THRUST MODEL WITH FRACTURE SWARM
(outside oolite trend)

DEPI #5834 (047-
(047-055-
055-00238)
Avg Mcf/d
(30 MMcf natural)
450 Steep initial decline
400 (fracture production)
350 Lesser decline
300 (reservoir production)
250
200
150
UNION OOLITE 100
50
0
(after Nelson, 2001)
11/5/01 5/24/02 12/10/02 6/28/03 1/14/04 8/1/04
no scale
Take home ideas

• In carbonate reservoirs secondary porosity
is very important
• Dolomitization, dissolution and fracturing
create new porosity
• Exposure to meteoric water leads to
limestone dissolution
• Natural Fracture networks greatly enhance
permeability
8
Hydrocarbon Traps and
Seals
Revision
What are geological elements of petroleum
system?
What are geological processes of petroleum
system?
How organic matters is converted into
petroleum?
• Source Rock - A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-prone organic
matter
• Reservoir Rock - A rock in which oil and gas accumulates:

- Porosity - space between rock grains in which oil accumulates
- Permeability - passage-ways between pores through
which oil and gas moves
• Seal Rock - A rock through which oil and gas cannot move
effectively (such as mudstone and claystone)
• Migration Route - Avenues in rock through which oil and gas moves from
source rock to trap
• Trap - The structural and stratigraphic configuration that focuses

oil and gas into an accumulation
The processes
GOC
OWC
Top of oil window
Top of gas window
Generation Expulsion Migration Accumulation Preservation

Schematic Representation of the Mechanism
of Petroleum Generation and Destruction
Progressive Burial and Heating
Organic Debris
Diagenesis
Oil Reservoir
Kerogen Initial Bitumen

Catagenesis Thermal Degradation
Migration
Oil and Gas
Cracking
Methane
Metagenesis
Carbon
(modified from Tissot and Welte, 1984)

i. Diagenesis is chemical, physical, or biological
change undergone by a sediment after its initial
deposition and during and after its lithification,
exclusive of surface alteration (weathering) and
metamorphism. These changes happen at relatively
low temperatures and pressures and result in
changes to the rock's original mineralogy and
texture. There is no sharp boundary between
diagenesis and metamorphism, but the latter occurs
at higher temperature and pressure than the former.
ii. Catagenesis
Catagenesis is the cracking process which results in
the conversion of organic kerogens into hydrocarbons
iii. Metagenesis is the last stage of maturation and
conversion of organic matter to hydrocarbons.
Metagenesis occurs at temperatures of 150° to
200°C. At the end of metagenesis, methane, or
dry gas, is evolved along with nonhydrocarbon
gases such as CO2, N2, and H2S, as oil molecules
are cracked into smaller gas molecules.
What is Trap
A trap is the place where oil and gas are barred
from further movement….(Levorsen, 1967)
.
Seals or Cap Rocks
For a trap to have integrity, it must be overlain
by an effective seal.
Any rock that is impermeable can act as seal or
cap rock but commonly mudstone
Introduction: Oil Traps
• Some rocks are permeable
and allow oil and gas to freely
Impermeable
pass through them
• Other rocks are impermeable

and block the upward passage
of oil and gas
• Where oil and gas rises up

and capped by impermeable
rocks it can’t escape. This is
one type of an Oil Trap.
Permeable
• The permeable rocks than contain oil and gas within
the oil trap are known as the Reservoir Rock.
• Reservoir rocks have lots of interconnected holes
called pores. These allow them to absorb the oil and
gas like a sponge.
This is a highly magnified picture of
a sandy reservoir rock (water-filled
pores are shown in blue)
As oil migrates it fills up the pores

