Economics Today The Micro 17th Edition Roger LeRoy Miller Solutions Manual

Economics Today The Micro 17th

Edition Roger LeRoy Miller Solutions
Manual
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Economics Today The Micro 17th Edition Roger LeRoy Miller Solutions Manual

Chapter 2
Scarcity and the World of Trade-Offs

 Overview
This chapter introduces the central concept of economics, scarcity. It is the existence of scarcity that
requires people to make choices both individually and collectively. Along with the concept of scarcity, the
chapter introduces the tools that economists use to analyze choice. These are the concepts of opportunity
costs, trade-offs, and the production possibilities model. The production possibilities model is used not
only to analyze trade-offs but also to illustrate economic growth and the implications of an inefficient use
of resources. Specialization is introduced along with a discussion of the basis for trade, comparative
advantage.

 Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter students should be able to
 Evaluate whether even affluent people face the problem of scarcity.
 Understand why economics considers individuals’ “wants” but not their “needs.”
 Explain why the scarcity problem induces people to consider opportunity costs.
 Discuss why obtaining increasing increments of any particular good typically entails giving up more
and more units of other goods.
 Explain why society faces a trade-off between consumption goods and capital goods.
 Distinguish between absolute and comparative advantage.

 Outline
I. Scarcity: Scarcity is a situation in which the ingredients for producing the things that people desire
are insufficient to satisfy all wants at a zero price. It exists in all societies and at all income levels
because human wants exceed what can be produced with the limited resources and time that nature
makes available.
A. What Scarcity Is Not: Scarcity is not a shortage. It is also not poverty. High incomes do not
reduce scarcity.
B. Scarcity and Resources: Resources or factors of production are inputs used in the production
of things that people want. Production is any activity that results in the conversion of resources
into products that can be used in consumption.
1. Land: Land is often called the natural resource, and consists of all the gifts of nature.
2. Labor: Labor is the human resource that includes all productive contributions made by
individuals who work, involving both mental and physical activities.
3. Physical Capital: Capital is all manufactured resources that are used for production. It also
includes improvements to natural resources, such as irrigation ditches.

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12 Miller • Economics Today, Seventeenth Edition

4. Human Capital: The accumulated training and education workers receive that increases
their productivity.
5. Entrepreneurship: Human resources that perform the functions of organizing, managing,
and assembling the other factors of production to create and operate business ventures, and
takes the risks associated with introducing new methods and other types of new thinking that
could lead to more monetary income.
C. Goods versus Economic Goods: All things from which individuals derive satisfaction or
happiness.
1. Economic Goods: Goods that are scarce. The quantity of such goods desired exceeds the
quantity that is available at a zero price.
2. Services: Mental or physical labor or help purchased by consumers. They can be viewed as
intangible goods.

II. Wants and Needs: Needs are not objectively definable. Perhaps the best way to view a need is as an
absolute necessity to stay alive. Wants refer to desired goods and are unlimited.

III. Scarcity, Choice, and Opportunity Cost: Scarcity requires choices be made. When one choice is
made, then another is given up.
A. Valuing Forgone Alternatives: Only the individual can determine the value of each choice that
is available.
B. Opportunity Cost: The highest valued, next-best alternative that must be sacrificed for the
choice that was made. In economics, cost is always a forgone opportunity.

IV. The World of Trade-Offs: Whenever you engage in any activity using any resource you are trading
off the use of that resource for one or more alternative uses. For example, the more time devoted to
studying economics, the less time that can be devoted to studying mathematics. Thus, a higher grade
in economics has a “cost” of a lower history grade. (See Figure 2-1.)
A. Graphical Analysis: How Figure 2-1 is set up is explained.
B. The Production Possibilities Curve (PPC): A curve representing the maximum possible
combinations of total output that could be produced assuming a fixed amount of resources of a
given quality. A movement from one point to another on the PPC shows that some of one good
must be given up to have more of another. (See Figure 2-1.)