(oil-filled pores shown in black)
Earth Science World Image Bank Image #h5innl

Carbonate as Reservoir
How to find oil: Source rock, reservoir rock, traps
Hydrocarbon Traps
i. Structural traps
Structural traps are caused by structural features.
They are usually formed as a result of tectonics.
ii. Stratigraphic traps
Stratigraphic traps are usually caused by changes in
rock quality.
iii. Combination traps
Combination traps that combine more than one type of
trap are common in petroleum reservoirs.
Other types of traps (such as hydrodynamic traps)
are usually less common.
Structural Hydrocarbon Traps
i. Fold
ii. Fault
iii. Salt Dome

iii. Salt Dome
Petroleum trapped in top of dome
Rocks above salt

dome are bowed up
Oil and gas

trapped on
sides of
impermeable
dome
Salt flows up as a weak mass

Fault Trap
Oil / Gas
In this normal fault trap, oil-bearing

sandstone is juxtaposed against
impervious shale.
Stratigraphic Hydrocarbon Traps
Stratigraphic hydrocarbon traps occur where
reservoir facies pinch into impervious rock such
as shale, or where they have been truncated by
erosion and capped by impervious layers above
an unconformity.
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Other Traps In hydrodynamic
Meteoric traps, the
Water hydrocarbon is
trapped by the action
Asphalt Trap
of water movements.
Biodegraded Tilted contacts are
common in this case.
Oil/Asphalt
The water usually
Partly comes from a source
Water Biodegraded Oil such as rain falls or
rivers.
Hydrodynamic Trap Hydrostatic

Head
Shale
Water
Oil
(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)
Summary
Questions?
 Introduction
 Migration of petroleum
 Petroleum traps
 Structural traps
 Stratigraphic traps
 Combination traps
 Timing of trap formation
 Conclusion
 References
 “Petroleum "is the general term used for all the natural hydrocarbons found in
rocks.
 Petroleum "refers only to the liquid oil. Gaseous varieties are called “natural gas
"and highly viscous to solid varieties are called “bitumen”.
 The fine grained muddy sediments in which petroleum originates are called
“source rocks".
 The source rocks of petroleum are generally shales,silts and limestones.
petroleum migrates from the source rock into adjacent porous and permeable
rocks and accumulates there to form a pool. Such permeable rocks are called
“reservoir rocks".
 The common reservoir rocks are sandstones,conglomerates,porous
limestones,fractured shales,and jointed igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Most of the known hydrocarbons are trapped in source rocks less
than 200 million years.
 There are two types of migration when discussing the movement of
petroleum, primary and secondary.
 Primary migration refers to the movement of hydrocarbons from within
the source rock and into reservoir rock.
 Secondary migration refers to the subsequent movement of
hydrocarbons within reservoir rock; the oil and gas vacated the source
rock and has entered the reservoir rock
Petroleum trap, is subsurface reservoir of petroleum. The oil is
always accompanied by water and often by natural gas; all are confined
in porous rock, usually such sedimentary rocks as sandstones, arkoses
and fissured limestones. The natural gas being lightest, occupies the top
of the trap and is underlain by the oil and then the water. A layer of
impervious rock, called the roof rock, prevents the upward or lateral
escape of the petroleum.
 The conditions necessary for the formation of an oil trap are as follows,
1. The porous reservoir rocks must have a favorable structure such as
an anticline fold or dome, to hold oil.
2. There must be an impervious cap rock or roof rock to check the
upward migration of oil.
3. The structural deformation of rocks must not be very severe.
Intensely fractured rocks may render traps ineffective by causing
leakage.
Contd.
 A hydrocarbon reservoir has a distinctive shape or configuration,
that prevents the escape of hydrocarbons that migrate into it.
Geologists classify reservoir shapes, or traps into the following
types.
 Structural traps
 Stratighraphic traps
 Combination traps
 Structural traps are created when the seal or barrier is concave
upward[looking from below].The geometry is formed by tectonic
processes after deposition of the reservoir beds involved. This concave
nature may be due to local deformation as a result of folding, faulting or
both of the reservoir rock. Some of the important structural traps are as
follows.
a) Anticlines and domes
An anticline is an example of rocks which are
previously flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its
way into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will flow
to the crest of the arch, and get stuck. Folds result in the
physical bending[deformation]of the rock units without breaking.
The rock units undergo bending very slowly over a long periods
of geologic time. These types of traps are often found adjacent
to mountain ranges.
b)Fault trap
Fault traps are formed by the movement of rock
along fault line. In some cases, the reservoir rock has moved opposite
a layer of impermeable rock. The impermeable rock thus prevents the
oil from escaping. In other cases, the fault itself can be a very effective
trap, when a fault affects inclined strata, a reservoir rock may be
blocked off by an impervious shale there by creating an oil
trap.Commonly,faults form traps in combination with other structural
features such as folding.
c)Salt domes
This kind of trap originates when salt is deposited by
shallow seas.Later,a sinking seafloor deposits organic rich shale over the
salt, which is in turn covered with layers of sandstone and shale. Deeply
buried salt tends to rise unevenly in swells or salt domes, and any oil
generated with in the sediments is trapped where the sandstones are
pushed up over or adjacent to the saltdome.Where,saltdomes intruded into
the sedimentary rocks, good oil traps are formed. Here the oil accumulates
near the upturned edges of the reservoir rock which are sealed by the salt.
The main trap- making element in a stratigraphic trap is
some variation in the lithology or stratigraphy,or both of the reservoir rock.
The variation may be facies change, variable porosity and permeability or an
up-structure termination of the reservoir rock.
Contd.
 The following may be the setup to give rise to such traps.
i. A reservoir rock may be truncated by an unconformity or

overlapped.
ii. There may be changes along the bedding.
iii. The boundary between two kinds of rocks may favour the formation
of a reservoir. The boundary may be sharp or gradational.
 The two classes of stratigraphic traps are,
a) Primary stratigraphic traps and

b) secondary stratigraphic traps
a)Primary stratigraphic traps
Such traps are also known as ‘digenetic’
and ‘depositional’traps.Thus primary stratigraphic traps formed during
deposition or digenesis of the sediments.
b)Secondary stratigraphic traps
These are the result of some stratigraphic
variation that developed after the deposition and digenesis of the reservoir
rock. They are almost always associated with unconfirmities,they may be
called unconformity traps.
eg:for stratigraphic traps is the Monroe gas field in Morehouse
parish, Louisiana[U.S.A]
 The combined(or mixed)traps are combinations of structure
and lithology. In such traps, a stratigraphic element may be the cause
for the permeability of a reservoir rock. A structural element caused by
deformation may combine with the stratigraphic element to give rise to a
trap.Additionally,the down-dip flow of formation water may increase the
trapping effects. A great variety of traps, which are combinations of
structural &stratigraphic traps, is associated with intrusion of deep-
seated rocks into overlying sediments.
 A common trap that would be an example of a combination trap is a
salt dome. The great majority of such traps are in sediments associated
with rock salt intrutions,traced in the Gulf coast region,U.S.A,Northern
germany,The north sea and in Russia.
 Oil pools associated with them are known as saltdome or salt-plug
pools.
 When salt plugs rise through soft sedimentary rocks, they affect the
stratigraphy and structure of adjacent rocks and traps for the
accumulation of petroleum are created. This has been well observed in
the Gulf coast,Texas,Louisiana and Missisipi,where the plugs are still
moving.
Timing of trap formation
 The timing of trap formation is related to petroleum migration and the formation
of the trap. This is an important aspect to be considered in the accumulation of
petroleum.
 If the trap formation is before migration, then they will be the productive.
 on the other hand, where trap formation post-dates its petroleum migration, they
could be barren. In post migration, structural changes by faults, they permit petroleum
to undergo further migration.
Oil is found in reservoirs in sedimentary rock. It is composed of
compressed hydrocarbons, and was formed millions of years ago in
a process that began when aquatic plant and animal remains where
covered by layers of sediments(particles of rock and mineral).As
bacteria and chemicals broke down the organic plants and animal
material,inccreasing layers of sediments settled on top. Heat and
pressure transformed the layers of sediment into sandstone,
limestone and other types of sedimentary rocks, and transformed
the organic matter into petroleum. Tiny pores in the rock allowed the
petroleum to seep in. These ‘reservoir rocks' hold the oil like a
sponge, confined by other non-porous layers that form a trap.
In India, reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas are found
in the belts of tertiary rocks of Assam,Gujarath,Offshore regions of
Bombay high, and in the Cauvery and Godavari deltaic areas.
 Principles of engineering geology, k.M. BANGAR,Standard
publishers,2009,(338-341)
 Geology of petroleum, second edition,A.I.LEVORSEN,C B S
Publishers,1986,(14-64).
 Principles of physical geology, ARTHUR HOLMES, Ronald
Publishers,1945,(343-351).
WEBSITES