V. The Choices Society Faces: The production possibilities curve does not in practice have constant
trade-offs of one good for another and is typically a curve that is bowed outward. (See Figure 2-2.)
A. A Two-Good Example
B. Production Trade-Offs (See Figure 2-2.)
C. Assumptions Underlying the Production Possibilities Curve:
1. Resources are fully employed.
2. Production takes place over a specific time period—for example, one year.
3. Resources are fixed in both quantity and quality.
4. Technology does not change over this period of time.
a. Technology is defined as society’s pool of applied knowledge concerning how goods
and services can be produced.
D. Being Off the Production Possibilities Curve: Any point outside the PPC cannot be reached
for the time period assumed. Any point inside the PPC is attainable, but resources are not being
fully utilized. (See Figure 2-2.)

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 Chapter 2 Scarcity and the World of Trade-Offs 13

E. Efficiency: The case in which a given level of inputs is used to produce the maximum output
possible. It is also a situation in which a given output is produced at a minimum cost. An
economy is efficient when it is on its PPC. An inefficient point is any point below the
production possibilities curve.
F. The Law of Increasing Additional Cost: The fact that the opportunity cost of additional units
of a good generally increases as society attempts to produce more of that good. This accounts
for the bowed-out shape of the production possibilities curve. (See Figure 2-3.)
1. Increasing Additional Costs: As society takes more and more resources and applies them
to the production of any one item, the opportunity cost increases for each additional unit
produced. This law is illustrated by the PPC being bowed outward.
2. Explaining the Law of Increasing Additional Cost: The more highly specialized resources
are, the more bowed outward the PPC will be.
VI. Economic Growth and the Production Possibilities Curve: Economic growth is illustrated by
an outward shift of the production possibilities curve. (See Figure 2-4.)

VII. The Trade-Off Between the Present and the Future

A. Why We Make Capital Goods: Capital goods are one of society’s resources. Producing more
of them allows a society to produce more of all types of goods.
B. Forgoing Current Consumption: When existing resources are used to produce capital goods,
we are forgoing current consumption. When we forgo consumption to invest in capital goods,
we are waiting to consume what will be produced from the use of those capital goods then.
C. The Trade-Off Between Consumption Goods and Capital Goods: To have more consumer
goods in the future, we must produce capital goods today. The more capital goods that are
produced today, the less consumer goods that are produced today. In the future there will be
more consumption goods as the economy grows. (See Figure 2-5.)

VIII. Specialization and Greater Productivity: Specialization means working at a relatively well-defined,
limited activity. It means the organization of economic activity so that what each person or region
consumes is not identical to what each person or region produces.
A. Comparative Advantage: The ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost
compared to other producers. This is the basis for specialization.
B. Absolute Advantage: The ability to produce more units of a good or service using a given
quantity of labor or resource inputs. This is the ability to produce the same quantity of a good
or service using fewer units of labor or resource inputs. This is not the basis for specialization.
C. Scarcity, Self-Interest, and Specialization: Persons who are making decisions that further
their self-interest will make choices that maximize the benefits net of opportunity cost. The
result is that they choose their comparative advantage and end up specializing.
D. The Division of Labor: The segregation of a resource into different specific tasks.

IX. Comparative Advantage and Trade Among Nations: The analysis of absolute advantage,
comparative advantage, and specialization applies equally to nations.
A. Trade Among Regions: Specialization along lines of comparative advantage in agricultural
products in the plains states and industrial products in the northeastern states and resulting trade
between them allows each region to have higher incomes and living standards. The result would
be the same if the plains states and the northeastern states were separate countries.
B. International Aspects of Trade: A producer in one part of the United States must adapt to
improvements in production along lines of comparative advantage by those in another part.
Producers in the United States will try to raise political barriers to trade with foreign producers
by arguing about “unfair” competition and loss of U.S. jobs.

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