 http://www.topogeo.com
 http://oilandgas.com
 http://sc-geoscience.com
 http://geology.com
Classic Anticlinal Trap Model
Structural Trap – Compressional Anticline
Structural Trap – Compressional Anticline
Structural Trap – Fold-Thrust Structures, Wyoming
Structural Trap – Compaction Anticline
Structural Trap – Draped Anticline
Structural Trap Classification
Structural Fault Traps
Structural Wrench Fault Traps (strike slip / transtensional faults)
Structural Traps – Growth Faults (syndepositional faulting)
Structural Traps – Growth Faults (syndepositional faulting)
Salt and Clay Diapirs – Structural Traps
Salt and Clay Diapirs – Structural Traps
Stratigraphic Trap Classification
Stratigraphic Trap Classification
Stratigraphic – Meandering Fluvial Sandstone Traps Wyoming
Stratigraphic – Deltaic Sandstone Traps Wyoming
Stratigraphic – Barrier Island Trap San Juan Basin
Stratigraphic Pinchout Trap
Stratigraphic Traps Regressive Barrier Island Sandstone / shale traps
Shoreline Stratigraphic Traps – Transgressing/Regressing Barrier Island Complex
Stratigraphic – Fluvial Sandstone Traps Wyoming
Reef Reservoirs and Trapping Mechanisms (complex facies / permeability relations)
Diagenetic Traps – altered high/low permeability zones in reservoir; self sealing
Unconformity Trap – angular, shale seal
Libya - (Nonconformity) Unconformity Trap (over granite)
East Texas Unconformity Trap
Prudhoe Bay, AK Combination Fold-Fault-Unconformity Trap

Module 5 and 6 Petgeo

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Module 5 and 6 Petgeo

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Introduction

 What are the reservoir rock properties?

 What are reservoir fluids?

 Oil created by the source rock won’t be useful unless

 A reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is

 Examples of reservoir rocks includes:

A good reservoir rock must have porosity

 Reservoir rock samples are used for reservoir description and

 Physical sample of reservoir rock core is essential to evaluate the two

In addition, data on formation’s lithology and production potential

Rock matrix Water Oil and/or gas

Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material

Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,

The cylinder of rock that is cut by the bit

Core diameters are typically from three

• Side-wall core sampler

The hollow bullet will penetrate the

A newer wireline tool

 Better and more consistent representation of

 Better for heterogeneous rocks or for more complex

PLUGS OR SIDEWALL CORES

Standard Analysis Special Core Analysis

*Allows calibration of wireline log results

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• Factors affecting Porosity

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• Reservoir rock looks solid to the naked eye, but a microscopic

• These spaces or tiny openings (typically up to 300 μm) in

• Porosity(φ) : the ratio of the pore volume in a

Mathematical form is:

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

hence, measures how much HC in rock

• Porosity φ = Vp/Vb = (Vb-Vm)/Vb; Vb = Vp + Vm

– In practice, φ varies between 3% and 37%

• Porosity is a function of particle size distribution:

– Interstitial materials (shaly-sand) – low φ

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

Porosity can be classified into;

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

Total Porosity (30%)

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• 3 kinds porosity includes:

• Effective porosity is the measure of the void space that is filled

• φ = Vol. of interconnected pores + Vol. of deadend

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• Total porosity, t = Total Pore Volume

• Effective porosity – of great importance;

• Very clean sandstones : e  t

• Poorly to moderately well -cemented

• Highly cemented materials and most

• Ineffective porosity is the ratio of the volume of isolated or

• φ = Vol. of completely disconnected pores

• Total or absolute porosity is the ratio of the entire void spaces

• φ = Vol. of interconnected + Vol. of deadend or cul-de-sac

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• What is the significance Porosity in engineering reservoir?

Porosity % 25~20 20~15 15~10 10~5 5~0

Grade Very good moderate poor no

Porosity data are used in these basic reservoir evaluations:

 Calculating hydrocarbon in a reservoir

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

Spherical size variation influences

Reservoir Rocks & Fluid Properties

• From definition of porosity, porosity of rock sample can be